TOM Essentials

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THEORY OF MACHINE
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE No.
1. Simple Mechanism
OR 2
2. Velocity Analysis of Planar Mechanism 13
3. Acceleration Analysis 18
4. Gear 24
5. Gear Train 35
6. Dynamic Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanism 40

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7. Balancing of Rotating Mass 46
8. Linear Vibration Analysis of Mechanical Systems 52

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SIMPLE MECHANISM 1
UM
GATE :
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration analysis of plane mechanisms, Dynamic Analysis of slider crank mechanism, gear
trains, flywheel, free and forced vibration of single degree of freedom system, effect of damping, vibration, Isolation,
resonance, critical speed of shaft.
IES :
Kinetmatic and Dynamic Analysis of Planer Mechanism, Cams, gear and Gear Trains. Flywheel, Governor, Balancing of
rigid rotor and field balancing, Balancing of single and multicylinder engine. Linear vibration analysis of mechanical systems,
critical speed and whirling of shafts, automatic control.
If number of bodies (usually rigid) are assembled in such a way that motion of one body cases constrained and predictable
motion of other bodies, it is known as Mechanism. Thus, mechanism transmits and modifer motion.
some kind of desired work.

Input – Mechanical Energy (Motion) OR
A machine is mechanism or combination of mechanism which transmits and modifies the available mechanical energy into
Output – Mechanical Energy (Motion in desired form)

e.g. Slider crank mechanism converts the reciprocating motion of slider into rotary motion of crank and vice-versa.
However, where it is used with automobile engine (slider is connected to piston of engine), it becomes a machine which
converts the available energy (force or piston) into desired energy (torque on crank shaft) which is used to move a vehicle.
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Kinematic Link : Each part of machine which moves relative to some other part is known as Kinematic link (or simply
link) or kinematic element (or simply element)
A link may consists of many parts which are rigidly fastened together so that they do not move relative to one another. e.g.
Reciprocating engine consists of four links :
(i) Piston and Piston rod constitute one link
(ii) Connecting rod with big end / small end bearings
(iii) Crank, crankshaft and flywheel.
(iv) Engine frame, cylinder and main bearings constitute fourth link.
Kinematic Pair : A kinematic pair (or simply a pair) is joint of two links having relative motion between them and relative
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motion is completely (or successfully) constrained.

Types of Constrained Motion :
(a) Completely Constrained Motion : When the motion between a pair is limited to definite direction irrespective of direction
of force applied, the motion is said to be completely constrained motion e.g. motion of square bar in square hole, motion of
circular shaft in circular hole with collar at each end, piston and cylinder.
(b) Incompletely Constrained Motion : When the motion between pair can take place in more than one direction, the motion
is called incompletely constrained motion. e.g. Circular shaft in circular hole as it may either rotate or slide in a hole.
(c) Successfully Constrained Motion : When the motion between elements forming a pair is such that constrained motion is
not complete by itself but by some other means, then the motion is said to be sucessfully constrained motion.
e.g. Shaft in foot step bearing is incompletely constrained but if load is placed on the shaft to prevent axial movement, then
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motion is successfully constrained motion.
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Kinematic Pair according to Nature of relative motion :
(a) Sliding Pair : If two links having sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding pair.
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e.g. Piston and cylinder, Ram and its guide in shaper.

(b) Turning Pair : When one link has turning or revolving motion relative to other, they constitute turning pair.
e.g. All pairs of slider crank mechanism, A circular shaft revolving inside bearing.
(c) Rolling Pair : When links of a pair having rolling motion relative to each other, they form a rolling pair e.g. rolling wheel on
flat surface, ball and roller bearings etc.
(d) Screw Pair (Helical Pair) : If two mating links have turning as well as sliding motion between them, they form a screw pair.
This is achieved by cutting machining threads on two links. e.g. bolt with nut, lead screw and nut of lathe etc.
(e) Spherical Pair : When two elements are connected in such a way that one element (with spherical shape) turns about the
other fixed element. e.g. Ball and socket joint, car mirror attachment, pen stand etc.
Types of Kinematic Pair : Kinematic pairs can be classified according to :
(a) Nature of contact
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(b) Nature of mechanical constraint

(c) Nature of relative motion
Kinematic pair according to Nature of Contact :
(a) Lower Pair : A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known as lower pair. e.g. nut turning on
screw, shaft rotating in bearing, All pairs of slider crank mechanism (sliding pairs, turning pairs, screw pair form lower pair)
(b) Higher Pair : When a pair has point or line contact between the links, it is known as higher pair. The motion between two
elements is partly turning and partly sliding.
e.g. Cam follower, tooth gearing, ball and roller bearing.
According to type of closure :
(a) Self Closed Pair : When two elements of a pair are connected together mechanically in such a way that only required kind
of relative motion occurs, it is then known as self closed paper. The lower pairs are self closed pair.
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(b) Force Closed Pair : When the two elements of a pair are not connected mechanically but are kept in contact by action of
external forces, the pair is said to be force closed pair.
Kinematic Chain : A kinematic chain is assembly of links in which relative motion of links is possible and motion of each
link relative to others is definite (completely or successfully constrained motion).
A Redundant chain (or locked chain) does not allows relative motion of link relative to other.
Relation between Number of Links (L) and Number of Pairs (P) in Kinematic Chain :
L = 2P – 4
Number of Links (L) and Number of Joints (J) in Kinematic Chain :
3
J= L–2
2
These equations are applicable to kinematic chains, in which lower pairs are used. These equations can also be applied to
kinematic chains in which higher pairs are used. In that case, each higher pair is taken as equivalent to two lower pairs with
an additional link.
OR
Determination of Nature of Chain : In order to determine the nature of chain i.e. whether the chain is locked chain
(Reduntant chain) or kinematic chain or unconstrained chain, the following relation between number of links (L) and number
of Binary joints as given by A.W. Klein may be used :
J+

H
2
=
3
2
L–2
H  3 
For Kinematic chain
 J +  >  L − 2  For Locked chain

 2  2 
 H  3 
 J +  <  L − 2  For Unconstrained chain
 2  2 
e.g.
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1. Three Link Chain :
L=3
J=3
H=0
H
J+ =3
2
3
L – 2 = 2.5
2
 H  3 
Here  J +  >  L − 2
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 2  2 
Hence chain is locked chain
2. Four Link Chain :
L=4
J=4
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H=0
H
J+ =4
2
3
L–2=4
2
H 3
as J + = L–2
2 2
It is kinematic chain
3. Five Link Chain :
L=5
J=5
J+
3
1
2
H=5
L – 2 = 5.5
OR
2
 1  3 
as  J + H  <  L − 2
 2  2 
It is unconstrained chain
Types of Joint in Chain :
1. Binary Joint : When two links are joined at some connection, joint is known as binary joint.
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A, B, C, D are Binary Joints.
2. Ternary Joint : When three links are joined at same connection, joint is known as Ternary joint.
Here A, B, D are binary joints. E and C are ternary joints.
A ternary joint is equal to two binary joints.
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3. Quarternary Joint : When four links are joined at same connection, it is Quarternary joint. It is equal to three binary joints.
In general, when l number of links are joined at same connection, the joint is equal to (l – 1) binary joints.
Mechanism and Structure : When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as Mechanism.
If one of the links of redundant chain is fixed, it is known as structure.
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Difference between Mechanism and Structure :
1. The parts (Elements / Links) of mechanism move relative to one another, whereas members of structure do not move
relative to one another.
2. A mechanism transforms input mechanical energy (available) into some useful form of output mechanical energy (desired)
where as in structure, no energy is transformed into useful work.
3. The links of mechanism transmit both power and motion, while the members of structure transmit forces only.
Degree of Freedom of Planar Mechanism : An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following
independent motion :
(a) Translational motion along x, y, z axes
(b) Rotational motion about these axes
OR
Thus, a rigid body possesses six degree of freedom.
The connection of link with another link impose certain constraints on their relative motion.
Degree of freedom of a pair is defined as number of independent relative motions (both translational and rotational)
Degree of freedom of space mechanism : Let N be the total number of link in a mechanism. In a mechanism, one link is
fixed. Number of moving link is (N – 1).
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F = 6 (N – 1) – 5P1 – 4P2 – 3P3 – 2P4 – 1P5
P1 = Number of pairs having one degree of freedom (i.e. 5 constraints) and so on.
Degree of Freedom of Planar Mechanism : Most of the mechanism are two dimensional such as four link mechanism or
slider crank mechanism in which displacement is possible only about two axes (x and y, restraint along z-axis) and rotation
about only one axis (about z-axis only, restraint about x and y axis). Thus there are three general restraint. Link in plane
mechanism can have three independent motion.
Therefore, for plane mechanism, the following relation may be used to find the degree of freedom,
F = 3 (N – 1) – 2P1 – 1P2
P1 is number of pairs having one degree of freedom (two restraints on plane mechanism).
P2 is number of pairs having two degree of freedom (lower pair) (i.e. one restraints on plane mechanism) higher pair
N is number of links.
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Above equation is known as Gruebler equation

eg. Four bar chain mechanism :
N=4
P1 = 4 (Number of Binary Joints having one degree of freedom)
P2 = 0 (No higher pair)
F = 3 (4 – 1) – 2 × 4
F=3×3–2×4=1
Kinematic Chains / Kinematic Mechanisms : The most important kinematic chains are those which consist of four lower
pairs (each pair being sliding pair or turning pair).
The following three types of kinematic chain are important from subject point of view :
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(i) Four bar chain
(ii) Single Slider Crank Chain
(iii) Double Slider Crank Chain
Four Link (bar) Mechanism : Four link mechanism is the most fundamental of plane kinematic mechanisms. It is much
preferred mechanical device for mechanisation and control of motion due to its simplicity and versatality. Basically, it
consists of four rigid links which are connected in the form of quadrilateral by four pin joints.
A link that makes complete revolution is crank, the link opposite to fixed link is coupler and the fourth link is known as lever
or rocker if it oscillates or another crank if it rotates.
A four bar chain has following characteristics based on the length of its links :
(i) It is impossible to have a four bar chain if the length of one of the link is greater than sum of other three links.
(ii) If sum of length of largest and shortest link is less than sum of length of other two links, the chain is known as Class-I Four
bar chain (a + c < b + d)
(a) If shortest link is fixed in such chain, the adjacent link will make complete revolution. The mechanism is known as
OR
crank-crank (double crank) mechanism.
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(b) If link opposite to shortest link is fixed, the other two links would oscillate (double rocker mechanism).
(c) If shortest link is made crank and any of adjacent link is fixed. The link opposite to crank oscillates (rocks).
The mechanism is known as Crank-Lever mechanism.
(iii) If sum of length of largest and shortest link is more than sum of length of other two links, the chain is known as Class-II four
bar chain.
In such chain, fixing of any of the links always results in rocker-rocker (double rocker mechanism)
Flow Chart : Let s be shortest length, l be the longest link and p, q are adjacent link to shortest link.
Case -I : If s + l > p + q
Class-II mechanism, it will always result in rocker rocker mechanism
Case-II : If s + l < p + q
Class-I Four bar mechanism
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(a) s is fixed – Double crank

(b) p or q are fixed – Crank or rocker
(c) l is fixed – Rocker Rocker mechanism
Case III : If s + l = p + q
All links have different length
then this case is same as Case-II.
Case IV : If s + l = p + q
and s, l are parallel
Parallelogram linkage
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(b) l is fixed – Double crank
Case V : If s + l = p + q
Deltoid linkage / s, l are adjacent
(b) l is fixed
Inversion of Four bar Chain : Though there are many inversions of four bar chain, following are important from subject
point of view.
(1) Crank and Lever Mechanism (Beam Engine): The purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion.
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(2) Double Crank Mechanism (Coupling rod of Locomotive) : This mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary motion
from one wheel to another wheel.
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(3) Double Lover Mechanism (Watt Indicator Diagram) : The displacement of linke BFD is directly proportional to pressure
of gas or steam which acts on Indicator plunger.
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Single Slider Crank Chain : A single slider crank chain is modification of basic four bar chain. It consists of one sliding
pair and three turning pairs. A slider crank chain has following inversions :
First Inversion (e.g. Reciprocating engine / Reciprocating Compressor)
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If it is reciprocating engine, link 4 (Piston) is driver and if it is reciprocating compressor, link 2 (crank) is driver.
OR
2
Slider 4 rotates slides on link 1 = QRR
2 − 2
Time of Return Stroke
Link 1 rotates about 0. =
Time of forward Stroke
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Link3 rotates about 0

In whit worth quick return mechanism, other end of link 5 is pivoted to tool, the forward
stroke of which cuts the metal.
Rotary Engine :
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In Rotary Engine, Link 1 is cylinder (which rotates)

Link 2 is crank (fixed)
Link 3 (rotates about A)
Link 4 Piston (which slides)
Third Inversion : By fixing link 3 of slider crank mechanism, third inversion is obtained.
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Oscillating Cylinder Engine
Second Inversion : If any of the slide block of the first Inversion is fixed, the second inversion of double slider crank chain
is obtained.
Link 1 reciprocates
OR Scotch Yoke
Link 2 reciprocates
Link 3 will rotate
Link 4 is fixed
A scotch yoke mechanism is used to convert the rotary motion into sliding motion. As crank 3 rotates, link 1 slides or
reciprocates in fixed link 4.
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Third Inversion : This inversion is obtained when link 3 of first inversion is fixed and link 1 is free to move.
e.g. Oldham Coupling
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Midpoint of intermediate piece describes a circle with distance between axis of shaft as diameter
Maximum sliding velocity = Angular velocity of shaft × distance between shaft
e.g. The distance between two parallel shaft is 18 mm they are connected by Oldham coupling. The driving shaft revolves
at 160 rpm. What is maximum speed of sliding of tongue of intermediate piece along its groove ?
2 ×  2 × 160
=
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Ans : w=
60 60
w = 16.75 rad/sec
Maximum velocity of sliding = w × d
= 16.75 × .018
= 0.302 m/sec.
Crank and Slotted Lever Mechanism : If cylinder of oscillating cylinder engine is made in form of guide and piston in
form of slider, the arrangement is known as crank and slotted lever mechanism. Here
Link 1 slides
Link 2 rotates
Link 3 fixed
Link 4 oscillates
OR
Fourth Inversion : If link 4 of slider crank mechanism is fixed, fourth inversion is obtained.
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Link 3 – Oscillates about Pivot B

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Link 2 – Oscillates about B

Link 1 – Reciprocates (Slides)
Double Slider Crank Chain : A four bar chain having two turning pair and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of same
kind are adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.
First Inversion :
Link 1 is fixed
23 and 34 are turning pair
12 and 14 are sliding pair
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Application Elliptical trammel
OR
x = BC cos θ
y = AC sin θ so
x2 y2
+ =1
( BC ) 2 ( AC ) 2
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With the movement of sliders, any point C on the link 3 will trace an ellipse.
•••
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VELOCITYANALYSIS OF PLANAR
1
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MECHANISM
For proper study of motion of different part of machine, one needs to know their position, velocity and acceleration at
different moments.
Velocity and acceleration of machines can be determined analytically as well as graphically. A graphical analysis is more
direct and accurate to acceptable degree.
To facilitate velocity and acceleration analysis, machine or mechanism is represented by skeleton or line diagram, commonly
known as configuration diagram.
Concept of Relative Motion and Absolute Motion : Strictly speaking, all motions are relative motion since an arbitrary set
of axes is required to define a motion. Usually, the earth is taken as fixed reference plane and all motion relative to it are
termed as absolute motion.
If a train moves in particular direction, the motion of train is referred as absolute motion of train relative to earth.
Now suppose a man moves inside the trian, then absolution motion of man (relative to earth) = Motion of man relative to
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train + Motion of train relative to earth.
Motion of Link :
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Let a rigid link OA of length r rotate about fixed point O with uniform angular velocity w rad/sec then velocity of point A
w.r.t. point O is —
Arc AA'
Vao =
t
r 
=
t
d
Vao = r
dt
Vao = r w
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The direction of velocity is perpendicular to OA.

Consider a point B on link OA.
Velocity of point B → Vbo = wOB
Vao OA Vbo OB
= or =
Vbo OB Vao OA
Remember, these velocity vectors (Vao or Vbo) represent velocity of point A or B at a particular instant.
Velocity Analysis of Four Bar Mechanism :
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Let w be angular velocity of link AB at the instant under consideration. Vba = w AB
Vca = Vcb + Vba
OR
Velocity of Intermediate Point (E) and Offset Point (F)
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cf is ⊥r to CF
bf is ⊥r to BF
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be BE
=
bc BC
Vba + Vfb = Vcd + Vfc
Velocity Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanism :
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OR
Vbo = Vba + Vao
Vbg = Vba + Vao

Vao = w × OA (⊥r to OA)
Vba is ⊥r to AB so draw a line ⊥AB through a. Through O (or g), draw a line parallel to motion of B to locate vector Vbg.
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Vba
Angular velocity of coupler AB = .
AB
Velocity Analysis by Instaneous Centre Method : Let there be a plane body p having a non-linear motion relative to
another body q. At any instant, the linear velocities of two points A and B on the body are Va and Vb respectively.
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If a line is drawn perpendicular to direction of Va at A, the body can be imagined to rotate about some point on this line.
Similarly, centre of rotation of body also lies on line perpendicular to direction of Vb at B.
If intersection of these two lines is at I, the body may be said to be rotating about at this instant.
This point I is known as Instantenous centre for body p. The position of instantaneous centre changes with the motion of the
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body.
In case, perpendiculars to Va and Vb at A and B respectively meet outside the body p, the instantaneous centre (I) will lie
outside the body p, then I centre will lie outside the body p.
If the directions of Va and Vb are parallel, then perpendicular at A and B will meet at infinity, hence the I-centre of the body
lies at infinity. This is the case, when body has a linear motion.
OR
Notation of I-centre : An I-centre is centre of rotation of moving body relative to another body. If a body p is in motion
relative to fixed body q, the centre of rotation may be named as pq or qp (as body q can also be imagined to rotate relative
to body p).
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Number of I-centres : For two bodies having relative motion between them, there is an I-centre.
Thus, in a mechanism, number of I centre will be equal to possible pairs of bodies or links.
If n = number of links then
n( n − 1)
Number of I-centre =
2
Kennedy Theorem : If three plane bodies have relative motion among themselves, their I centre must lie on straight line.
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Let r be a fixed body and p and q rotating w.r.t. about centre pr and qr respectively. If point pq is considered on the body p,
its velocity Vp is perependicular to line pq and pr. If point pq is considered on body q, Vq is ⊥r to line joining pq and qr. So
Vp and Vq will be different direction which is impossible. So pq will lie on line joining pr and qr.
Location of I-Centers :
Four Bar Mechanism :
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Number of I centre =
2
OR
n( n − 1) 4 × 3
=
2
=6
The I centre (12) (23) (34) and (41) can be located by Inspection only.
I Centre (13) : As three links 1, 2 and 3 have relative motion among themselves, their I centre will lie on straight line joining
(12) and (23).
Similarly link 1, 4 and 3 have relative motion among themselves, so their I centre will lie on straight line joining (14) and (34).
The intersection of line joining (12) and (23) i.e. AB and line joining (14) and (34) i.e. line DC locates the I centre (13).
I Centre (24) : Considering two sets of link 2, 1, 4 and 2, 3, 4. The I centre (24) will lie on the line (12) – (14) and
(23) – (34). The intersection locates the I centre (24).
Angular Velocity by I-centre Method :
Angular velocity of two links vary inversely as the distances from their common I-centre to their respective centre of
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rotation relative to the frame.
w4 (24) − (12)
=
w2 (24) − (41)
•••
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ACCELERATIONANALYSIS 3
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The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is known as acceleration. A change in velocity may be caused by :
(a) Change in magnitude only
(b) Change in direction only
(c) Change in both magnitude and direction.
The rate of change of velocity w.r.t. time is known as acceleration and acts in the direction of change in velocity.
OR
Let a link OA of length r rotate in circular path in clockwise direction. If has instantaneous angular velocity w and angular
acceleration α in same direction i.e. angular velocity is increasing in clockwise direction.
Tangential velocity of A, Va = wr
In short interval of time δt, let OA assume the new position OA′ by rotating through small angle dθ.
Angular velocity of OA′.
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wa' = w +  ∆t
va' = ( w +  ∆t ) r
Tangential velocity at A′ may be considered to have two components, one perpendicular to OA, another parallel to OA.
Change of Velocity perpendicular to OA :
Velocity of A ⊥ to OA = Va
Velocity of A′ ⊥ to OA = Va' cos δθ
Change of velocity = Va' cos θ – Va
( w +  ∆t ) r cos  − wr
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=
t
as δt → 0 cos δθ → 1
(This represents change of velocity in tangential direction)
Acceleration of A ⊥ to OA = αr
dw
Tangential acceleration = r
dt
Tangential acceleration f aot =  r
Change of Velocity Parallel to OA : Velocity of A parallel to OA = O
Velocity of A′ parallel to OA = Va′ sin δθ
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Change of velocity = Va′ sin δθ = (w + α∆t) r sin θ
( w + ∆t ) r sin 
Acceleration of A parallel to OA =
t
as δt → 0 sin δθ → δθ
d
Acceleration of A parallel to OA = w r = w2 r
dt
Radial acceleration (Centripetal acceleration) = w2r
v
f aoc = w2r =
r
Four bar Mechanism : Acceleration Analysis :
OR
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Acceleration Diagram :
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Table of Acceleration
1. f c
ba
(ab) 2
OR
Acceleration of C relative to A = Acceleration to C relative to B + Acceleration of B relative to A
fca = fba + fcb
a 1c1 = a 1b 1 + b 1c1
|| AB
AB
2. f bat α × AB ⊥ AB
c
(bc) 2
3. f cb || BC
BC
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4. f cbt α × BC ⊥ BC
Acceleration of Intermediate and offset Points :
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BE b1 e1
Point E = =
BC b1 c1
b1 f1 BF
Point F = =
b1 c1 BC
Acceleration diagram of slider crank Mechanism : The crank OA rotates at uniform velocity, therefore acceleration of A
relative to O has only centripetal component. Similarly, slider moves linear, so it has no centripetal component.
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OR
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fbo = fba + fao
fbg = fao + f bac + f bat

g1b1 = o1a1 + a1b1 + b1b1
S.N. Vector Magnitude Direction
1. fao (oa) 2 || OA
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OA
c
(ab) 2
2. f ba || AB
AB
3. f bat — ⊥ AB
It may be noted that for given configuration of mechanism, the direction of acceleration of slider is opposite to that of
velocity. Therefore acceleration is negative or slider is decelerating while moving to right.
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After short interval of time δt, let
w′ = w + α r
v′ = v + f δt
r′ = r + δr OR
Acceleration of P parallel to AR = (V′ cos δθ – w′r′ sin δθ) – V
(V + f δt) cos δθ – (w + αδt) (r + δr) sin δθ – V
d
δt
As δt → 0 = f – wr
dt
cos δθ → 1 = f – w2 r
sin δθ → 0 = Acceleration of slider – Centripetal acceleration
This is the acceleration of Palong AR in radialy outward direction. f will be positive if slider has acceleration while moving in
outward direction.
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Coriolis Acceleration :
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We have seen that acceleration of a fixed point relative to another fixed point on moving link have two components
centripetal (radial) and tangential.
Here, we will determine acceleration of moving point relative to fixed point on moving link.
Let a link AR rotate about a fixed point A on it. P is a point on slider on the link.
At any given instant,
w = Angular velocity of link
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α = Angular acceleration of link
V = Linear velocity of slider on link
f = Linear acceleration of slider on link
r = Radial distance of point P on slider
Acceleration of p perpendicular to AR
V ' sin  + w' r ' cos  − wr

t
(V + ft ) sin  + ( w + t )(r + r ) cos  − wr
=
t
As δt → 0
d dr
cos δθ → 1 OR
=V +w + rα
dt dt
= Vw + wv + rα
= 2wv + rα
↓ ↓
Coriolis Tangential
acceleration acceleration
The direction of Coriolis acceleration is obtained by rotating radial velocity vector through 90° in direction of rotation of link.
Coriolis acceleration is positive if both w and V are positive (or both w and V are negative)
Thus Coriolis acceleration is positive if link AR rotates clockwise and slider moves upward (or link AR rotates clockwise and
slider moves upward (or link AR rotates anticlock wise and slider moves radially inward).
•••
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GEAR 4
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Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another. This is accomplised by successively engaging teeth.
Gears use no intermediate link and transmit the motion by direct contact.
motion no longer remains definite.

OR
If power transmitted between two shaft is small, motion between them may be obtained by using two cylinders or disc.
Such wheels are termed as friction wheels. However as the power transmitted increases, slip occurs between disc and
Assuming no slipping of the two surfaces, the following kinematic relationship exists for their linear velocity.
V P = w1 r 1 = w2 r 2
= 2πN1r1 = 2πN2r2
w1 N1 r2
so = =
w2 N 2 r1
where N = angular velocity (rpm)
w = angular velocity (rad/sec)
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r = radius of disc
To transmit definite motion of one disc to other or to prevent slip between the surfaces, projections and recesses on the two
discs can be made which can mesh with each other. This leads to formation of teeth on the disc and motion between
surfaces changes from rolling to sliding. The disc with teeth are known as gear or gear wheels.
Classification of Gears :
1. Parallel shaft : Uniform rotary motion between two parallel shaft is equivalent to rolling of two cylinders, assuming no
slipping. Depending upon teeth of equivalent cylinders (straight or helical), following are main types of gear to join parallel
shaft.
(a) Spur Gears : They have straight teeth parallel to axes and thus are not subjected to axial thrust due to tooth load.
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(b) Helical Gears : In helical gears, the teeth are curved, each being helical in shape. Two mating gears have same helix
angle, but have teeth of opposite hands.
UM
OR
At the beginning of engagement, contact occurs only at point of leading edge of curved teeth. As the gear rotate, the contact
extends along diagonal line across the teeth. Thus load application is gradual which results in low impact stresses and
reduction in noise. Therefore helical gears can be used at higher speeds than spur gear. They have high load carrying
capacity. Helical gears have disadvantage of having end thrust as there is force component along y-axis. The bearing must be
able to withstad thrust load.
Herring Bone Gear : If left and right inclinations of a double-helical gear meet at common apex, the gear is known as
herring bone gear.
SF
These can be run at high speed with less noise and vibration.
2. Intersecting shaft : Kinematically, the motion between two intersecting shaft is equivalent to rolling of two cones.
The gears are known as bevel gears. When teeth are straight, the gears are known as straight level, when teeths are inclined,
they are known as spiral or helical bevel.
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Gear Terminology :
UM
OR
Pitch Cylinder : Imaginary cylinders which by pure rolling together will transmit the same motion as pair of gears.
Pitch Circle : Circle corresponding to section of equivalent pitch cylinder.
Pitch Dia (D) : Diameter of pitch cylinder.
Pitch Surface : Surface of pitch cylinder
3. Skew Shaft (Non-parallel, Non Intersecting shaft) :
(a) Cross helical gear
(b) Worm gear
Cross Helical Gear (Spiral gear) : By a suitable choice of helix angle for mating gears, the two shafts can be set at any
SF
angle. Their use is limited to light loads.
Worm Gear : The smaller of two wheel is called worm. It special case of spiral gear. Two shafts may have any angle
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between them, but normally it is 90°.
Pinion : Smaller and usually driving gear.
UM
Rack : It is gear wheel of infinite diameter.
OR
Circular Pitch : Distance measured along circumference of pitch circle from point on tooth to corresponding point on
adjacent tooth.
D
p=
T
T
Diametrical pitch (p) = P=
D
SF
d
Module (M) m=
T
Module is same for mating gear. So number of teeth will be proportional to dia.
Gear Ratio (G) :
T
G=
t
where T = Number of teeth on gear
t = number of teeth on pinion
Velocity Ratio (VR)
Let 1 = driver
IE
2 = driven (follower)
w2 N 2
VR = =
w1 N1
as peripheral velocity V = πd1N1 = π d2N2
w2 N 2 d1 T1
= = =
w1 N1 d 2 T2
Addendum Circle : Circle passing through the tip of tooth.
Addendum : Radial height of tooth above pitch circle. Its standard value is one module.
Dedendum Circle : Circle passing through root of teeth.
UM
Dedendum : Radial depth of tooth below pitch circle. It’s standard value is 1.157 m.
Line of Action or Pressure Angle : The force, which the driving tooth exerts on driven tooth is along a line from the pitch
point to the point of contact of two tooth. This line is also common normal at point of contact of mating gears. This line is
known as line of action or pressure line.
make the shaft apart.

OR
The tangential component is responsible for power transmission. The normal component produces thrust which tends to
Pressure Angle : The angle between pressure line and common tangent to pitch circle is known as pressure angle. For more
power transmission and less thrust on bearings, pressure angle must be kept small. Standard pressure angle are 20° and 25°.
Path of Contact (Contact Length) : Locus of point of contact of two mating teeth from beginning of engagement to end
of engagement is known as path of contact.
It is CD in figure. It can be subdivided into :
(a) Path of Approach : Portion of path of contact from beginning to pitch point i.e., length CP.
(b) Path of Recess : Portion of path of contact from pitch point to end of engagement i.e., length PD.
SF
IE
CD = CP + PD = (CF – PF) + (DE – PE)
CD = [ R − R cos  − R sin  ]+ [ r
2
a
2 2
a
2
− r 2 cos 2  − r sin  ]
Arc of Contact : Locus of point on the pitch circle from beginning of engagement to end of engagement of two mating gear
is known as arc of contact.
In figure APB or EPF is arc of contact.
UM
It can be also divided in two parts :
(a) Arc of Approach — AP or EP
(b) Arc of Recess — PB or PF
Path of contact
Arc of Contact =
cos 
Path of approach
Arc of Approach =
cos 
Path of Recess
Arc of Recess =
cos 
Angle of Action : It is angle turned by a gear from beginning of engagement to end of engagement.
OR
Contact Ratio : It is angle of action divided by pitch angle. It is also equal to number of teeth in contact at a given time.
Law of Gearing : Law of gearing states the condition which must be fulfilled by the gear tooth profile to maintain constant
angular velocity ratio between two gears.
As per law of gearing, for constant angular velocity ratio, the common normal at point of contact of two mating teeth must
pass through pitch point.
SF
W1 BP FP
It can be proved that, = =
W2 AP EP
Velocity of sliding = (w1 + w2) × PC
= Sum of angular velocities × distance between pitch point and contact point
Forms of teeth : Common form of teeth that satisfy law of gearing are :
(i) Cycloidal profile teeth
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(ii) Involute profile teeth

Cycloidal profile teeth : In this type, faces of teeth are epicycloid and flanks are hypocyloid.
A cycloid is locus of point on the circumference of circle that rolls (without slipping) on straight line.
An epicycloid is locus of point on the circumference of circle that rolls (without slipping) on circumference of another
circle.
A hypocycloid is locus of point on circumference of the circle that rolls (without slipping) inside circumference of another
circle.
UM
obsolete.
OR
Since cycloidal teeth are made of two curves, it is very difficult to produce accurate profile. This has rendered this system
Involute Profile teeth : An involute is defined as the locus of point on straight line which rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle.
SF
The circle on which the straight line rolls is known as base circle.
At the start, tracing point is at A. As the line rolls on the circumference of the circle, the path ABC traced out by point A is
involute.
Point D can be regarded as instantaneous centre of rotation of B, the motion of B is perpendicular to BD. Since BD is tangent
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to base circle, Normal to involute curve is tangent to base circle.

A short length EF of the Involute curve drawn from A can be utilised to make profile of gear tooth.
The other side of tooth J H has been taken from involute drawn from G in reverse direction. The profile of an involute teeth
is made up of single curve.
Owing to ease of standarisation and manufacture, and low cost of production, the use of involute teeth has become universal
by entirely superseding the cycloidal shape.
Meshing of Two Involute Teeth :
UM
w1 BP BF
= =
w2 AP AF
OR
Remember in case of Involute gear.
(i) Point of contact lie on line of action which is common tangent to two base circle.
(ii) The contact is made when tip of tooth of driven wheel touches the flank of tooth of driving wheel.
(iii) The contact is broken, where the tip of driving wheel touches flank of the driven wheel.
Interference in Involute Gears : Mating of two non-involute teeth is known as Interference because two teeth do not slide
properly and thus rough action and binding occurs.
Owing to non-involute profile, the contacting teeth have different velocities which can lock the two gears.
If the radius of addendum circle of pinion goes inside the base circle of wheel, involute profile of teeth can not be maintained.
SF
Since involute exist only outside the base circle, therefore any profile of teeth inside base circle will be of non-involute type.
Usually radial profile is adopted for this portion. Thus, profile in this case can not be tangent to each other and tip of pinion
would try to digout the flank of wheel. Therefore interference occurs.
Similarly, interference will occur if addendum radius of wheel goes inside base circle of pinion.
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To have no interference of teeth, addendum circle of wheel and pinion must intersect the line of action between E and F.
Point E and F are called interference points.
Minimum Number of Teeth to avoid Interference :
UM
(BE)2 = (BF)2 + (FE)2
= (BF)2 + [FP + PE]2
BE = R 1 + 
 R  R
 2
  + 2  sin 

OR
= (R cos φ)2 + [R sin φ + r sin φ]2
After solving,
 r  r
Maximum value of addendum of wheel to avoid interference =

GE = BE – BG
  r  r  2 
GE = R  1 +    + 2  sin   − R
  R  R  
SF
Let adopted value of addendum be aw times the module.
To avoid interference :
  r  r  
R  1 +    + 2  sin 2  − 1 ≥ aw m
  R  R  
D d 2 R 2r
m= = = =
T t T T
MT MT
so R = and r =
2 2
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MT  tt  2 
Hence,  1 +  + 2  sin  − 1 ≥ aw m
2  T T  
T 11  2 
 1 +  + 2  sin  − 1 ≥ aw
2  G G  
T
where G = = Gear ratio
t
UM
2a w
So, T≥
11  2
1+  + 2  sin  − 1
G G 
Minimum number of teeth on wheel to avoid interference
2a w
T≥
11  2
1+  + 2  sin  − 1
G G 
If aw = 1 and G = 1
2
Tmin =
1 + 3 sin 2  − 1
If φ = 20° OR 2
Tmin = = 12.31 or 13
1 + 3 sin 2 20° − 1
Thus for two wheels of equal size with 20° pressure angle and addendum equal to one module, the minimum number of teeth
on each wheel must be 13 to avoid interference.
Interference between Rock and Pinion :
SF
Maximum Addendum =
GE = PE sin φ
= (r sin φ) sin φ
= r sin2φ
mt
= sin2φ
2
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To avoid interference,
GE ≥ arm
Mt
sin 2  ≥ ar M
2
2ar
t≥
sin 2 
2
For ar = 1 tmin =
sin 2 
If φ = 20° tmin = 17.1 or 18
UM
Thus number of minimum teeth on pinion to avoid interference is 18.
Comparison of cycloidal and Involute teeth
Cycloidal teeth Involute teeth

1. Pressure angle varies from maximum at 1. Pressure angle is constant throughout engagement
beginning of engagement to zero at pitch of teeth. This results in smooth running of gears.
point and again increases to maximum at
end of engagement. This results in less
smooth running of gears
2. It involves two curves for teeth, epicycloid 2. It involves single curve (involute curve) for teeths this
and hypocycloid. This complicates the results in simplicity of manufacture.
manufacture.
3. Exact centre distance is required to 3. A little variation in centre distance does not affect
transmit constant velocity ratio
4. Phenomenon of interference does not
occur at all
OR •••
velocity ratio
4. Interference can occur if minimum number of teeth
of gear is not followed
SF
IE
GEAR TRAIN 5
UM
A gear train is combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to another.
The following are main types of gear train :
(a) Simple gear train (b) Compound gear train
(c) Reverted gear train (d) Planetory gear train
Simple gear train :
N 2 T1 N 3 T2
= =
N1 T2 N 2 T3
N 4 T3
=
N 3 T4
OR N 5 T4
=
N 4 T5
N 2 N3 N 4 N5 T T T T
× × × = 1× 2× 3× 4
N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 T2 T3 T4 T5
N 5 T1 No. of teeth on driving gear

Train value = =
N1 T5 No. of teeth on driven gear
N1 T5
=
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Speed ratio
N 5 T1
Compound Gear Train : When series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears rotate about an axis with
same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train.
In this type, some of intermediate shaft (other than Input / output) carry more than one gear.
N 2 T1
=
N1 T2
N 4 N 4 T3
= =
N 3 N 2 T4
N 6 N 6 T5
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= =
N 5 N 4 T6
N 2 N 4 N 6 T1 T3 T5
× × = × ×
N1 N 2 N 4 T2 T4 T6
N 6 T1 T3 T5
= × ×
N1 T2 T4 T6
Product of No. of teeth on driving gears
Train value =
Product of No. of teeth on driven gears
Reverted Gear Train : If axis of first and last wheel of compound gear coincide, it is called reverted gear train.
UM
N 4 T3
=
N 3 T4
N3 = N2 ⇒
N 2 T1
=
N 4 T3
=
N 2 T4
OR
N1 T2
N 4 N 2 T1 T3
× = ×
N 2 N1 T2 T4
SF
N 4 T1 T3
=
N1 T2 T4
Product of No. of teeth on driving gear

Train value =
Product of No. of teeth on driven gears
Also r1 + r2 = r3 + r4
Epicyclic Gear Train (Planetary Gear Train) : Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axies of which are connected by arm
a. If wheel S is fixed so that arm can rotate about axis S, the wheel P will also move around S.
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The wheel P is known as epicyclic wheel. The term epicyclic emerges from the fact that wheel P rolls outside another
wheel S and traces epicyclic path. It is also possible that wheel S is annular and wheel P rotates inside it.
Analysis of epicyclic gear train :
S.N. Action Revolution of a Rev of S Rev of P
UM
Ts
1. a fixed, S + 1 rev 0 1 –
Tp
Ts
2. a fixed, S + x rev 0 x – x
Tp
3. Add y
Ts
(Arm a turn y rev) y y+x y– x
Tp
Note : That number of revolution of wheel P (given in third row) is number of revolutions relative to fixed axis of S (not
about its own axis).
Apply the given conditions to find out values of x and y.
Example : OR
SF
In above gear train, Input S has 24 teeth. P and C constitute a compound planet having 30 and 18 teeth respectively. If all
NS
gears are of same pitch, find ratio of reduction gear . Assume A to be fixed.
ND
Solution : TS = 24
Tp = 30
Tc = 18
NA = 0
 Ts   24 
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TA = 2  + T p  = 2  + 30  = 84
2   2 
 Ts   24 
TD = 2  + T p  = 2  + 30  = 84
2   2 
Ts T p Tc  24 30 18 
TD = 2 + + =2  + +  = 72
2 2 2 2 2 2
Table
Action a S P/C A D
Ts − Ts T p − Ts TC
− × ×
UM
a fixed, S + 1 rev 0 1 Tp Tp TD
T p TA
 24   24 30   24 18 
−  − ×  − × 
 30   30 84   30 72 
− 4x − 2x −x
a fixed, S + x rev 0 x
5 7 5
4x 2x x
Add y y y+x y− y− y−
5 7 5
From given conditions :
2x 2x
NA = y – = 0 or y =
7 7
Bevel Epicyclic Gear :

NS
=
y+x
ND y − x
5
OR
2x
= 7
2 x
7 5
+x
−
x
9 35
= × = 15
7 3
SF
What will be the speed of shaft H when (i) F is held stationary (ii) F is rotated at 300 rpm opposite to G.
Table
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Action a B/G C/D E/H F
TB TB TD TB TC
a fixed, B + 1 rev 0 1 − × − ×
TC TC TE TC TF
 18  18  22  18 54
  − ×  − ×
 54  54  44  54 72
x x x
a fixed, B + x rev 0 x − −
3 6 4
UM
x x x
Add y y x+y y+ y − y −
3 6 4
From given conditions,
NG = y + x = 200 ⇒ y = 200 – x
x
NF = y − =0
4
x
200 – x − =0
4
x = 160
y = 200 – 160 = 40
x 160
NH = y − = 40 − OR
= 13.3 rpm
6 6
In second case,
NG = y + x = 200
x
NF = y – = – 30
4
x
(200 – x) – = – 30
4
x = 184
y = 200 – 184 = 16
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x 184
NA = y – = 16 − = – 13.3 rpm
6 6
•••
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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF
SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM 6
UM
Dynamic Force Analysis : Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. As all machines have same
accelerating parts, dynamic forces are always present when the machines operate.
In situations where dynamic forces are always present when the machines operate.
In situations where dynamic forces are dominant or comparable with magnitude of external forces and operating speeds are
high, dynamic analysis has to be carried out.
D.Alembert Principle : For a body in motion, Inertia forces and couples and external forces and torque on body together
give static equilibrium.
Inertia is property of matter by which a body resists any change in its velocity.
I n e r Fi = – mfg
t i a f o r c e
where m = mass of body

fg = acceleration of centre of mass of body
similarly, inertia couple resists any change in its angular velocity.
Let F1, F2, F3 ...... be the external forces on body then,
In other way,
F1 + F2 + F3 + – Fn = mfg
OR
Inertia couple Ci = – Ig ∝ where Ig = Moment of Inertia of body about axis passing through
centre of mass and perpendicular to plane of rotation of body ∝ = angular acceleration of body.
F1 + F2 + ....... + Fn – mfg = 0
F1 + F2 + ...... + Fn + Fi = 0
Similarly let T1, T2, T3 ....... be external torque on the body about centre of mass G,
T1 + T2 + T3 + ........ + Tn = Ig∝
T1 + T2 + T3 + ........ + Tn = Ig∝ = 0
T1 + T2 + T3 + ........ + Tn + Ti = 0
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These equations are similiar to equations of body in static equilibrium i.e., ΣF = 0 and ΣT = 0
This suggests that first the magnitude and direction of inertia forces and couple can be determined. After which dynamic
problem can be reduced to static problem by introduction of inertia force.
Dynamic Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanism Displacement
Velocity and Acceleration of Piston :
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Let x = displacement of piston from inner dead centre. At the moment, when the crank has turned through angle θ from inner
dead centre.
x = B1B
= B0 – B10
l
x = (l + r) – (l cos β + r cos θ) Let =n
r
x = (nr + r) – (nr cos β + r cos θ)
UM
l – length of connected rod
 1 2 
x = (nr + r) –  nr n − sin 2  + cos   r – length of crank
 n 
cos β = 1− sin 2 
[
x = r ( n + 1) − [ n − sin  + cos ]
2 2
y2
= 1− 2
l
[
x = (1 − cos  ) + n − n 2 − sin 2  ] = 1−
r 2 − sin 2 
l2
OR sin 2 
If connecting rod is considerably large than crank = 1−
n2
n 2 − sin 2 
then n will be large compared to sin θ (max. value of sin θ = 1)
2 2 2
=
n2
1 2
so x = r (1 – cos ) = n − sin 2 
n
This is equation of simple harmonic motion.
Velocity of Piston :
dx
v=
dt
SF
dx d
=
d dt
sin 2
v = wr [sin θ + ]
2 n 2 − sin 2 
when n2 is large compared to sin2θ
 sin 2 
v = rw sin  +
 n 
If n is quite large :
v = rw sin θ
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dv dv d
Acceleration : f= =
dt d dt
 cos 2 
= rw2 cos  +
 n 
If n is quite large
f = w2r cos θ
Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration of Connecting Rod :
d
Angular velocity of connecting rod wc =
dt
UM
dWc
Angular acceleration of connecting rod αc =
dt
sin  y
sin β = sin β =
n l
sin  1 y
= sin θ =
sin  n r
sin  sin  y r r 1
sin β = = × = =
n sin  l y l n
Differentiating w.r.t. time :
d d
cos β
wc = w
dt
=
=
1
n
cos θ
d w cos 
dt n cos 
dt
cos 
OR
1 2
n n − sin 2 
n
w cos 
wc =
n 2 − sin 2 
SF
dwc dwc d
αc = =
dt d dt
 (n 2 − 1) 
αc = – w2 sin θ  2 3/ 2 
 (n − sin  ) 
2
Piston Effort : Piston effort is termed as net or effective force applied on the piston.
Let A1 = Area of the cover end
A2 = Area of piston end
P1 = Pressure on cover end
P2 = Pressure on piston end
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Force on Piston (Fp) = P1A1 – P2A2
 cos  
Inertia force Fb = mf = mrw2 cos  +
 n 
Net force on piston F = Fp – Fb
Crank Effort : Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at crank pin perpendicular to the crank which gives the turning
moment on the crankshaft.
Ft × r = Fc × r × sin (θ + β)
Ft = Fc sin (θ + β)
F
UM
Ft = sin (θ + β)
cos 
Turning Moment on Crankshaft :
T = Ft × r
F
T= sin (θ + β) × r
cos 
 sin 2 
on simplifying we get, T = Fr sin  + 
 2 n − sin  
2 2
Turning Moment Diagram and Flywheel :
 sin 2 
Turning Moment T = Fr sin  + 
 n 2 − sin 2  
where F is Net piston effort
r is radius of crank
n is
l
r
OR
θ is angle turned by crank from Inner Dead Centre.
Turning Moment Diagram for Single cylinder double acting steam engine : Here F is constant throughout cycle.
SF
Flywheel : Turning Momentum diagram for four stroke cycle I C Engine : In four stroke cycle IC engine, there is one
Power stroke in two revolutions (4π radian) of crankshaft.
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Turning Moment Diagram for Multicylinder Engine : For engines with more than one cylinder, the total crankshaft
torque at any instant is given by sum of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For example, if an engine has
two cylinders with cranks at 90°, the resultant turning moment diagram has less variation than single cylinder.
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Fluctuation of Energy and Flywheel :
OR
Let the energy in the Flywheel at A = E
Energy at B = E + a1
Energy at C = E + a1 – a2
Energy at D = E + a1 – a2 + a3
SF
Energy at E = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4
Energy at F = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5
Energy at G = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5 – a6
Let us now suppose that greatest of these energies is at B and least at E.
Therefore maximum energy in flywheel = E + a1
mininum energy in flywheel = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4
Maximum fluctuation of energy ∆E = (E + a1) – (E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4)
e = ∆E = (a2 – a3 + a4)
Flywheel : Flywheel is used to control the variation in speed during each cycle of an engine. A flywheel of suitable
dimensions attached to crankshaft makes the moment of inertia of rotating parts quite large and thus acts as reservoir of
energy.
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During the periods, when supply of energy is more than required, it stores energy and during the periods, requirement is
more than supply it releases energy.
Let I = Moment of Inertia of Flywheel
w1 = Maximum speed of crankshaft (flywheel)
w2 = Minimum speed of crankshaft (flywheel)
 w1 + w2 
w = Mean speed  
 2 
E = Kinetic energy of flywheel at mean speed
1 2
E= Iw
UM
2
e = Maximum fluctuation of energy (Obtained from turning moment diagram)
w1 − w2
K = Coefficient of fluctuation of speed =
w
1 2 1 2
e= Iw1 − Iw2
2 2
1  w + w2 
= I ( w12 − w22 ) = I  1  (w – w2)
2  2  1
( w1 − w2 )
e = I w (w1 – w2) = Iw2
w
OR
e = I w2 K
⇒K=
e
Iw 2
or K=
e
2E
•••
SF
IE
BALANCING OF ROTATING MASS 7
UM
Most of the serious problem encountered in high speed machines is due to unbalance forces. The high speed of machine
element is common phenomena. It is very essential that all rotating and reciprocating parts should be completely balanced as
far as possible. If these parts are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are set up. These forces not only increase the
load on bearings and stresses in various members but also produce unpleasant and even dangerous vibrations.
Balancing of Rating masses :
(a) Balancing of Several masses rotating in same plane : Consider any number of masses (say four) of magnitude m1, m2,
m3 and m4 at distance r1, r2, r3 and r4 from axis of rotating shaft. Let θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 be the angle of these masses with horizontal
line OX. Let these masses rotate about an axis through O and perpendicular to plane of pape with constant angular velocity
of w rad/ sec.
OR
SF
Centrifugal force exerted by mass m placed at distance r from axis of rotation = mw2r.
Since w2 is same for each mass, therefore magnitude of centrifugal force for each mass is proportional to product of its
respective mass (m) and its radius of rotation (r).
Sum of horizontal components of centrifugal forces :
ΣH = m1r1 cos θ1 + m2r2 cos θ2 + m3r3 cos θ3 + m4r4 cos θ4
Similarly ΣV = m1r1 sin θ1 + m2r2 sin θ2 + m3r3 sin θ3 + m4r4 sin θ4
Magnitude and Direction of Resultant Force :
FC = ( ΣH ) 2 + ( ΣV ) 2
ΣV
tan θ =
ΣH
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Balancing force is equal to resultant force but in opposite direction.

FC = mr
where m is balancing mass and r is its radius of rotation.
Balancing of several Masses rotating in different Planes : When several masses revolve in different planes, they may be
transferred to a reference plane which may be defined as plane passing through point on axis of rotation and perpendicular
to axis of rotation.
Transfer of a Force from one Plane to Another Plane :
UM
The Net effect of transfer of force (F1) from one plane to another plane (Reference plane) is single force (F1) in reference
plane and a couple (of magnitude F1 × l i.e. M1r1l1) in reference plane.
In order to have a complete balance of several revolving masses in different planes, the following two conditions must be
OR
satisfied.
(i) The forces in reference plane must balance i.e. the resultant force must be zero.
(ii) The couples about the reference plane must balance i.e. the resultant couple must be zero.
Let us now consider four masses m1, m2, m3 and m4 revolving in planes 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively as shown below. The
relative angular positions of these masses are shown also.
SF
Tabulation of Data
Plane Mass (m) Radius (r) Centri force (mr) Distance from R.P. (l) Couple (mrl)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1. m1 r1 m 1 r1 – l1 – m1r1l1
L(RP) ml rl mlrl 0 0
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2. m2 r2 m 2 r2 l2 – m2r2l2
3. m3 r3 m 3 r3 l3 m3r3l3
M(BP) mM rM mMrM lM mMrMlM
4. m4 r4 m 4 r4 l4 m4r4l4
For complete balancing of rotor, the resultant force and resultant couple both should be zero. i.e.
m1r1w2 + m2r2w2 + m3r3w2 + m4r4w2 = 0 and
m1r1l1w2 + m2r2l2w2 + m3r3l3w2 + m4r4l4w2 = 0
If both equations are not satisfied, then there are unbalanced forces and couples. A mass (mL) placed in reference plane may
satisfy force equation but couple equation is satisfied only by two equal forces in different planes. Hence in general two
planes are heated to balance a system of rotating masses. i.e.
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + m4 r4 + mL rL + mM rM = 0 and
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m1 r1 l1 + m2 r2 l2 + m3 r3 l3 + m4 r4 l4 + mM rM lM = 0
Unbalanced couples vector is parallel to axis of rotating shaft i.e., direction of unbalance couple vector is 90° (clockwise) to
direction of unbalance force vector.
However in balancing problem, couple vector may be drawn by turning them 90° (clockwise) to direction of unbalance
force vector.
However in balancing problem, couple vector may be drawn by turning them 90° i.e. by drawing them parallel to force
vector for convenience.
OR
SF
Balancing of Reciprocating Masses :
 cos 2 
Acceleration of reciprocating mass f = rw2  cos  + 
 n 
Force required to accelerate mass m is
 cos 2 
F = mrw2  cos  + 
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 n 
cos 2
F = mrw2 cos θ + mrw2
n
Primary accelerating force Secondary accelerating force
UM
cos 2
mrw2 cos θ is the primary accelerating force and mrw2 is called secondary accelerating force.
n
Maximum value of primary force = M r w2
Mrw2
OR
Maximum value of seconary force =
n
As n is usually much greater than unity, the secondary force is small compared with primary force and can be safely
neglected for slow speed engines.
In slider crank mechanism OAB, the mass at B of the reciprocating part is accelerating. Thus a primary force is required to
accelerate the reciprocating mass. This force acts in direction from O to B. The reaction of this force tends to move the
frame in direction from O to B. To prevent this, an attempt has to be made to balance this reaction.
The usual approach is by addition of rotating countermass at radius r directly opposite to crank. This countermass is in
addition to the mass used to balance the rotating unbalance due to mass at crank pin.
The horizontal component of the centrifugal force due to balancing mass is mrw2 cos θ in line of stroke. This neutralises the
unbalance reciprocating force. But rotating mass also has component mrw2 sin θ perpendicular to line of stroke which
remains unbalanced. The magnitude of maximum unbalanced force is mrw2. Thus instead of sliding to and fro, the
mechanism tends to jump up and down.
SF
To minimise the effect of unbalance force, a compromise is usually made i.e. 2/3 of reciprocating mass is balanced. If c is
the fraction of the reciprocating mass thus balanced then,
Primary force balanced by mass = cmrw2 cos θ
Primary force unbalanced by mass = (1 – c) m r w2 cos θ
Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced
= Cmrw2 sin θ
Resultant unbalanced force at any instant = [(1 − c)mrw 2 cos  ]2 + [cmrw 2 sin  ]2
Total weight of countermass to balance rotating as well as reciprocating mass : If mp is the rotating mass at crankpin
and c is the fraction of the reciprocating mass (m) to be balanced, then weight of countermass is (Mp + Cm).
Balancing of Locomotive : Locomotives are of two types — coupled and uncoupled. If two or more pairs of wheels are
coupled together to increase the adhesive force between wheel and track, it is called coupled locomotive. Otherwise it is
IE
uncoupled locomotive. Uncoupled locomotive have become obsolete nowdays.

Locomotive usually have two cylinders. If cylinders are mounted between the wheels, it is called inside cylinder locomotive
and if cylinders are outside the wheels, it is outside cylinder locomotive. The cranks are set at 90° to each other so that
engine can be started easily after stopping in any position. Balance mass is placed on wheels on both types.
UM
In coupled locomotives, wheels are coupled by connecting their crankpin with coupling rod. As the coupling rod revolves
with crankpin, its proportionate mass can be considered as revolving mass which can be completely balanced. In uncoupled
locomotives, there are four planes for consideration (two of cylinder, two driving wheels). In coupled locomotive there are
1.
2.
OR
six planes (two cyl, two coupling rod, two wheels).
Effect of Partial Balancing of Reciprocating part of two cylinder locomotive : It has been discussed that reciprocating
parts are only partially balanced. Due to this, there is an unbalanced parimary force along line of stroke and also an unbalance
primary force perpendicular to line of stroke.
The effect of unbalance primary force along line of stroke is to produce :
Variation in traction force
Swaying couple
The effect of unbalance primary force perpendicular to line of stroke is to produce variation in pressure on rail. This is
known as Hammer blow.
Hammer blow : Hammer blow is the maximum unbalanced force caused by mass provided to balance the reciprocating
mass.
Its value is mrw2. Thus it varies as square of speed. At high speed, force of hammer blow could exceed the static load on the
SF
wheels and wheels can be lifted of the rail when direction of hammer blow is vertically upwards.
Variation of Traction Force : Unbalanced force along the line of stroke for cylinder 1 = (1 – c) mw2r cos θ
Similarly, unbalance force along the line of stroke for cylinder 2 = (1 – c) mw2r cos (90 + θ)
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Total unbalance primary force = (1 – c) mw2r (cos θ – sin θ)

The traction force is maximum or minimum when (cos θ – sin θ) is maximum or minimum.
d
(cos θ – sin θ) = 0
d
tan θ = – 1
θ = 135° or 215°
Thus, the tractive force is maximum or minimum when θ = 135° or 215°.
Maximum value of traction force = (1 – c) mrw2 (cos 135° – sin 135°)
2
= 2 (1 – c) mrw
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Swaying Couple :
The unbalanced forces along the line of stroke for two cylinders constitute a couple about the centre line yy between the
cylinder. The couple has swaying effect about vertical axis and tends to sway the engine in clockwise or anticlockwise
direction.
Let a = distance between centreline of two cylinder then swaying couple about centre line yy –
OR
(1 – c) mw2r cos θ ×
= (1 – c) mw2r
a
2
a
2
– (1 – c) mw2r cos (90 + θ)
[cos θ + sin θ]
a
2
The swaying couple is maximum or minimum when
d
[cos θ + sin θ] = 0
d
– sin θ + cos θ = 0
tan θ = 1
θ = 45° or 225°
SF
a
Maximum or minimum swaing couple = (1 – c) mw2r
2
C. Hammer blow : Unbalance force perpendicular to line of stroke due to balancing mass B at radius b is Bw2b sin θ.
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This is maximum when θ = 90° or 270° maximum hammer blow = Bw2b

The effect of hammer blow is to cause variation in pressure between wheel and rail. Let P be the downward static load on
rail.
Net pressure on Rail = P ± Bw2b
If P – Bw2b is negative, wheel will be lifted from rail.
•••
LINEAR VIBRATION ANALYSIS
OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 8
UM
When any elastic body (bar, beam, shaft, spring) is displaced from equilibrium position by application of external forces, and
then released, they execute vibration (to and fro motion about a mean position).
This is due to reason that, when body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is done on elastic constraints of the
body and is stored as strain energy. At release, these forces bring the body to its original position. If motion is frictionless,
the strain energy stored in body is converted into kinetic energy due to which body continues to move in opposite direction.
The whole of K.E. is again converted into strain energy due to which body again returns to equilibrium. In this way, vibration
motion is repeated indifinetely.
Terms
Time period : Time taken by motion to repeat itself. It is measured in seconds.
Cycle : It is motion completed during one time period.
Frequency : It is number of cycles of motion completed in one second.
Tree Vibration (Natural Vibration) : Elastic vibrations in which there are no friction and external forces after initial release
OR
of the body are known as free or natural vibration. The frequency of vibration is known as Natural frequency.
Forced Vibration : When a repeated force continuously acts on a system, then vibrations are said to be forced. The
frequency of vibration is that of applied force.
Damped Vibration : When the energy of vibrating system is gradually dissipated by friction and other resistances, the
vibrations are said to be damped.
Vibration
Free Forced
Free Free Forced Forced

undamped damped undamped damped
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Vibration
Longitudinal Transverse Torsional
Types of Vibration :
1. Longitudinal Vibration : If the elastic body is strained longitudinally such that mass moves up and down, the vibration are
said to be longitudinal particles of shaft (or disc) move parallel to axis of shaft.
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2. Transverse Vibration : When the shaft is bent in transverse direction alternately, then vibrations are known as transverse
vibrations. In this case, particles of shaft move perpendicular to axis of shaft.
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3. Torsional Vibration : When the shaft is twisted and untwisted alternately, then vibration is known as Torsional. The
particles of the body move in circle about the axis of shaft.
ORSECTION – I LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION

Free Undamped Vibration : The natural frequency of vibrating system may be found out by –
(i) Equilibrium Method (ii) Energy Method
Equilibrium Method :
SF
Inertia force = mx

Spring force = – sx
mx = – sx
mx + sx = 0
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S
x +  m  x = 0
 
Equation of SHM is → x + wn2 x = 0
s g
so wn = ⇒ wn =
m ∆
Energy Method : In a conservative system (a system with no damping), the total mechanical energy (i.e. sum of kinetic and
potential energy) remain constant, therefore,
d
(KE + PE) = 0
UM
dt
1
2
2 mx
Here KE =
1
PE = s x2
2
d
dt (KE + PE) = 0
d 1 2 1 2
 mx + s x  = 0
dt 2 2 
1 1
m 2 x x + s 2 x x = 0
2
so Wm =
OR s
m
2
m x + s x = 0
Inertia effect of mass of spring : Mass of the spring thus the effect of inertia have been neglected. If mass of the spring
is also considered :
1 s
fn =
2 m+
M1 where m1 is mass of spring
3
SF
Free Damped Vibration :
Example :
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Solution : Force in each spring = 2W
Deflection of mass m = 2δ1 + 2δ2
 2W 2W 
UM
= 2 +
 1  2 
 2W 2W   S1 + S 2 
∆ = 4W  +  = 4 mg  
 S1 S 2   S1S 2 
g S1S 2
4 (S1 + S 2 )m
Wm = =

Free damped Vibration :
Let
s = stiffness of spring
c = damping coefficient
OR
(damping force per unit velocity)
Wm = natural frequency (frequency of
undamped vibration)
SF
Newton law Mx = −(cx + sx )

Mx = + cx + sx = 0
c s
x = + x + x=0
M M
It is differential equation of second order.
Its solution will be of form →
x = Ae1t + Be 2t
Where A and B are some constants. α1 and α2 are roots of auxillary equations.
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C S
α2 + + =0
M M
−C
2 2
 C   S 
α1 , α2 = ±   − 
2M  2M   M 
2
 C   S 
Damping Factor () : Square root of   to   is known as damping factor (ξ)
 2M  M 
UM
2
 C 
 
=  2m 
=
C
S /m 2 Sm
s 2
C = 2 s m = 2  m
m
C = 2 ξm wn
s
C=2ξ
Wn
so α1, 2 = –  Wn ±  2 Wn2 − Wn2
Case 1 :  > 1
α1, α2 will be real (as ξ > 1)

Therefore solution is :
α1, 2 = Wn −  ±
x = Ae
OR
1t
(
+ Be 2t
 2 −1 )
 − +  2 −1   − +  2 −1 
x=A e 
Wnt + Be
  
Wnt
This is equation of Aperiodic motion, i.e. system does not vibrate due to over damping.
SF
Case 2 :  < 1
The roots of the equation are imaginary.
α1, 2 =  ± i 1 −  2 Wn
 − + i 1⋅ 2 W t  − − i 1⋅ 2 W t
Solution : x = A e   n
+ Be  n
If we put A + B = X sin φ and i (A – B) = X cos φ

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It can be shown that :

x = X e –ξWnt sin (Wdt + φ)
where Wd = 1 −  2 Wn
This equation indicates that system oscillates with frequency ( Wd = 1 −  2 Wn ). As ξ is less than 1, Wd is always less
than Wn. System is underdamped.
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Wd
Linear frequency :
2
Time period :
2
Wd
OR
Case 3 : ξ = 1 , the damping is critical.
The roots of the auxillary equations are real.
α1 = α2 = – Wn
x = (A + Bt) e– Wnt
The motion is not periodic
C
ξ=
2 Sm
When ξ = 1, C = Cc
SF
C
so Cc = 2 Sm ⇒ ξ =
Cc
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Summary :
1. ξ=0 Undamped system System vibrates at natural frequency.
2. ξ=1 Overdamped system A periodic motion. Motion die down with time.
ξ=1
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3. Critical damped system A periodic motion. Motion dies down with time.
4. ξ<1 Underdamped system F r e q u e n c y Wd = 1 −  2 Wn
2
Time period Td =
Wd
Vibrations die down with time
Logarthmic decrement : Amplitude of damped vibration decreases with time. The ratio of two successive amplitudes are
constant. Natural logarithm of this ratio is called logarthmic decrement.
X   X   nTd
δ = ln
1
 = ln n  = ln e
 X2   X n +1 
2 2
 =  Wn =
Forced Damped Vibration :

OR =
Wd 1−  2
2
1−  2
SF
mx + cx + sx = Fo sin wt

Complete solution of this equation consists of two parts :
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Complementary function (CF) and particular integral (PI).

CF = Xe −Wn t sin (Wdt + φ1)
The particular solution of equation can be obtained graphically as follows :
Assuming displacement of vibrating mass under action of applied SHM (F0 sin wt) is also simple harmonic and logs by
amount φ.
x = A sin (wt – φ)
x = A sin (wt – φ)
x = wA cos (wt – φ)
 
x = wA sin  2 + ( wt −  )
UM
 
x = – w2A sin (wt – φ)
Substituting these values in equation :
mx + cx + sx = F0 sin wt
 
– mw2A sin (wt – φ) = CWA sin  + ( wt −  ) 
2 
+ SA sin (wt – φ) – F0 sin wt = 0
 
F0 sin wt + mw2A sin (wt – φ) – CWA sin  + ( wt −  )  – SA sin (wt – φ) = 0
2 
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Applied
force
Inertia
force
OR Damping
force
Spring
force
SF
It is seen that :
F0 = ( SA − Mw 2 A) 2 + (CWA) 2
 F0 
 
A=  
 ( S − MW ) + (CW )
2 2 2

 CW 
tan φ =  2 
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 S − MW 
So complete solution of equation is :
F0
x = Xe − Wnt sin (Wd t + 1 ) + sin( wt −  )
( s − MW 2 ) 2 (CW ) 2
The damped free vibration represented by first part (CF) becomes negligible with time as e–∞ = 0. The steady state response
of the system is given by the second part PI.
Magnification Factor (MF) : The ratio of the amplitude of steady state response to static deflection under the action of
force F0 is known as Magnification factor.
F0 / ( S − MW 2 ) 2 + (CW ) 2
UM
MF =
F0 / S
S
=
( S − MW 2 ) 2 + (CW ) 2
1
=
 M 2 C 2
1 − w  +  W 
 S  S 
C = 2m wn ξ
2S
C=
wn ξ
OR
MF =
1
2
  w  2   2w  2
C 2
=
S wn
1 −    +  
  wn    wn 
Thus, magnification factor depends upon :
 w
(a) The ratio of frequency  
SF
 wn 
(b) The damping factor (ξ)
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The curves shows that as damping increases, the maximum value of magnification factor decreases and vice versa.
w
When there is no damping (ξ = 0), it reaches infinity at
wn = 1 i.e. when frequency of forced vibration is equal to frequency
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of free vibration. This condition is known as resonance.
In practice, the magnification factor cannot reach infinity owing to friction which tends to dampen the vibration. It is also
observed that irrespective of amount of damping, maximum amplitude of vibration occur when frequency of forced
w
vibration is less than undamped vibrations (i.e.
wn is less than 1).
Vibration Isolation and Transmissibility Ratio (TR) : Vibrations are produced in machines having unbalanced masses.
These vibrations are transmitted to foundation upon which the machines are installed. This is usually undesirable. To
diminish the transmitted forces, machines are usually mounted on springs or dampers.
Transmissibility is defined as ratio of force transmitted (to foundation) to the force applied.
As the transmitted force is vector sum of spring force (sA) and damping force (CWA), which are perpendicular to each
other,
FT = ( SA) 2 + (CWA) 2
OR =A
=
S 2 + (CW ) 2
F0
( S − MW ) + (CW )
2 2 2
S 2 + (CW ) 2
2
C 
F0 1 +  W 
S  C 2
= =
2 2 S Wn
 M 2 C 
1 − W  +  W 
 S  S 
SF
2
 w
F0 1 +  2 
 wn 
= 2
  w  2   2w  2
1 −    +  
  wn    wn 
2
 2 w 
F0 1 +  
 wn 
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FT = 2
 w    2 w 
2 2
1 −   +  
 wn    wn 
2
 w
1 +  2 
FT  wn 
Transmissibility Ratio : TR = =
UM
FO 2
  w  2   2w  2
1 −    +  
  wn    wn 
Case 1 : At Resonance, w = wn
1 + (2 ) 2
TR =
2
Case 2 : When no damper is used ξ = 0
1
TR =
  w 2 
1 −   
  wn  
OR
SF
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w
Here, transmissibility has been plotted against
wn for different values of ξ. It is observed that :
w
(i) When
wn is less than 2 . TR is more than 1, i.e., transmitted force is always more than exciting force.
w
(ii) when
wn is more than 2 . TR is less than 1, i.e., transmitted force is always less than exciting force.
UM
w
(iii) when
wn is 1, the transmitted force is infinity. If damping is used, magnitude of transmitted force can be reduced.
w
(iv) when
wn > 2 , TR increases, as damping is increased.
w
Thus in a system, where
wn can vary from zero to higher value, dampers should not be used. Instead, stops may be
provided to limit the resonance amplitude.
Example : A refrigerator unit having mass of 35 kg is to be supported on three springs, each having stiffness s. The unit
operates at 480 rpm. Find the value of stiffness s of spring if only 10% of the shaking force is allowed to be transmitted to
the supporting structure ?
OR
Answer : As No damper is used TR =
1
  w 2 
± 1 −   
  wn  
2 × 480
w= = 16π, TR = 0.1
60
1
so 0.1 = 2 2
  16  
± 1 −   
  wn  
SF
Solving we get, wn = 15.15 rad / sec.
s s
wn = = = 15.15
m 35
N N
so s = 8037 = 8.037
m mm
8.037 N
Stiffness of each spring = = 2.679
3 mm
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SECTION – II TRANSVERSE VIBRATION
Natural Frequency of Shaft and Beams :

a. Single Concentrated Load :
UM
1 g
fn =
2 ∆
where D → deflection
A shaft supported in long bearing is supposed to have both ends fixed while one in short bearing is considered to be simply
supported.
b. Uniformly Loaded Shaft :
OR
c. Shaft carrying Several Loads :
SF
Let f n1 , f n2 , f n3 , f n4 be frequency of transverse vibrations when W1, W2, W3 .... acts alone.
Then according to dunkerley empirical formula,
1 1 1 1 1
2
= 2+ 2 + 2+ 2
fn f n1 f n2 f n3 f n4
IE
Whirling of Shafts (Whirling / Critical Speed of Shaft) : When a rotor is mounted on shaft, its centre of mass does not
usually coincide with centreline of shaft. Therefore, when the shaft rotates, it is subjected to centrifugal force which makes
the shaft bend in direction of eccentricity of mass. This further increases eccentricity, and hence the centrifugal force. In
this way, the effect is cumulative and ultimately the shaft may even fail.
Critical or whirling or whipping speed is the speed at which the shaft tends to vibrate violenty in transverse direction. It has
been observed that if critical speed is instantly run through, the shaft, the shaft again becomes almost straight.
UM
Centrifugal force = M (y + e) w2
Force resisting deflection = sy
sy = m (y + e) w2
sy = myw2 + mew2 OR
mew2
y=
s − mw2
e
y=
s
−1
mw 2
e
y= 2
 wn 
  −1
 w
SF
Thus w = wn the deflection y is infinitely large.
s g
wc = w n = =
m ∆
IE
SECTION – III TORSIONAL VIBRATION
Free Torsional Vibration (Single Rotar)
UM
Consider a uniform shaft of length l rigidly fixed at its upper end and carrying a disc of motion of inertia I at its lower end.
The shaft is assumed to be massless.
If disc is given a twist about its vertical axis and then released, it will start oscillating about the axis and will perform torsional
vibrations.
Let θ = Angular displacement of the disc from its equilibrium position at any instant.
q = Torsional stiffness of shaft.
G = Modulas of rigidity of shaft materialOR
J = Polar moment of inertia of shaft cross section
At any instant, Inertia torque = – I

d 2
dt 2
Restoring torque = – qθ
d 2
I + qθ = 0
dt 2
q
 +  = 0
SF
I
This is equation of SHM
q
Wn =
I
Inertia effect of mass of shaft :
1 q
Considering the mass of the shaft, fn =
2 I+
I1
3
where I1 = moment of inertia of shaft
IE
Example :
(a) Find Natural Frequency
UM
Taking Moment about A,
Ia  + (sx) r = 0
(I0 + mr2)  + (sθr) r = 0
1 2
( mr + mr2)  + sr2θ = 0
2
OR
 3 2   + sr2θ = 0
 mr  
2 
2s
 + 3m θ = 0
2s
so wn =
3m
SF
(b)
Taking moment about A,

Ia  + 2Sx (r + a) = 0
IE
(I0 + mr2)  + 2S [(r + a) θ] (r + a) = 0
3 2
mr  + 2S (r + a)2 θ = 0
2
4 S (r + a) 2
 + θ=0
3 mr 2
4S (r + a) 2
so Wn =
3mr 2
Free Torsional Vibration (Three Rotor System) :
UM
Case 1 : Let rotor A and B rotate in same direction and C in opposite direction. Let Node points be D and E.
OR
fna = fnb = fnc
qa qb qc
= =
SF
I a Ib Ic
GJ GJ GJ  1 1 
= =  + 
la I a lb I b I c  lc1 lc2 
Case 2 : A and C rotate in same direction, B rotate in opposite direction.
IE
Case 3 : B and C rotate in same direction and A in opposite direction.
UM
Free Torsional Vibration (Two rotor system) :
OR
If a shaft held in bearing carries a rotor at each end, it can vibrate torsionally such that two rotors move in opposite direction.
Thus some length of shaft is twisted in one direction while rest is twisted in other direction. The section which does not
undergo any twist is called Nodal section. The shaft behaves as if clamped at nodal section and two sections vibrate as two
separate shafts with equal frequencies.
fna = fnb
SF
1 qa 1 qb
=
2 I a 2 Ib
qa qb GJ GJ
so = ⇒ =
I a Ib la I a lb I b
or la Ia = lb Ib
Torsionally Equivalent Shaft :
IE
A torsionally equivalent shaft is one which has same torsional stiffness as that of steeped shaft. i.e., It twists to same extent
under a given torque as stepped shaft would.
θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4
Tl Tl Tl Tl Tl
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
GJ GJ1 GJ 2 GJ 3 GJ 4
UM
l l l l l
or = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
J J1 J 2 J 3 J 4
l l l l l
4
= 14 + 24 + 34 + 44
d d1 d 2 d 3 d 4
where l and d is length and dia of torsionally equivalent shaft.
•••
OR
SF
IE

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UM

2. Velocity Analysis of Planar Mechanism 13

6. Dynamic Analysis of Slider Crank Mechanism 40

7. Balancing of Rotating Mass 46

8. Linear Vibration Analysis of Mechanical Systems 52

For ‘IES FORUM’ Students Only

some kind of desired work.

Output – Mechanical Energy (Motion in desired form)

motion is completely (or successfully) constrained.

e.g. Piston and cylinder, Ram and its guide in shaper.

(b) Nature of mechanical constraint

 J +  >  L − 2  For Locked chain

A, B, C, D are Binary Joints.

Above equation is known as Gruebler equation

(a) s is fixed – Double crank

Link3 rotates about 0

In Rotary Engine, Link 1 is cylinder (which rotates)

Link 3 – Oscillates about Pivot B

Link 2 – Oscillates about B

The direction of velocity is perpendicular to OA.

Vca = Vcb + Vba

Vba + Vfb = Vcd + Vfc

Vbg = Vba + Vao

rotation relative to the frame.

Velocity of A′ ⊥ to OA = Va' cos δθ

Change of velocity = Va' cos θ – Va

fbo = fba + fao

fbg = fao + f bac + f bat

V ' sin  + w' r ' cos  − wr

motion no longer remains definite.

between them, but normally it is 90°.

make the shaft apart.

CD = CP + PD = (CF – PF) + (DE – PE)

(ii) Involute profile teeth

to base circle, Normal to involute curve is tangent to base circle.

Maximum value of addendum of wheel to avoid interference =

Cycloidal teeth Involute teeth

N 5 T1 No. of teeth on driving gear

Product of No. of teeth on driving gear

Bevel Epicyclic Gear :

Action a B/G C/D E/H F

where m = mass of body

Let F1, F2, F3 ...... be the external forces on body then,

Force on Piston (Fp) = P1A1 – P2A2

Turning Moment Diagram and Flywheel :

Balancing force is equal to resultant force but in opposite direction.

Balancing of Reciprocating Masses :

uncoupled locomotive. Uncoupled locomotive have become obsolete nowdays.

Total unbalance primary force = (1 – c) mw2r (cos θ – sin θ)

The swaying couple is maximum or minimum when

This is maximum when θ = 90° or 270° maximum hammer blow = Bw2b

Free Free Forced Forced

Longitudinal Transverse Torsional

ORSECTION – I LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION

Inertia force = mx

Newton law Mx = −(cx + sx )

so α1, 2 = –  Wn ±  2 Wn2 − Wn2

α1, α2 will be real (as ξ > 1)

If we put A + B = X sin φ and i (A – B) = X cos φ

It can be shown that :

4. ξ<1 Underdamped system F r e q u e n c y Wd = 1 −  2 Wn

Forced Damped Vibration :

mx + cx + sx = Fo sin wt

Complementary function (CF) and particular integral (PI).