Ceramics International 45 (2019) 11158–11173

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Ceramics International
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Review article

ZnO-based ceramic nanofibers: Preparation, properties and applications T

a,b a,∗
Petronela Pascariu , Mihaela Homocianu
a
“Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Grigore Ghica Voda Alley 41A, 700487, Iasi, Romania
b
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science & MANSiD Research Center, Stefan Cel Mare University, 13 Str. Universitatii, 720229, Suceava, Romania

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: ZnO-based ceramic nanofibers (ZnO-based CNFs) have been recognized as excellent materials that display
ZnO-based ceramic nanofibers specific structural features (phase morphology and surface topology) and unique functions/properties including
Synthesis methods magnetic, electrical, optical, sensing and catalytic abilities, which are specific for one-dimensional architectures.
Properties These aspects contribute to the exploitation of such materials in applications that involve development of
Sensors and photocatalyst systems
sensors, photocatalytic systems, electronic devices (fuel cells, lithium ion batteries and solar cells), as well as in
Novel applications
biomedical uses (such as antibacterial activities, removal of antibiotics and detection of cancer cells). This re-
view summarizes and highlights the main aspects, from literature of the last ten years, regarding synthesis
methods of ZnO-based CNFs, their optical, electrical and magnetic properties and applications in various fields
of industry.

1. Introduction the nanofibers can adopt different morphologies, such as micro- or

Over the last years, the development of novel nanostructured ma-
terials based on zinc oxide (ZnO) has shown a special interest in both
fundamental scientific research and use in many applications [1]. ZnO
is a semiconducting metal oxide with specific characteristics (hexagonal
wurtzite structure, band gap of 3.37 eV, high exciton binding energy of
60 meV, high electron mobility, strong room-temperature lumines-
cence, photoelectric responses, excellent chemical and thermal stabi-
lities, high transparency and high photocatalytic activity) [2,3], which
are required for numerous applications. Due to these excellent prop-
erties, one dimensional (1D) ZnO based nanostructured materials are
potentially candidates for applications in electronic and optoelectronic
areas (such as sensors, actuators, field-emission devices, solar cells,
ultra-violet laser diodes, photocatalysts, spintronic and piezoelectric
devices [4,5]).
Generally, electrospun nanofibers (NFs) are some of the most effi-
cient and used type of 1D nanostructured materials, that have some
specific and distinctive characteristics, such as large surface area to
volume ratios due to their small sizes, well-controlled composition,
flexibility, diverse and controllable structures, high porosity and high
mechanical/thermal properties, compared to other known forms of
materials, and which give them the possibility of being used as anti-
microbial agents [6], energy storage devices [7], electronic/photonic
devices (like as, sensors [8], electrodes, catalyst supports and drug
delivery components [9–11]). According to the synthesis conditions,
mesoporous fibers, nanobelts, nanowires, nanoflowers, nanorods, na-
notubes, hollow fibers, hierarchical and core–shell nanofibers (some
examples have been presented in Fig. 1). These morphologies induce an
increase in the specific surface area of the nanofibers, which conse-
quently determines enhancement of their properties, especially in their
sensing performance.
In particular, ZnO-based ceramic nanofibers (ZnO-based CNFs)
with 1D nanostructures present some features, such as high hydro-
phobicity, good ability to develop nanograins, controllable structural
features (length/diameter ratios, high surface area per unit mass and
small diameters (tens to hundreds of nanometers)), optical, electrical
and magnetic properties (easy controllable by adjusting the production
parameters) [12], which make these materials more attractive. Fur-
thermore, the ceramic nanofibers present the advantages of long-term
stability and functionality at high temperatures.
This review presents the specific features and recent aspects (over
the past ten years) of the synthesis methods, properties and applications
of ZnO-based CNFs. Their sensors and photocatalysis applications will
be discussed in detail in the fourth section, where were also included
and discussed some results of the authors. Finally, this review describes
a brief summary of the latest developments in the applications of the
ZnO-based CNFs.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: michalupu@yahoo.co.uk, mlupu@icmpp.ro (M. Homocianu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.03.113
Received 15 February 2019; Received in revised form 15 March 2019; Accepted 18 March 2019
Available online 21 March 2019
0272-8842/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.
P. Pascariu and M. Homocianu
Fig. 1. SEM images of various 1D-ZnO-based nanostructures: (a) pure ZnO ceramic nanofibers [13]; (b) ZnO-CAB nanofibers [14]; (c) TiO2–ZnO nanofibers [15]; (d)
hollow ZnO–SnO2 nanofibers [16].
2. Methods to obtain ZnO-based CNFs
A large number of methods have been developed for the fabrication
of ceramic nanofibers (CNFs), including template synthesis, phase se-
paration, self-assembly, spray pyrolysis [17], magnetron sputtering
[18], sol–gel chemistry [19], hydrothermal treatment [20], chemical
vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition and electrospinning method
[21].
Electrospinning is a simple, less expensive and feasible method used
to fabricate ceramic nanofibers with controlled diameters, compositions
and morphologies [22]. This method allows to obtain functional na-
nofibers from various materials including metal oxides, sol−gels,
polymers, polymer blends, emulsions, suspensions and composite
structures [23,24]. Usually, the fabrication of ceramic NFs is following
three major steps: i) preparation of an electrospinning solution con-
taining a polymer and sol–gel precursor used to make the target
ceramic materials; ii) electrospinning of the solution to generate a
precursor of NFs, that containing an inorganic precursor and a polymer;
and iii) calcination, sintering, or chemical conversion of ceramic com-
posite and convert the ceramic precursor into the final ceramic nano-
fibers (CNFs).
The main advantage of the electrospinning process is to produce
CNFs with high surface areas, very small diameters, extremely long
length and small pore size. Fig. 2 shows the electrospinning setup, the
SEM image of ZnO–SnO2 electrospun nanofibers [13], before and after
calcination, at different temperatures and the resulting ceramic nano-
fibers-basic properties.
Moreover, depending on the characteristics of the electrospinning
solution (polymer molecular weight, concentration, viscosity and con-
ductivity) and on working conditions, it is possible to control CNFs size,
composition, alignment and morphology [25,26], by:
- increasing the molecular weight and viscosity of the electrospinning
solution, which will reduce the number of droplets and beads from
nanofibers;
- adjusting the concentration of polymer solutions, viscosity, voltage
and distance between the spinneret and collector - the diameter of
the nanofibers can be controlled. Thus, increasing viscosity and
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conductivity causes a decrease in nanofiber diameter and an in-
crease of polymer solution concentration induces an enhancement of
the diameter of the nanofibers. Also, an increase of the applied
voltage may induce a decrease in fiber diameter [27];
- varying the feeding rate of the precursor it is possible to control the
structure and the diameter of the nanofibers [28]. At a low feeding
rate there will be obtained short segments (separated from each
other) inside each fiber, which is undesirable and at a high feeding
rate induces production of nanofibers together with a thinner wall
[25];
- controlling environmental parameters (temperature, pressure and
humidity), mainly the value of temperature and the duration of
calcination – there could be induced changes in morphologies [29],
composition, phase and surface roughness of the targeted ceramic
nanofibers (CNFs). For example, a smooth surface was observed
after calcination at 500 °C/3 h, while a rough surface was obtained
at 550 °C/6 h [30];
- changing the type of collectors (plate, drum, area) can be obtain the
next types of nanofibers: aligned, yarns, braided or random nano-
fibers. Specially designed devices have been developed by Choi et al.
[31] to obtain the quasi-aligned, hollow ZnO nanofibers using poly
(vinyl acetate) as templates.
Some ZnO-based CNFs with targeted properties have been obtained
by other methods than the pure electrospinning (ES) or by combining
ES with other techniques, such as the sol–gel techniques [32], the
atomic layer deposition (ALD) [33] and the ion-exchange process (IEP)
[34] (Table 1). The ALD technique can be used to produce a very thin
inorganic layer (metals, metal oxides or metal nitrides) that coated
other different types of three-dimensional substrates, such as cotton,
cellulose based materials, nonwovens and various synthetic/natural
fibers [35]. Table 1 lists several representative ZnO-based CNFs ob-
tained by other methods than the pure electrospinning (ES) or by
combining ES with other techniques.
3. Basic properties
The investigation and utilization of the nanofibers (NFs) of various
P. Pascariu and M. Homocianu Ceramics International 45 (2019) 11158–11173

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the electrospinning setup; SEM image of ZnO–SnO2 electrospun nanofibers, before and after calcination, at different temperatures [13];
Ceramic nanofibers-basic properties.

metal oxides over the corresponding nanoparticles (NPs) present in-
creasing interest in recent years, due to superior functional properties of
NFs, including better mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic proper-
ties and good electron transport ability. Moreover, NFs allow to elim-
inate some disadvantages of using NPs in the applications, such as re-
cover process and agglomeration problems of nanoparticles [42]. Many
ZnO-based CNFs nanostructures obtained by doping of pure ZnO
semiconductor with various compounds (small molecules/polymers/
nanoscale structures) combine the advantages of pure ZnO (good me-
chanical/thermal stabilities, excellent magnetic, optical and catalytic
properties) with those of the dopants and thus due to the synergistic
interactions between ZnO and used dopant, will generate new materials
with improved properties and functionalities [43].
Moreover, the morphological characteristics of ZnO-based CNFs
can be controlled by changing the production parameters [44] (Section
2) and implicitly this aspect has a major role in enhancing of the ma-
terial properties. For example, the morphology of ZnO-based CNFs is
quite crucial for their photocatalytic efficiency [35]. Over time, ZnO
has been doped with different metallic elements, including indium (In),
aluminum (Al) and gallium (Ga) in order to enhance the optical and
electrical properties [45,46]. Chemical composition, structural defects
and impurities play an important role on physical properties of the
nanostructured materials, such as electrical resistivity, piezoelectricity
and optical properties.
The knowledge and exploitation of the structural, electrical, optical,
magnetic and photoluminescence properties of nanostructures are
fundamental to their use for developing of sensors, nanoelectronic/
optoelectronic devices and other interesting applications.
Therefore, in the following sections we will describe some details
regarding the optical, magnetic and electrical properties of some ZnO-
based CNFs developed in the last years.
3.1. Optical property
Usually, the optical properties of ZnO-based CNFs are highly de-
pendent on the size of their constitutive elements, the presence of de-
fects in the structure and the nature/amounts of dopant used to obtain
the target one-dimensional nanostructured materials. The ceramic na-
nofibers (CNFs) with fine crystallite size and low grain boundaries due
to their interconnectivity and high surface areas have more excellent
electron transport properties compared to corresponding conventional
nanoparticles that have disordered geometrical structures. In literature,
the optical properties of ZnO-based CNFs were mainly studied using
optical absorption and photoluminescence (PL) methods. Typically, at
room-temperature, the optical absorption and photoluminescence
spectra of pure ZnO present one UV band and one or more visible bands
due to defects and/or impurities from the structure. ZnO with a wide
band gap can absorb a larger portion of the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum
and have good photocatalytic properties [47], which can be improved
by combining ZnO with other materials (section 4.2). The band gap
values and band edge positions for ZnO-based nanostructures have been
shown to vary proportional to the ZnO stoichiometry of the samples and

Table 1
Summarized data for the preparation of ZnO-based CNFs using other methods than electrospinning (or combined methods).
No. ZnO-based CNFs Preparation methods Precursor/Polymer/Solvent Morphology (diameter) Refs.

1. ZnO-PAN ALD-ES diethylzinc/PAN/DMF hexagonal wurtzite [33]

2. ZnO ALD-ES PAN/diethyl zinc nanotubes (10, 30, 50 nm) [36]
3. ZnO-nylon 6,6 ALD-ES diethylzinc/nylon 6,6/formic acid core-shell NFs (80–650 nm) [35]
4. ZnO–TiO2 hydrothermal (Zn(NO3)2 × 6H2O/tetrabutyl titanate core-shell NFs [37]
5. ZnO–PI ES-IEP pyromellitic dianhydride/4,4′-oxydianiline/DMAc membranes with hierarchical structures [34]
6. ZnO–Eu ES-sputtering PVP/Eu2O3/ethanol hollow NFs [38]
7. ZnO magnetron sputtering tin oxide/glass substrate nanotubes [18]
8. ZnO–Co electrochemical deposition Zn(NO3)2 × 6H2O/ethylenediamine nanotubes [39]
9. ZnO sol-gel dip coating zinc acetate dihydrate/ethanol ZnO thin films [40]
10. ZnO ALD diethylzinc/PVP/ethanol solution NFs (200 nm) [41]

ES-electrospinning; ALD-atomic layer deposition; IEP-ion-exchange process; PAN-polyacrylonitrile; PI-polyimide; PVP-DMF-N,N-dimethylformamide; DMAc-N,N-
dimethylacetamide.

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Fig. 3. Optical properties of ZnO CNFs doped with various inorganic components: (a) SEM images of Eu3+ doped ZnO CNFs and PL spectra of the highly dispersed
(red line), 300 °C (green line) and 600 °C (blue line) annealed samples [57]; (b) SEM, TEM (inset) images and PL spectra of ZnO:La3+ CNFs, recorded under an
excitation of 370 nm, time-resolved photoluminescence decay curves of ZnO doped with 2% La3+ ion and CIE chromaticity coordinates diagram of ZnO:La3+ CNFs,
excited at 370 nm [53]; (c) SEM image of indium (In)-doped ZnO NFs, PL spectra and electron lifetime as a function of voltage for the perovskite devices based on
ZnO:In NFs and PEI-coated ZnO:In NFs [45]. The (a), (b) and (c) from this figure were delimited by a red frame. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

the concentration of the point defects [5,48–50].
Typically, ZnO exhibits two main emission bands; one in the UV
region with a maximum around 380 nm (generated by the free exciton
recombination) and the other in the visible region corresponding to the
deep level emissions, with the peaks in the range 410–730 nm. The
visible emission is usually considered to include a broad emission band
around 530 nm and an orange-red an emission at about 600 nm, which
occurs due to structural/intrinsic defects and impurities in the struc-
tures [51,52]. The intrinsic defects of nanostructured materials may be
amplified or diminished by the presence of unintentional impurities or
intentional dopants. For example, the photoluminescence properties
(various crystallite sizes determine an increase in their short lumines-
cence lifetime and a tuning of cathodoluminescence and electro-lumi-
nescence characteristics) of a given system can be improved by doping
this system, with rare earth ions, such as those based on Lanthanum
(La) [53–55], Erbium (Er) [56], Europium (Eu) [38,57], Samarium
(Sm) [58] and Cerium (Ce) [59]. The La3+ doped ceramic ZnO nano-
fibers were reported to be strongly emissive in the 400–600 nm
wavelength range, with the intensity being directly proportional to the
La3+ ion concentration [53] (Fig. 3).
The intrinsic defects (zinc interstitials (Zni), oxygen vacancies (Vo),
zinc vacancies (Vzn), oxygen interstitials (Oi) and oxygen antisite
(Ozn)) responsible for emission characteristics are located at the surface
of the ZnO nanostructures and could affect the position of the band
edge-emission as well as the shape of the luminescence spectrum. Good
photoluminescence properties were found for ZnO and NiO–ZnO com-
posite nanofibers prepared by electrospinning of precursor solutions
(polysulfone (PSU), Ni and Zn acetates) and heat treatment of resulting
samples upon electrospinning [60] (see Fig. S1, from Supporting In-
formation). In the fluorescence spectra of the ZnO and NiO–ZnO
ceramic nanofibers was observed a strong emission located at about
353 nm and the emission bands from the visible region (specific for ZnO
nanomaterials) is undistinguishable proving high optical quality and
crystallinity of these ceramic nanofibers. Most often, the oxygen va-
cancy is responsible for luminescence in the visible part of the spectrum
of these materials. Green photoluminescence (at 560 nm) was much

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Fig. 4. The magnetic properties of some ZnO CNFs doped with different inorganic components: (a) SEM image and M − H curves of Fe doped ZnO NFs, measured at
various temperatures [68]; (b) SEM, TEM (inset) images and M − H curves of Ni doped ZnO CNFs with different atomic concentrations of Ni [71]; (c) SEM image and
M − H curves of Co doped ZnO NFs analyzed in the hydrogen atmosphere for different Co concentrations [69]; (d) SEM image and magnetic response image of
ZnFe2O4/ZnO, under an external magnetic field [70].

more intense than UV emission for some ZnO nanofibers [61,62] due to
the presence of the oxygen vacancies, recombination of electrons or
from the electron transition from the bottom of the conduction band.
It was found that materials based on ZnO doped with Al show high
conductivity, optical transparency in the visible wavelength region,
active optoelectronic responses that recommend successfully their uti-
lization in various applications, such as transparent electrodes, gas
sensors, photoswitches, solar cells, and so one. Thus, Cho et al. [63]
reported the effects of the Al dopant on ZnO ceramic nanofibers and on
their optical and electrical properties (sheet resistance, resistivity and
optical transmittance). The authors obtained good sheet resistance
(190 Ω sq−1) and diffuse transmittance (91%) with practical applic-
ability in transparent electrodes.
3.2. Magnetic property
The exploring and explaining of the origin of magnetism/ferro-
magnetism of ZnO doped with transition metal cations is in continuous
progress. As in the optical properties, the magnetic properties of ZnO
nanostructured materials depend on their s͒ ize (very small particles tend
to be super-paramagnetic at high temperatures [64]) and other struc-
tural features [65]. In 2014, Das et al. [66], prepared undoped ZnO/
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofibers by electrospinning process, fol-
lowed by annealing at 550 °C, for about 90 min, which showed room
temperature ferromagnetism (RTFM) in both as-spun fibers annealed in
air as well as under vacuum. The vacuum annealed nanofibers show a
higher magnetization compared to air annealed fibers, indicating that
oxygen vacancies are the cause of RTFM observed in these ZnO nano-
fibers.
ZnO nanofibers doped with transition metal ions, such as Co, Mn, Ni
or Fe are promising candidates for room temperature ferromagnetic
materials [67–69]. Baranowska-Korczyc et al. [68] reported Fe doped
ZnO nanofibers with good ferromagnetism at room temperature. In this
system, the Fe atoms substitute Zn in the ZnO matrix and give rise to a
paramagnetic signal at low temperatures. Incorporation of 10% Fe ions
does not modify the wurtzite crystal structure of the host ZnO and the
authors suggest that ferromagnetism is due either to a mechanism
mediated by the presence of oxygen vacancies or related to small pre-
cipitates of ferromagnetic phases of iron. Instead, Co doped ZnO na-
nofibers [69] show enhanced RTFM properties after annealing in hy-
drogen atmosphere. In this case, hydrogen plays an important role in
the spin–spin interactions and the formation of (Co–H–Co) complexes,
which can induce significantly enhanced ferromagnetism. Ferro-
magnetism in these nanofibers increases with increase of Co content
and the ultimate coercive field and saturation magnetization are 610 Oe
and 0.336 μB/Co of the Zn0.85Co0.15O nanofibers, respectively.
Recently, Wang et al. [70] evaluated the photocatalytic activity of
magnetic ZnFe2O4/ZnO multi-porous nanotubes by degradation of
Rhodamine B. They have found the best photocatalytic efficiency of
99% under the solar irradiation due to high porosity and larger specific
surface area of these nanotubes. In addition, this photocatalyst system
possess good magnetic separation properties and high photocatalytic
efficiency even after four cycles, which is beneficial for practical ap-
plications (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 5. The electrical properties of some ZnO CNFs doped with different inorganic components: (a) SEM image (inset→TEM image) and source–drain current (Isd)
versus source–drain voltage (Vsd) curves for ZnO CNFs [72]; (b) SEM image (inset→TEM image) and Isd–Vsd curves of single ZnO:Ga CNFs [74]; (c) SEM image
(inset→TEM image) and electrical conductivity of ZnO–NiO CNFs [75].

Fig. 6. Applications of the ZnO-based CNFs.

3.3. Electrical property
In order to establish the electrical property, performance and op-
timum conditions to use ZnO-based CNFs as a candidate component
for future various nanoelectronic devices, were investigated different
electrical characteristics of these CNFs, including: electrical con-
ductance, transconductance, electron concentration (n) and field-effect
mobility (le) [72,73]. Park et al. [72], reported that the electron con-
centration and the field-effect mobility in the ZnO nanofibers are bigger
(nanosized gains) than those in single-crystalline ZnO nanowires (see
Fig. 5).
Generally, the doping of ZnO nanofibers with gallium ion (Ga) can
improve the electrical conductivity of these nanofibers by adding of
charged carriers to the n-type ZnO. Moreover, Shmueli et al. [74]

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Fig. 7. (a) SEM image (inset→TEM image) and sensing responses at different
gases of ZnO:Ce CNFs [81]; (b) SEM image (inset→TEM image) and sensing
responses at different gases of ZnO:Co CNFs [95]; (c) SEM image (inset→ TEM
image) and sensing responses to various gases (at 200 ppm) of ZnO:Er CNFs
[91]; (d) SEM image (inset→TEM image) and sensing responses to different
kinds of gases at 10 ppm gas concentration of ZnO:Cu CNFs [106]. The (a), (b),
(c) and (d) from this figure were delimited by a red frame. (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)
investigated the electrical properties of single Ga–ZnO NFs using a field-
effect transistor. There was obtained a transconductance value of
1.3 × 10−3 μS and a threshold voltage, Vth = 15 V (Fig. 5). Later, Choi
et al. [76], developed In2O3–ZnO–ZnGa2O4 composite nanofibers con-
taining insulating ZnGa2O4 nanocrystallites as component for building
field effect transistors (FETs), that provide superior performance with
high field effect mobility (∼7.04 cm2 V−1 s−1), low subthreshold swing
(390 mV/dec), and low threshold voltage (1.0 V) combined with ex-
cellent saturation, likely resulting from the effective blocking of the
high current-flow through the In2O3 and ZnO nanocrystallites by the
insulating spinel ZnGa2O4 phase.
Based on a low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) tech-
nique there were grown a series of ZnO nanofiber networks [77] on
both SiO2/Si and Si NWs/Si substrates that presented quasi-persistent
photoconductivity effects and increased ohmic I–V characteristics. The
electrical conductance as a function of temperature can be described by
a modified three dimensional model applicable for this system. Moon
et al. [75], obtained electrospun ZnO–NiO mixed oxide nanofibers and
then measured their electrical conductivity and found that this value
increases with an increase in temperature and can be attributed to the
thermal emission of carrier from the energy state of the grain
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boundaries.
Several research groups [78–80] have found that the presence of
graphite or carbon in ZnO nanofibers leads to a significant increase in
conductivity properties due to the outstanding carrier mobility of the
system. Thus, Park et al. [78] prepared ZnO/N-doped carbon nanotube
nanocomposite with improved electron mobility (five-fold) compared
to pure ZnO. Moreover, Khurana et al. [79] revealed that the electron
transfer kinetics are faster in ZnO graphene composite than in pure ZnO
nanofibers.
4. Applications of ZnO-based CNFs
Specific features of ZnO-based CNFs, such as long length, high
porosity and large surface area determine increased interest in devel-
oping new applications for these materials, including the fabrication of
gas storage units [33], sensors [81–83], photocatalysts [1,84,85],
electric/optoelectronic and optical devices [7,11,19] and other in-
dustries (such as, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and textiles) [19,86–88]
(Fig. 6).
Below we will focus on the details regarding applications of ZnO-
based CNFs as sensors, catalysts and in environmental science due to
these domains become the most important research areas for the
longest time.
4.1. ZnO-based CNFs as sensors
The one-dimensional (1D) ceramic nanostructures based on oxide
semiconductors have been extensively studied for gas sensing applica-
tions. It is known that the detection of toxic gases through a semi-
conductor sensor developed on the basis of these nanostructures is very
important for human health and environmental protection [89]. The
gas sensors based on materials containing ZnO NFs exhibit high sensi-
tivity and fast responses [33]. These (1D) nanostructured materials
obtained by the electrospinning method possess a multitude of ad-
vantages: a good directional carrier transport, a higher surface energy
and a larger surface-to-volume ratio.
Recently, there has observed a continuous development of new ZnO-
based composite materials in order to improve the sensitivity and sta-
bility of the created sensors. It is known that ZnO is one of the most
extensively used metal oxide for gas sensing applications due to its low
cost, good electronic and optoelectronic properties and high sensing
responses in various gaseous media. The gas sensing response of one-
dimensional nanostructures can be improved by crystallite size and
surface area. However, the most effective method of improving sensor
responses in these materials is the doping with different metals (Ce, Cu,
Pr, La, Pt, Mn, Co) [81,83,90–97] (Fig. 7 and Fig. S2 from Supporting
Information), the coupling of two or more oxide metals, the formation
of various composites [16,98–104] and the adding of graphene in the
semiconductor nanostructures [105].
Many authors reported data on the preparation of ZnO–SnO2
ceramic nanostructures using the electrospinning method and their
testing as sensors for detecting various gases, such as ethanol, for-
maldehyde, acetic acid, CO, H2, acetone, ammonia, toluene and
benzene [2–4,16,100–102]. However, these nanostructures have shown
an excellent response to ethanol operating at relatively low tempera-
tures. For example, Li et al. [101] prepared hollow ZnO–SnO2 core-shell
CNFs using the electrospinning method and then tested their ethanol
detection performance. The authors found that this sensor shows a high
response (392.29) under optimum temperature (200 °C) at 100 ppm
ethanol, with response and recovery times of 75 s and 12 s, respectively.
In another study [100], the authors obtained porous ZnO–SnO2 hollow
nanofibers, with excellent ethanol sensing properties, tested at low
temperature (260 °C), as compared with acetone, ammonia, glacial
acetic acid, DMF and formaldehyde. Other composite nanostructures
based on ZnO are ZnO–SnO2 [101], ZnO–In2O3 [102], ZnO–TiO2
[103,104], Pd@ZnO-RGO [105], ZnO–CuO [106], Ag@ZnO–SnO2
P. Pascariu and M. Homocianu Ceramics International 45 (2019) 11158–11173

Fig. 8. (a) SEM image (up on the left) of ZnO–SnO2 hollow CNFs (inset→TEM image) and sensing responses of these CNFs at different: temperatures (down on the
left), concentrations of ethanol (up on the right) and different gases at 200 ppm (down on the right) [101]; (b) SEM image (inset→TEM image) of reduced graphene
oxide (up on the right) loaded ZnO CNFs and the dynamic sensing curves of 0.44 wt% -loaded ZnO NFs for oxidizing gases (bottom on the right) [109]; (c) SEM image
(down on the left) and sensing responses of PdO@ZnO–SnO2 ceramic nanotubes at different concentrations of acetone (0.1–5.0 ppm) (down on the middle) and
selective sensing characteristics for 1 ppm concentration at various types of gases (down on the right) [108]. The (a), (b) and (c) from this figure were delimited by a
red frame. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

[107], PdO@ZnO–SnO2 [108], Pd@ZnO-RGO [109] with high re-
sponses, stability and good recovery time and were obtained by elec-
trospinning technique (Fig. 8 and Fig. S3 from Supporting Information).
Furthermore, Xu et al. [107] obtained Ag nanoparticles coated on
ZnO–SnO2 nanotubes with improved sensor responses, decreased
working temperature and shortened response dynamics compared to
pure ZnO–SnO2 nanotubes. In addition, the gas sensor with 10% Ag
coated on ZnO–SnO2 nanotubes showed an approximately 6 times in-
creased response, good selectivity and a very low detection limit
(9 ppm) for formaldehyde (HCHO), and shorter response and recovery
times than pure ZnO–SnO2 nanotubes. Koo et al. [108] have also pre-
pared a heterostructure comprising PdO–ZnO composite on hollow
SnO2 nanotubes NFs for acetone sensing. This material has a remark-
able response (Rair/Rgas = 5.06 at 400 °C in 1 ppm acetone), fast re-
sponse (20 s) and recovery time (64 s) under 95% humidity.
Now, the most important issue for scientific researchers is the ob-
taining of new materials with the addition of graphene, graphene oxide
in the structure of CNFs to obtain remarkable sensing performance for
these materials. Abideen et al. [109] obtained ZnO nanofibers with
added reduced graphene oxide nanosheets using electrospinning and
examined their gas sensing properties. The maximum sensor responses
were obtained for NO2 (119.0 at 325 °C) under 5 ppm gas concentra-
tion.
Recently, a new class of composite materials based on polymers/
inorganic components with enhanced physico-chemical properties and
gas sensing properties was developed [110–112]. These new materials
containing various conducting polymers, such as poly (styrene sulfo-
nate) (PSS) [110], polyaniline (PANI) [111], polypyrrole (PPy) and
polythiophene (PTh) [112], due to their high functionality, con-
ductivity and affinity can have increased sensing performance for de-
tecting gases and volatile organic compounds present in the environ-
ment. Thus, the new hybrid polymer/inorganic ceramic composites
show improved sensing characteristics.
Table 2 summarizes some ZnO-based CNFs used as main compo-
nents in different sensors and their important characteristics reported in
the literature from the past few years.
4.2. ZnO-based CNFs as photocatalysts
Due to industrial development and growing of the population, many
amounts of toxic chemical pollutants (dyes, polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons, halogens, pesticides, microorganisms, surfactants and other
contaminants) have been found, in recent years, in the environment.
Thus, many biological, chemical and physical methods have been de-
veloped for the destruction of microorganisms and removing con-
taminants from wastewaters and the environment. The advanced oxi-
dation processes based on oxide semiconductors (photocatalysis
process) have been found to play an important role in the degradation
of organic pollutants from water [113]. It is a simple, low cost and
versatile process for the destruction and removal of a wide range of

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Table 2 A main advantage of the use of ceramic nanofibers (CNFs) compared

Some ZnO-based CNFs used in development of sensor technologies. to nanoparticles (with very small size) consists in the fact that they can
No. Material type Gas Conc. T (°C) Response Refs. be easily recycled (have the ability to be recovered and reused) without
(ppm) (Ra/Rg) decreasing their photocatalytic activities. Namely, a macro porous
structure favors stability, ability to recover and reuse of this system,
1. ZnO CO 1–5 700 15 [82]
which are the important aspects for its practical applications. For ex-
2. Ce–ZnO Acetone 500 230 71 [81]
3. Ce–ZnO Acetone 100 260 75 [83]
ample, Mu et al. [124] have successfully prepared ZnO-carbon nano-
4. Pr–ZnO Acid acetic 400 380 8.89 [90] fiber heteroarchitectures, which could be easily recycled without de-
5. Er–ZnO Ethanol 200 240 37.3 [91] crease in photocatalytic activity (degrade Rhodamine B (RB) due to
6. La–ZnO Acetone 100 340 48 [92] their one-dimensional nanostructural properties.
7. Cu–ZnO H2S 10 230 18.7 [106]
Moreover, recently, many techniques have been used to improve the
8. Mn–ZnO Acetone 450 340 89 [94]
9. Co–ZnO Acetone 500 360 56 [95] photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO based nanomaterials (because the large
10. Al–ZnO Ethanol 100 250 8.6 [96] band gap of ZnO and the massive recombination of photogenerated
11. Pd–ZnO CO 20 220 5.6 [97] charge carriers limit their overall photocatalytic efficiency) and to
12. ZnO–SnO2 Methanol 10 350 8.5 [98]
make it active in the visible region of the spectrum. Thus, the re-
13. ZnO–SnO2 Ethanol 4000 300 423 [99]
14. ZnO–SnO2 Ethanol 20 260 83 [100]
searchers make the continuous efforts to combine (hybridization) the
15. ZnO–SnO2 Ethanol 100 200 392.29 [101] electrospun ZnO NFs with other narrow band gap materials, including
16. ZnO–In2O3 Trimethylamine 5 375 119.4 [102] various metals (Mn, C, Ag, Fe, Pt, Pd, ZnS, Er3+, Au), metal oxides
17. ZnO–TiO2 Ethanol 500 320 50.6 [103] (NiO, CeO2, SnO2, CuO, CdO, BaTiO3, NaNbO3, TiO2, Bi2O3, CuFe2O4)
18. ZnO–TiO2 Ethanol 100 280 15.7 [104]
and various nanoscales structures (MWCNT-multi-walled carbon na-
19. ZnO–SnO2@Ag Formaldehyde 50 210 95 [107]
20. PdO@ZnO–SnO2 Acetone 1 450 5.06 [108] notube, graphene, CAB, silicone) (see Fig. 10 and Table 3). For ex-
21. RGO-ZnO NO2 5 400 119.0 [109] ample, a series of ZnO-carbon based nanofiber heteroarchitectures
22. ZnO–PSS NH3 100 RT 17 [110] [121,125,126] were obtained by electrospinning method and showed
23. PANI-ZnO NH3 100 RT 4 [111] good photocatalytic activity in comparison with pure ZnO nanofiber.
Another example, a 7-fold enhancement in photocatalytic activity was
CO-carbon monoxide; H2S-hydrogen sulfide; NO2-nitrogen dioxide; NH3-am-
monia; PSS– poly(styrene sulfonate); RT-room temperature; PANI- polyaniline. observed under UV light irradiation for multi wall carbon nanotube
(MWCNT) - doped ZnO nanofibers (ZnO-carbon nanofibers degrade
pollutants (detergents, dyes, pesticides and various volatile organic Rhodamine with an efficiency of 96%/50 min (Table 3)).
compounds). Remarkable, enhancement of photocatalytic activity of ZnO-based
ZnO is a well-known nontoxic catalyst, low-cost, with high activity, CNFs has been obtained by doping these materials with different rare
biocompatibility, excellent chemical and mechanical stabilities and earth ions, such Europium (Eu) [128] and Lanthanum (La3+) ions
good applications for water purification and for the degradation of [53,54,129]. Thus, Lakshmi et al. [54] found that the photocatalytic
environmental pollutants [114,115]. Along with others nanostructured performance (investigated on p-nitrophenol) of La–ZnO/PAN (3.35 eV)
semiconductor metal oxides, such as NiO, SnO2, CuO, Bi2O3, Fe2O3, nanofiber material (92%) was superior to pure ZnO–PAN (3.47 eV) NFs
TiO2, ZnO–TiO2 and ZnO–SnO2, it has excellent abilities to decompose (85%), attributing the significant improvement to the introduction of
and remove many organic pollutants, under UV irradiation or sunlight Lanthanum ions. Here, the presence of Lanthanum ions favors the
action [116]. TiO2 and ZnO have been studied extensively due to their electron/hole transfer generated inside the crystal on the surface, which
chemical stability, nontoxic nature, large band gaps and efficient pho- also enhances the photocatalytic activity. Instead, recently Pascariu
tocatalytic properties. Pure ZnO and ZnO-based CNFs are excellent et al. [53] tested the photocatalytic performance of ZnO ceramic NFs
support for photocatalytic processes due to their high photosensitivity, doped with different concentrations of La3+ ions (0.02%, 1%, 2% and
stability only in a small pH range, nontoxic nature and presence of a 4%) and have found a 97.63% efficiency for ZnO doped with 2% La3+
large band gap [117]. ZnO has almost similar band gap energy (3.2 eV) system, in degrading the Congo-Red dye, and these results were com-
with TiO2, at lower cost and in many cases showed better efficiency pared with the research literature data.
than TiO2 in photocatalytic degradation of some dyes in aqueous so- The photocatalytic activity of ZnO-based CNFs has been ex-
lution [84]. tensively tested over the last decade and was found to have good po-
Over time, the need to increase the photocatalytic activity of ZnO tential for efficient degradation and/or the effective removal of various
metal oxide nanofibers and extend their optical responses in the visible organic dyes (such as methylene blue (MB), methyl orange (MO) and
region, were developed and different methods were improved, such as Rhodamine B (RB), fuchsin, bisphenol A (BPA), alizarin red S (ARS),
doping with various noble metals (like as Pt, Au, Ag and Pd), sensiti- polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), 4-NP-4-nitrophenol (4-NP)),
zation [118,119], coupling with other oxide semiconductors having a phenol, formaldehyde, multiple toxic metallic ions (As, Pb2+, Cd2+,
large band gap (e.g. TiO2)) and incorporation of electron-accepting Cr6+) and for the capture and removal of pathogenic bacteria
materials (Fig. 9). (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus etc.). In recent years, as a con-
In 2015, Gupta et al. [120], used solar radiation (which is a natural sequence of its high photocatalytic performance (Table 3) to photo-
source) for the first time to excite ZnO nanofibers and to catalyze the degradation different organic pollutants that are discharged into was-
dye degradation (fuchsine). It was found that the photodegradation of tewater from textile and other industrial processes many ZnO-based
acid present in waste water under solar radiation shows 99% de- CNFs have been prepared and used for water treatment
gradation within 2.5 h. Thus, the photocatalysis process performed [47,131,154–156]. In the presence of UV light, these systems have the
under solar radiation is becoming a little expensive and viable for in- ability to mineralize of organic contaminants under atmospheric con-
dustrial uses compared to when the catalysts were excited by different ditions and superior removal efficiency. The contaminants will be mi-
UV sources, such as UV, tungsten, halogen and mercury lamps neralized into non-toxic compounds, like CO2, water and mineral acids.
(Table 3). Also, in 2019, Karim et al. [121], reported the high photo-
catalytic activity of PAN-CNTs/ZnO–NH2 electrospun nanofibers under 5. New developments in the applications of ZnO-based CNFs
visible light action. These nanofibers were used for the photodegrada-
tion of methylene blue (MB) and the indigo carmine (IC) and showed With the advancement in the science and industrial activities, ZnO-
high photodegradation efficiency and a good ability for reuse. based CNFs have found increasing applications in other domains than
sensors and photocatalysts, such as biomedical applications

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Fig. 9. (a) SEM and TEM (inset) images of ZnO:La CNFs (left); Color removal efficiency after the end of the photodegradation process in the presence of ZnO doped
with La3+ at different concentrations (middle); Concentration of Congo Red dye against reaction time in the presence of pure ZnO and ZnO:La CNFs [53] (right); (b)
SEM and TEM (inset) images of ZnO:Mn2+ CNFs (left); UV–vis absorption spectra of Rhodamine B (RB) dye degradation at different time in the presence of
ZnO:Mn2+ CNFs, under visible light (middle); Photodegradation of RB by ZnO:Mn2+ CNFs, with different concentrations of Mn2+ [122] (right); (c) SEM image of
ZnO:Fe CNFs (left); Concentration changes of Methylene Blue as a function of irradiation time (middle); Degradation percentage of direct sintering products and Fe-
doped ZnO NFs [123] (right). The (a), (b) and (c) from this figure were delimited by a red frame. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

[86,87,157,158], components for building the different energy storage
devices [7,159], for determination and removal of trace amounts of
different metals from environments [160]. Below are described several
new applications of the ZnO-based CNFs materials.
In recent years, ZnO-based CNFs are used extensively and in nu-
merous biomedical applications (antibacterial activity [86,157,158],
antibiotics removal [161] and detection of cancer cells [162,163]).
Malwal et al. [86] developed a series of electrospun CuO–ZnO com-
posite nanofibers that exhibited significant antibacterial activity against
S. aureus as compared to GFP-E. coli. Also, ZnO–TiO2 composite na-
nofibers were fabricated by an electrospinning method, which showed
excellent antimicrobial activity against gram-negative Escherichia coli
and gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, under UV irradiation [87].
Recently, Chaba et al. [161] have prepared some V2O5–ZnO coated
carbon nanofibers used to remove two quinolone antibiotics (cinoxacin
and ciprofloxacin) from aqueous solutions and wastewater. This system
was used as adsorbent with maximum adsorption capacity of 71.4 and
87.7 mg/g for cinoxacin and ciprofloxacin, respectively. Recent
advances in uses of electrospun nanofibers in cancer research have been
reported [162]. Paul et al. [163] reported MWCNT embedded ZnO
nanofibers that have been used to detect cancer cells as carcinoma
antigen-125, which is located on the surface of ovarian cancer cells. The
in vitro study demonstrated an excellent sensitivity of
90.14 μA U−1 mL−1 cm−2 with a remarkable detection limit of 0.00113
U mL−1 concentration and a wide detection range of 0.001 U mL−1 to 1
kU mL−1.
Recently, ZnO-based CNFs have also been exploited as constitutive
elements for developing various functional devices, such as efficient
energy conversion and storage devices, including photovoltaic cells,
photocatalysts, lithium-ion batteries, dye-sensitized solar cells, fuel
cells, perovskite solar cells and supercapacitors [7,164]. These devices
play an important role in the conversion and use of energy from re-
newable sources, such as the sun, wind and tides, which are highly
desired and exploited in the recent years. In 2012, Yaakob et al. [159]
investigated and demonstrated for the first time the hydrogen storage
capacities of pure ZnO and Al and Mg doped ZnO nanofibers. In this

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Table 3
Some of the representative ZnO-based CNFs used as photocatalysts and their operating photocatalytic characteristics.
No. Material types Pollutants Photocatalytic conditions Degradation ((%,duration) Re Ref.

Light source Photocatalyst, (g/L)

pure ZnO CNFs

1. ZnO fuchsin natural solar radiations – 99%/2.5 h [120]
2. ZnO PAH UV light 20 mg 70%/2 h [130]
3. ZnO MB UV light MB (5 mg/L) 96% [131]
ZnO-metal CNFs
4. ZnO–Mn RB 300 W Xe lamp, visible light 2.5 × 10−5 M 50× pure ZnO [122]
5. ZnO–C MB UV lamp (15 W) 6 mg 80%/90 min [121]
6. ZnO–C RB Hg lamp (50 W) NA 96%/50 min [126]
7. ZnO–Ag RB UV light, Hg tube 10 mg 25 × pure ZnO [132]
8. ZnO–Fe MB mercury lamp 20 mg maxim at 1.5% Fe [123]
9. ZnO–Pt MB UV light 1% Pt ∼40% higher than pure ZnO [133]
10. ZnO–Pd MB UV irradiation 5 mg – [134]
11. La–ZnO-PAN 4-NP UV light irradiation 50 mg 92%/160 min [54]
12. ZnO–ZnS MB sunlight simulation 1 mg mL−1 NA [135]
13. ZnO–TiO2/Er3+ MB 20 W UV lamp 5 mg/L 99.56%/3 h [129]
14. TiO2–ZnO/Au+ MO 50 W Hg lamp, at 313 nm 0.01 g 96% [136]
4-NP
15. ZnO–La3+ CR 50 W Hg lamp, 0.1 g 97.63%/2% La3+ [55]
UV light
ZnO-other metal oxide CNFs
16. ZnO–NiO RB 50 W Hg 10 mg/L NA [137]
17. ZnO–NiO RB UV light 1 g/L 99.37% [138]
MB 98.44%
18. ZnO–CeO2 RB 8 W, UV irradiation 10 mg 98% [139]
19. ZnO–SnO2 RB 250 W Hg lamp 0.2 g/L 96.53/60 min [140]
20. ZnO–SnO2 RB 100 W tungsten lamp, visible irradiation 5 mg 49%/30 min [13,141]
21. ZnO–CuO MB BPA 300 W Xe lamp 10-5 M for MB NA [142]
20 ppm for BPA
22. ZnO–CuO As adsorption studies 27.7 mg/g - absorption capacity NA [143]
23. ZnO–CdO MB UV/visible light 10−5 M for MB NA [144]
24. ZnO–BaTiO3 MO 50 W Hg, UV light 20 mg better than pure ZnO [145]
25. ZnO–BaTiO3 RB UV light 250 mg 97% [146]
26. ZnO–NaNbO3 MB UV light, two Hg lamps (125W × 2) 0.1 g 40%/1 h [147]
RB 51%/1 h
27. ZnO–TiO2 ARS UV lamp 5 mg NA [148]
28. ZnO–TiO2 RB visible light 2 g/L NA [149]
29. ZnO–Bi2O3 RB 300 W Xe lamp, UV and visible light 60 mg NA [150]
30. ZnO–CuFe2O4 RB visible light, 500 W Xe lamp 30 mg 86.92% [151]
ZnO-nanoscales structures CNFs
31. ZnO-MWCNT MB UV visible light – 50% [119]
32. ZnO-graphene MB visible light 80 mg 97.9%/40min [125]
33. ZnO-graphene MB UV light 0.5 wt% 80%/4 h [126]
34. ZnO-CAB RB, visible light 5 mg 47%/24 h [152]
MB
35. ZnO-CAB RB, visible light 4 mg 60.06%/RB [14]
FCs 60.40%/FCs
36. ZnO-silicone dairy effluent sunlight lamp 320 mg 38% [153]

BPA-bisphenol A; MB-methylene blue; MO-methyl orange; ARS-alizarin red S; CR-congo red; PAH-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; CAB-cellulose acetate butyrate;
As-arsenic; RB-rhodamine B; 4-NP-4-nitrophenol; NA - not available; FCs-fuchsine.

study, Al-doped zinc oxide nanofibers were investigated as a good
candidate for hydrogen storage and with potential applications for fuel
cells. The hydrogen storage capacity in pure zinc oxide nanofibers is a
factor two greater than that of zinc oxide nanoparticles and Al-doped
ZnO nanofibers have the highest hydrogen storage capacity (2.81 wt %)
at room temperature. Several research groups [165,166], used pure and
metal doped ZnO-based CNFs as photoanode materials to develop dye-
sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and obtained remarkable performance for
these materials. For example, the using of nanofibers for obtaining
photoanodes can maximize the light-harvesting capacity of target DSSC
devices. Thus, Kanimozhi et al. [165] have found the highest photo-
conversion efficiency and current density (mA/cm2) for the DSSCs
fabricated with an optimum 5% Co wt% doped ZnO nanofibers, which
was characterized by low cost, promising efficiency and possibilities for
environmental protection. Likewise, Yun et al. [167] tested the effi-
ciency of photovoltaic devices based on electrospun Al-doped ZnO
ceramic nanofibers and good results for energy conversion efficiency
(0.54–0.55%) were found. Another group of researchers [168] reported
data on the preparation and testing of the energy conversion efficiency
of ZnO CNFs doped with Al. The conversion energy reported by the
authors in their work was 0.411% for a dopant concentration of 1%.
Recently, Bakr et al. [169] have produced ZnO–SnO2 composite nano-
fibers synthesized by the electrospinning method for energy conversion
applications. The results showed that the nanostructures possessed a
superior photoconversion efficiency of 5.60% value for ZnO–SnO2,
compared to ZnO (1.38%) and SnO2 (3.90%).
In-doped ZnO nanofibers have been reported recently as electron
transporting materials for the development of perovskite solar cells
(PSCs) [46]. For these materials, a conversion efficiency (PCEavg) of
16.03% and a power conversion efficiency (PCEbest) of 17.18% were
achieved, due to the high porosity and high crystallinity of the nano-
fibers, better infiltration of the absorbent and faster charge transport
characteristics of the system, because of the presence of indium (In) as
dopant. Upon modification of In-doped ZnO nanofibers by coating a
thin layer of a polymer, such as polyethyleneimine (PEI), the PCEavg
increased to 16.86% (PCEbest = 18.69%) by effectively reducing the

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Fig. 10. (a) SEM image (inset→TEM image) of ZnO:graphene CNFs; UV–vis absorption spectra of Methylene Blue (MB) degradation in the presence of ZnO doped
with graphene at different concentrations; Photocatalytic degradation of MB as a function of irradiation time [126]; (b) SEM and TEM (inset) images of ZnO:TiO2
CNFs; UV–vis spectra of Methyl Orange (MO) in presence of ZnO:TiO2 CNFs vs. photoreaction time; Degradation efficiencies of MO over different catalysts for 30 min
[127]; (c) SEM and TEM (inset) images of ZnO:TiO2 CNFs; Absorption spectral changes of RhB in presence of ZnO:TiO2 CNFs, under UV irradiation; The photo-
catalytic performance of all catalyst for RhB degradation [15]. The (a), (b) and (c) from this figure were delimited by a red frame. (For interpretation of the references
to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

energy barrier for electron extraction. The obtained results suggest that Whkg−1 and a power density of 6.5 kWkg−1 with a retention capacity
In-doped ZnO nanofibers are the best electron transporting materials of 94% and a Coulombic efficiency of 100% [171]. In addition to their
for generating inexpensive and highly efficient perovskite solar cell many uses, electrospun ZnOeSnO2 heterojunction nanofibers, as sen-
devices. sors [99–101] and catalysts [13,141,142], were investigated as suc-
Another important application of one-dimensional ZnO-based CNFs cessful and as promising candidates for high-performance photo-
obtained by the electrospinning method is their use as building mate- detectors [172], with high UV‐sensitivity, photo‐dark current ratio and
rials for development of lithium-ion batteries. In this regard, Luo et al. fast responses.
[170] investigated the electrochemical performance of ZnO–SnO2 sys-
tems and found that these materials had the highest initial discharge
6. Conclusions
and charge capacity (1450 and 1101 mA h g−1), maintained the highest
reversible capacity (560 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles) at 0.1 A g−1 and
ZnO-based ceramic nanofibers (ZnO-based CNFs) present in-
also presented the best rate capability, with the highest capacity of
creasing interest in developing areas of research and applications.
305 mA h g−1 at 2 A g−1.
Given the high number of papers on the topic of ZnO-based CNFs, the
In 2016, based on ZnO–MnO2 core–shell nanofibers [171], some
present study aims to review and summarize progress in this area and
asymmetric supercapacitors were built. These devices exhibit high
the effort is reasonable because these materials are the main elements
characteristics due to utilization of ZnO–MnO2 core–shell nanos-
in the development of many devices (sensors and actuators, solar cells,
tructures for the construction of the cathode. Thus, by using ZnO–MnO2
diodes, photocatalysts, piezoelectric devices) for future applications.
NFs there was obtained a device that worked very well in a voltage
Numerous research groups have combined ZnO nanomaterials with
window of 0–2.0 V that can deliver a maximum energy density of 17
others small molecules, polymers and nanoscale structures, creating

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new ceramic nanofiber systems tailored to modern technological needs
and having new properties with huge practical applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support given by:
The financial support of European Social Fund for Regional
Development, Competitiveness Operational Programme Axis 1—Project
“Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry-Interdisciplinary
Pol for Smart Specialization through Research and Innovation and
Technology Transfer in Bio(nano)polymeric Materials and
(Eco)Technology”, InoMatPol (ID P_36_570, Contract 142/10.10.2016,
cod MySMIS: 107464) is gratefully acknowledged. The author
Petronela Pascariu also acknowledge for the financial support of the
“Excellence in advanced research, leadership in innovation and pa-
tenting for university and regional development” (EXCALIBUR), con-
tract no. 18 PFE/16.10.2018, funded by MCI under the Institutional
Development Projects - RDI excellence funding projects, Subprogram
1.2 - Institutional performance, Program 1 - Development of the na-
tional R & D system, National R & Development and Innovation for the
period 2015–2020 (PNCDI III).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.03.113.
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