Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Chapter 1

Fundamental and Types of

Mechanisms

Content-
1.1 Kinematics of Machines: - Definition of Kinematics, Dynamics, Statics,
Kinetics, Kinematic link, Kinematic Pair and its types, constrained motion and its
types, Kinematic chain and its types, Mechanism, inversion, machine and
structure.
1.2 Inversions of Kinematic Chain.
1.2.1 Inversion of four bar chain, coupled wheels of Locomotive & Pantograph.
1.2.2 Inversion of Single Slider Crank chain- Rotary I.C. Engines mechanism,
Whitworth quick return mechanism, Crank and Slotted lever quick return
mechanism.
1.2.3 Inversion of Double Slider Crank Chain- Scotch Yoke Mechanism &
Oldham’s coupling.
1.3 Common Mechanisms
1.3.1 Bicycle free wheel Sprocket mechanism.
1.3.2 Geneva Mechanism.
1.3.3 Ackerman’s Steering gear mechanism.
1.3.4 Foot operated air pump mechanism.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Introduction:-
The subject Theory of Machines is an applied science. Theory of
Machines takes care of motion and strength aspect of a machine and uses
principles from physics, kinematics, static and kinetics.

MACHINE:- Machines are mechanical devices used to accomplish work. A

mechanism is a heart of a machine. It is the mechanical portion of the machine
that has the function of transferring motion and forces from a power source to an
output.
MECHANISM:- Mechanism is a system of rigid elements (linkages) arranged and
connected to transmit motion in a predetermined fashion.
Mechanism consists of linkages and joints.

Kinematics of Machines:-
Kinematics is the branch of Theory of Machines which deals with relative
motion between the various parts of the machine. It is related with study of
motion characteristics i.e. velocity and acceleration.

Dynamics-
Dynamics is the branch of Theory of Machines which deals with forces
acting on the machine parts while in motion.
Force in a machine part can be either from outside or from within the
body.

Statics-
Statics is the branch of Theory of Machines which deals with forces and
their effect while the machine parts are at rest. When dynamics of machine
neglects mass effect and studies only external forces that branch of Dynamics is
known as Statics i.e. mass of the part is assumed to be negligible

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Kinetics:-
When Dynamics of machine neglects external forces and studies forces
only on account of mass of the machine components, then the force study is
known as Kinetics.

Kinematic link-
Each part of the machine which moves relative to some other part is known as
link or Kinematic link or Element. The link element need not to be a rigid body
but must be a resistant body.

Types of links-
i) Rigid link- Rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation
while transmitting motion. Rigid link do not exists. But deformation of
connecting rod or other element is negligible, so it is considered as rigid
link.

ii) Flexible link- A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner
not to affect the transmission of motion
Example- Belts, ropes, Wires & Chains.

iii) Fluid link- A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a
receptable and the motion is transmitted through fluid by pressure or
compression only.
Example- Hydraulic press, jack etc

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Kinematic Pair:-
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other,
are said to form a pair. If the relative motion between them is completely or
successfully constrained the pair is known as KINEMATIC PAIR.

First of all, let us discuss the various types of constrained motions.

Constrained motion and its types-

Two links are connected with each other by various means and this
method of connection decides the type of relative motion between the links. If
this relative motion is one and only type then it is said to be constrained motion.
i) Completely constrained motion-
When the motion between the pair is limited to a defined direction
irrespective of the direction of force applied, then the motion is said to be
completely constrained motion.

ii) Incompletely constrained motion-

When motion between pair can take place in more than one direction
then the motion is called incompletely constrained motion.
In second fig we can see that the shaft can rotate as well as slide in the guide
ways, hence the motion is incompletely constrained.
iii) Successfully constrained motion-
When the motion between the elements forming a pair is such that the
constrained motion is not completed by itself but by some other means then the
motion is said to be successfully constrained motion.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Types of Kinematic Pair:-

1. According to type of relative motion between parts-

i) Sliding Pair-
When two elements of pair are connected in such a way that one can only
slide relative to other the pair is known as sliding pair...
Example- Piston & Cylinder, Tailstock.

ii) Turning Pair-

When the two elements of pair are connected in such a way that one can
only turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another link the pair is known as
turning pair.
Example- Cycle wheel

iii) Rolling pair-

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

When the two elements of pair are connected in such a way that one roll
over another fixed link, the pair is known as rolling pair.
Example- Ball Bearing

iv) Screw Pair-

When the two elements of pair are connected in such a way that one
element can turn about the other by screw threads, pair is known as screw pair.
Example- Nut and Bolt

v) Spherical Pair-
When the two elements of pair are connected in such a way that only one
element (with spherical shape) turns or swivels about other fixed element the
pair formed is called as Spherical pair.
Example-Attachment of car mirror

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

2. According to type of contact between Elements-

i) Lower pair-
When the two elements of pair have surface contact when relative
motion takes place and surface of one element slides over surface of another
the pair formed is Lower pair.
Example- Sliding pair, turning Pair.
ii) Higher pair-
When the two elements of pair have a line or point contact when relative
motion takes place and the motion between two elements is partly turning and
partly sliding then the pair formed is known as higher pair.
Example- Belt or rope drive, Cam and Follower.

3. According to the type of closure-

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

i) Self Closed pair-

When the links of a pair are held together mechanically itself is
known as a self closed pair.
Example:- All lower pairs are closed pair.

ii) Force closed pair-

When the elements of pair are not held together mechanically during the
transmission of relative motion are called force closed pair.
Example:- Cam & follower.

Kinematic chain and its types:-

Link is the smallest possible member in a machine. When such two links
come together and show constrained motion then they form a Kinematic pair.
When Kinematic pair are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to the
first link to transmit definite motion, it is called as Kinematic chain.
If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two adjacent link then
relation between number of pairs (P) forming a chain and number of links (l) is
L= 2p-4……………………………………………. (i)
In a Kinematic chain each link forms a part of two pairs; therefore there will be
as many links as number of pairs
J=3/2l-2…………………………………………………… (ii)
Equation I and ii are applicable to Kinematic chains in which lower pairs are
used.
Types of Kinematic chain
I) Locked Chain-

Number of links l=3; Number of pairs p=3; Number of joints j=3

Equation I gives L= 2p-4
3=2*3-4 = 2
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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

LHS > RHS

Equation II gives J=3/2l-2
3 = 3/2*3 – 2 = 2.5
LHS > RHS
As this arrangement does not satisfy Equation I and II, therefore it is not
a Kinematic chain and hence relative motion is not possible. Such type of
chain is called as locked chain.
II) Constrained Kinematic chain-
(Kinematic chain of one degree of freedom)
L = 4; p = 4; j = 4
Equation I gives L= 2p-4
4 = 2*4 -4 = 4
LHS =RHS

Equation Ii gives J=3/2l-2

4 = 3/2 * 4 – 4 = 4
LHS =RHS
Since this arrangement satisfy Equation I and II this is called
Kinematic chain of one degree of freedom.
Now if link AB is fixed and a definite displacement O is given to
AD then resulting displacement of the two links BC and CD are
also perfectly definite. Thus in four bar chain relative motion is
completely constrained. Hence it may be called as constrained
Kinematic chain.
III) Unconstrained kinematic chain-
L = 5; p = 5; j = 5
Equation I gives L= 2p-4

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

5 = 2*5 – 4 = 6
LHS < RHS

Equation Ii gives J=3/2l-2

5 = 3/2 * 5 – 2= 5.5
LHS<RHS
Since this arrangement does not satisfy Equation I and II this is
called unconstrained chain i.e. relative motion is not completely
constrained.

Iv) Compound kinematic chain

L = 6; p = 5; j = 7
Equation I gives L= 2p-4
6 = 2*5 – 4 = 6
LHS =RHS
Equation Ii gives J=3/2l-2
7 = 3/2 * 6 – 2= 7
LHS =RHS

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

As this arrangement satisfies equation I and II therefore it is kinematic

chain.
A chain having more than four links is called as compound kinematic chain

Mechanism-
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed then the chain is
known as mechanism.
It may be used for transmitting or transforming the motion. Mechanism
with four links is called simple mechanism and mechanism with more than four
links is called compound mechanism.

Inversion-
In a kinematic chain if one of the link is fixed it is called as mechanism. So
we can obtain as many mechanisms as number of links. This method of obtaining
different mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematic chain is called
Inversion of mechanism.

Machine and structure

Machine-
When a mechanism is required to transmit a power or to do some
particular type of work it then becomes a machine

Structure-
It is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies (known as members)
having no relative motion between them and meant for carrying loads having
straining action.
Example- a Railway Bridge, a roof or truss, machine frame, etc

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Machine Structure
1 Parts of Machine move relative Members of structure do not move
to each other relative to each other
2 A machine transforms available No energy is transformed into work in
energy into some useful work case of structure, energy is stored within
it.
3 Links of machine transmit both Members of structure transmit forces
power and motion only
4 Example-Screw jack, lathe Example- A railway bridge, a roof or
machine etc truss, machine frame, etc
Inversions of Kinematic Chain-
In a kinematic chain if one of the link is fixed it is called as mechanism. So
we can obtain as many mechanisms as number of links. This method of obtaining
different mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematic chain is called
Inversion of mechanism
Grashofs law-
For a four bar mechanism the sum of the shortest and the longest links
length should not be greater than the sum of the remaining to links lengths if
there is to be continuous relative motion between two links.

Crank (link AD) - A link making complete revolution (DRIVER)

Lever (link BC) - A link oscillating or partially revolving (ROCKER/FOLLOWER)
Connecting rod (link DC) - A link connecting crank and lever (COUPLER)
Frame (link AB) - a Fixed link

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Inversion of four bar chain,

1. Beam Engine (Crank and lever mechanism)
When crank rotates about fixed center A , lever oscillates about
center D and end E of lever CDE is connected to piston rod which
reciprocates due to rotation of crank. This mechanism converts rotary
motion into reciprocating motion.

2. coupled wheels of Locomotive (Double crank Mechanism)-

This mechanism is having two cranks AD and BC respectively. Link
CD acts as coupling rod and AB is fixed in order to maintain constant
center to center distance between wheels. Thus this mechanism is meant
to transmit rotary motion from one wheel to another.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

3. Pantograph-

A watt’s indicator mechanism or pantograph consists of basically four

links. The four links are : fixed link at A, link AC, link CE, link BFD.
It should be noted that BF & FD form one link because these two parts have no
relative motion between them.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

The links CE & BFD acts as levers. The link BFD moves in a proportion to
the pressure applied by gas or steam on indicator plunger.
On any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point E at the end of the
link CE traces out approximately a straight line.
The initial position of the mechanism is shown in fig. above. Whereas, the dotted
lines show the position of the mechanism after the gas pressure acts on the
plunger.

Inversion of Single Slider Crank chain-

A single slider crank chain is a modification of a basic four bar chain

mechanism. It consists of one sliding pair and three turning pairs.
Link 1- Frame of engine; link 2-crank; link 3-connecting rod; link 4-cross head
As the crank rotates the cross head reciprocates in the guides and thus the
piston reciprocates in the cylinder

Rotary I.C. Engines mechanism-

Link 1-Cyllinder link 2-crank; link 3- connecting rod; link 4-piston
It consist of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolve about fixed center D.
Crank (link 2) is fixed. When connecting rod (link 4) rotates piston reciprocates
inside cylinder. This engine is used in aviation.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Whitworth quick return mechanism-

This mechanism is used in shaping and slotting machines.
Link 1-Slotted bar oscillating at pivoted point d;
Link 2- Fixed link CD
Link 3- Crank CA, rotating at uniform angular speed
Link 4- slider, slides along slotted bar
Connecting rod carries ram R at which tool is fixed and its motion is constrained
along a line passing through D and perpendicular to CD.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Forward stroke/Cutting stroke-

When the driving crank CA moves from position CA1 to CA2 through an
angle α in the clockwise direction, tool moves from left hand end of stroke to
right hand end through distance 2PD.
Return stroke/Idle stroke-
When the driving crank moves from the position CA2 to CA1 through an
angle β in the clockwise direction tool moves back from right hand end of its
stroke to left hand end
Time taken during forward stroke is more than time taken during return
stroke.
Time of cutting stroke = α = α
Time of return stroke β 360-α
α is always greater than 180˚
Crank and Slotted lever quick return mechanism-
This mechanism is used in shaping and slotting machines.
Link 1- Slider; link 2- Crank; link 3-Fixed link; link 4-slotted bar
In this mechanism the link AC (link 3) forming turning pair is fixed. The driving
crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about fixed center C. A sliding
block attached to the crank pin at B slides along the slotted bar AP and thus
causes it to oscillate about the pivoted point A. A short link PR transmits the
motion from AP to the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates along the line
of stroke R1R2.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

Forward stroke/Cutting stroke-

It occurs when crank rotates from CB1 to CB2 at an angle β in the clockwise
direction.
Return stroke/Idle stroke-
It occurs when crank rotates from CB2 to CB1 through an angle α in clockwise
direction.
Time of cutting stroke = β = 360-α
Time of return stroke α α
α is always greater than β and since crank rotates with uniform angular velocity
therefore return stroke is completed within short time.

Inversion of Double Slider Crank Chain-

A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is
known as double slider crank chain.

1. Scotch Yoke Mechanism

This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a reciprocating
motion. The inversion is obtained by fixing either the lank 1 or link 3.as shown in
figure link 1 is fixed.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

In this mechanism when link 2 (which corresponds to crank) rotates

about B as center, the link 4(which corresponds to a frame) reciprocates.
The fixed link 1 guides the frame.

2. Oldham’s Coupling-
An Oldham’s coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts
whose axes are at small distance apart. The shafts to be connected have
two flanges rigidly fastened at their ends by forging.
Link 1-Flange; link 2-supporting frame; link 3- Flange 2; link 4-
Intermediate piece

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

The flanges have diametrical slot cut in their inner faces. The
intermediate piece is a circular disc having two tongues (diametrical projections
at right angle to each other)
The link 4 slides or reciprocates in the slot in flanges. When the driving
shaft A is rotated the flange C (link 1) causes the intermediate piece (link 4) to
rotate. Hence link 1, link 3, link4 have same angular speed at every instant.

Common Mechanisms

1. Bicycle free wheel Sprocket mechanism.

Mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning

clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the
driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. An
overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise
unrelated.

The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists
in most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer pushing the
pedals. Without a freewheel the rear wheel would drive the pedals around.

In the past, such freewheel mechanisms have included an inner freewheel

body which engages threads on a rear wheel hub, and an outer freewheel body,
including an integral sprocket for engagement with the roller chain. A pair of
pawls, and at least one pawl spring have been disposed between said inner and
outer freewheel bodies, whereby forward rotation of the outer freewheel body
would cause the pawls to engage and drive the inner freewheel body and rear
wheel. Also, the pawls would allow the rear wheel to rotate in a forward
direction when the outer freewheel body was rotating more slowly or was
stopped.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

2. Geneva Mechanism.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

The Geneva mechanism is a timing device.

Geneva mechanism consists of a rotating disk with a pin and another rotating
disk with slots (usually four) into which the pin slides
In the most common arrangement, the driven wheel has four slots and
thus advances for each rotation of the drive wheel by one step of 90°. If the
driven wheel has n slots, it advances by 360/n° per full rotation of the drive
wheel.
One application of the Geneva drive is in movie projectors. Geneva wheels
having the form of the driven wheel were also used in mechanical watches. Other
applications of the Geneva drive include the pen change mechanism in plotters,
automated sampling devices, indexing tables in assembly lines, tool changers for
CNC machines, and so on.

The Iron Ring Clock uses a Geneva mechanism to provide intermittent motion to
one of its rings.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

3. Ackerman’s Steering gear mechanism.

The steering gear mechanism is used for changing the direction of two or
more of the wheel axles with reference to the chassis, so as to move the
automobile in any desired path.
When the vehicle takes a turn the front wheels along with the respective axles
turn about the respective pivoted points. The back wheels remain straight and do not
turn. Therefore steering is done by front wheels only.
In order to avoid skidding the two front wheels must turn about the same
Instantaneous center I which lies on the axis of the back axle. If the ICR of the two front
wheels do not coincide with the ICR of the back wheels skidding will take place, which
causes wear and tear of tires.
Thus the condition for correct steering is that all the four wheel must
turn about the same ICR. The axis of the inner wheel makes a larger turning
angle θ than the angle Ǿ subtended by the axis of outer wheel.
a= wheel track
b=wheel base
c=distance between the pivots A and b of the front axle
Now from triangle IBP

Cot θ=BP
IP
And from triangle IAP
Cot Ǿ = AP = AB + BP = AB + BP = c +cot θ
IP IP IP IP b
Cot Ǿ - cot θ =c/b

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this condition is satisfied
there will be no skidding of the wheels when vehicle takes a turn.
In Ackerman steering gear the mechanism ABCD is a four bar crank chain. The
shorter link BC and AD are of equal length and are connected by hinge joints with front
wheel axle. The longer link AB and CD are of unequal length. The following are three
positions for correct steering
i) When vehicle moves along a straight path, the longer link AB and CD are
parallel and shorter link BC and AD are equally inclined to the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
ii) When the vehicle is steering to the left, the position of the gear as shown
by dotted lines. In this position the lines of the front wheel axle intersect
on the back wheel axle at I for correct steering.
iii) When the vehicle is steering to the right the similar position may be
obtained.

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 Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (12089) by Prof. Gore R.M.

4. Foot operated air pump mechanism.

It consists of a cylinder which can oscillate. A piston is mounted in the
cylinder. The cylinder is connected to the foot rest. The arms connected to the
foot rest can oscillate.
A retrieving spring can bring back the foot rest back to initial position’s
the foot rest is pressed the cylinder oscillates.
It creates reciprocating motion of the piston in the cylinder. Therefore
suction and delivery stroke can be obtained.

This is also called as oscillating cylinder mechanism.

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