Theory of Machines and Mechanism

Lecture 1

Łukasz Jedliński, Ph.D., Eng.

 Basic terms and definitions

Theory of Machines and Mechanism may be defined as that branch of

engineering science, which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of machine, and forces which act on them. The
knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing
the various parts of a machine.
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Machines and mechanisms have been devised by people since the dawn of
history. The ancient Egyptians devised primitive machines to accomplish the
building of the pyramids and other monuments. Though the wheel and
pulley (on an axle) were not known to the Old Kingdom Egyptians, they
made use of the lever, the inclined plane (or wedge), and probably the log
roller. The origin of the wheel and axle is not definitively known. Its first
appearance seems to have been in Mesopotamia about 3000 to 4000 B.C.

A Mesopotamian wheel

Pulley systems
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Theory of Machines and Mechanism may be subdivided into the following four
branches:

Kinematics - is that branch of theory of machines which is responsible to study

the motion of bodies without reference to the forces which are cause this motion,
i.e it’s relate the motion variables (displacement, velocity, acceleration) with the
time.

Dynamics - is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces and
their effects, while acting upon the machine parts in motion.

Kinetics – it deals with inertia forces which occur due to combined effect of mass
and motion of machine elements.

Statics - is that branch of theory of machines which deals with the forces and their
effects, while the machine parts are rest.
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The role of kinematics is to ensure the functionality of the mechanism, while

the role of dynamics is to verify the acceptability of induced forces in parts.
The functionality and induced forces are subject to various constraints
(specifications) imposed on the design.

The objective of kinematics is to develop various means of transforming

motion to achieve a specific kind needed in applications. For example, an
object is to be moved from point A to point B along some path. The first
question in solving this problem is usually: What kind of a mechanism (if any)
can be used to perform this function? And the second question is: How does
one design such a mechanism? The objective of dynamics is analysis of the
behavior of a given machine or mechanism when subjected to dynamic forces.
For the above example, when the mechanism is already known, then external
forces are applied and its motion is studied. The determination of forces
induced in machine components by the motion is part of this analysis.
 Basic terms and definitions

A mechanism is a group of links connected to each other by joints, to form a

kinematic chain with one link fixed, to transmit force and motion. It is design
to do a specific motion.

A kinematic chain is defined as an assemblage of links and joints.

Kinematic chains or mechanisms may be either open or closed.

Open mechanism Closed mechanism

A machine is an assemblage of links that transmits and/or transforms forces,

motion and energy in a predetermined manner, to do work. The term machine
is usually applied to a complete product.
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The similarity between machines and mechanisms is that they are both
combinations of rigid bodies and the relative motion among the rigid bodies
are definite.
The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines transform
energy to do work, while mechanisms so not necessarily perform this function.

Machine - car Mechanism - gearbox

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Structure – is an assemblage of a number of rigid bodies having no relative motion

between them and meant for carrying load having straining action.

Vehicle Frame

Bridge
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Kinematic link (or simply link, element), definitions:

1. A rigid body that provides connections to other rigid bodies by at least two
joints. Not always true.
(Theoretically, a true rigid body does not change shape during motion.
Although a true rigid body does not exist, mechanism links are designed to
minimally deform and are considered rigid.)
Elastic parts, such as springs, are not rigid and, therefore, are not considered
links. They have no effect on the kinematics of a mechanism and are usually
ignored during kinematic analysis. They do supply forces and must be included
during the dynamic force portion of analysis.
Beter definition:
2. It is the individual part or component of the mechanism, most often rigid,
indivisible in terms of the function which meets in the mechanism.

4 – Flexible link

3 – Fluid link
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A link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly fastened together, so that
they do not move relative to one another e.g. piston rod.

Piston rod Piston rod – kinematic representation

A A

Part 4

Part 1 B
B

Part 3

Part 2
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Types of links:
Binary link - one with two nodes.
Ternary link - one with three nodes.
Quaternary link - one with four nodes.

Different classification:

Simple link Complex link

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Types of links:
Crank – a link that makes a complete revolution and is pivoted to ground.
Rocker – a link that has oscillatory (back and forth) rotation and is pivoted to
ground.
Coupler (or connecting rod) as a link that has complex motion and is not pivoted
to ground.
Ground (base, frame) is defined as any link or links that are fixed (non moving)
with respect to the reference frame. Note that the reference frame may in fact it
self be in motion.
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Joint (kinematic pair, pair) - connection between links (two or more), which
permits relative motion between them and physically adds some constraint(s) to
this relative motion.

Classification of joints according to the :

1. Type of relative motion between the elements.
2. Type of contact between the elements.
3. Type of closure between the elements.
4. Number of links joined.
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1. According to the type of relative motion between the elements

a) Revolute (Turning) pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way
that one can only turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another link.
b) Sliding (Prismatic, Prism) pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such
a way that one can only slide relative to the other, the pair is known as a sliding pair.
c) Cylindrical pair. Permits angular rotation and an independent sliding motion. Thus, the
cylindrical pair has two degrees of freedom.
d) Rolling pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one
rolls over another fixed link, the pair is known as rolling pair. Ball and roller bearings
are examples of rolling pair.
e) Screw (helical) pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that
one element can turn about the other by screw threads, the pair is known as screw
pair. The lead screw of a lathe with nut and bolt with a nut are examples of a screw
pair.
f) Spherical pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one
element (with spherical shape) turns or swivels about the other fixed element, the
pair formed is called a spherical pair. The ball and socket joint, attachment of a car
mirror, pen stand etc., are the examples of a spherical pair.
g) Planar pair (flat). It is seldom found in mechanism in its undisguised form, except at a
support point. It has three degrees of freedom, that in, two translations and a
rotation.
 Basic terms and definitions

a) Revolute (Turning, Pin) pair.

b) Sliding (Prismatic, Prism) pair.

c) Cylindrical pair
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d) Rolling pair.

e) Screw (helical) pair

f) Spherical pair.

g) Planar pair (flat)

 Basic terms and definitions
2. The kinematic pairs according to the type of contact between the elements may
be classified as discussed below (Reuleaux):
a) Lower pair. When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact when relative
motion takes place and the surface of one element slides over the surface of the
other, the pair formed is known as lower pair. It will be seen that: revolute,
sliding, screw, cylindrical, sphere, planar pairs form lower pairs.
b) Higher pair. When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when
relative motion takes place and the motion between the two elements is partly
turning and partly sliding, then the pair is known as higher pair. A pair of friction
discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller bearings and cam and
follower are the examples of higher pairs.

Cam and follower Spur gear Belt drive

 Basic terms and definitions

3. The kinematic pairs according to the type of closure between the elements may be
classified as discussed below :
a) Self closed pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected together
mechanically in such a way that only required kind of relative motion occurs, it is
then known as self closed pair. The lower pairs are self closed pair.
b) Force – closed pair. When the two elements of a pair are not connected
mechanically but are kept in contact by the action of external forces, the pair is
said to be a force-closed pair. The cam and follower in an example of force closed
pair, as it is kept in contact by the force exerted by spring and gravity.

Cam and follower - forced closed Spherical pair – self closed

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4. Classification of joints according to the number of links joined.

The order of a joint is defined as the number of links joined minus one. The
combination of two links has order one and it is a single joint.

one-pin joint

Joint of order one

two-pin joints

Joint of order two (multiple joints)

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Degree of freedom (DOF) or mobility (M)

The number of inputs that need to be provided in order to create a
predictable output;
also:
Number of independent coordinates needed to define the position of the
element/mechanism.

Rigid body in 2D space (plane) – 3 DOF Rigid body in 3D space – 6 DOF

 Basic terms and definitions

Planar Mechanisms

Kutzbach’s modification of Gruebler’s equation

M = 3(L – 1) – 2 J1 – J2

M = degree of freedom or mobility

L = number of links (with a frame)
J1 = number of 1 DOF joints
J2 = number of 2 DOF joints

Spatial Mechanisms

M = 6(L – 1) – 5 J1 – 4 J2 – 3 J3 – 2 J4 – J5
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Number of degrees of freedom for plane mechanisms

The number of degrees of freedom or mobility (M) for some simple mechanisms having no higher
pairs (i.e. p4 = 0) as shown in figure are determined as follows:
a) The mechanism has three links and three binary joints i.e. n = 3 and p5 = 3
M = 3 (3 – 1) – 2 x 3 = 0
b) The mechanism has four links and four binary joints i.e. n = 4 and p5 = 4
M = 3 (4 – 1) – 2 x 4 = 1
c) The mechanism has five links and five binary joints i.e. n = 5 and p5 = 5
M = 3 (5 – 1) – 2 x 5 = 2
d) The mechanism has five links and four binary joints (because there are two joints at B and D, and
two ternary joints at A and C) i.e. n = 5 and p5 = 6
M = 3 (5 – 1) – 2 x 6 = 0
d) The mechanism has six links and eight binary joints (because there are four ternary joints at A, B, C
and D) i.e. n = 6 and p5 = 8
M = 3 (6 – 1) – 2 x 8 = -1
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Number of degrees of freedom for plane mechanisms

It may be noted that:

 When M = 0, then the mechanism forms a structure and no relative motion

between the links is possible Fig. a and d;

 When M = 1, then the mechanism can be driven by a single input motion, as

shown Fig. b;

 When M = 2, then two separate input motions are necessary to produce

constrained motion for the mechanism, as shown in Fig. c;

 When M = -1 or less, then there are redundant constrains in the chain and it
forms a statically indeterminate structure, as shown in Fig. e.
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M≤0 Mechanism with zero, or negative, degrees of freedom are termed

locked mechanisms. These mechanisms are unable to move and
form a structure.

M>1 Mechanism with multiple degrees of freedom need more than one
driver to precisely operate them. In general, multi-degree of
freedom mechanism offer greater ability to precisely position a link.
There is no requirement that a mechanism have only one DOF,
although that is often desirable for simplicity.
 Basic terms and definitions

Kutzbach’s–Gruebler’s formula for mechanism mobility does not take into account
the specific geometry (size or shape) of the links, only the connectivity of links and
the type of connections (constraints). Grübler equation not always works.

Structure
Mechanism
DOF real = 0
DOF real= 1 DOF real = 1
DOF real = 1 DOF from equation =
DOF from equation = 3 x 3 – 2 x 3 – 1 = 2 DOF from equation = 3x6–2x8–1=1
3x6–2x8–1=1
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DOF real = 1 DOF real = 1

DOF from equation = 3 x 3 – 2 x 3 – 2 = 1 DOF from equation = 3 x 6 – 2 x 6 – 8 = -2
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DOF real = 1 DOF real = 1

DOF from equation = 3 x 4 – 2 x 6 = 0 DOF from equation = 3 x 1 – 2 x 2 = -1
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Grashof’s law

As is clear, the motion of links in a system must satisfy the constraints imposed
by their connections. However, even for the same chain, and thus the same
constraints, different motion transformations can be obtained. This is
demonstrated in figure on the next slide, where the motions in the inversions
of the four-bar linkage are shown. In this figure s identifies the smallest link, l
is the longest link, and p, q are two other links.
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Crank -rocker mechanism

Double-crank mechanism Double-rocker mechanism

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Grashof’s law

From a practical point of view, it is of interest to know if for a given chain at

least one of the links will be able to make a complete revolution. In this case, a
motor can drive such a link. The answer to this question is given by Grashof’s
law, which states that for a four-bar linkage, if the sum of the shortest and
longest links is not greater than the sum of the remaining two links, at least
one of the links will be revolving. Grashof’s law (condition) is expressed in the
form:
s = length of shortest link
s+l≤p+q l = length of longest link
p = length of one remaining link
q = length of other remaining link

Reuleaux approach the problem somewhat differently but, of course, obtains

the same results. The conditions are:
s + l +p ≥ q
s+l-p≤q
s + q +p ≥ l
s+q-p≤l
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These four condition are illustrated below by demonstrating what happens

if the conditions are not met.

s+l+p<q s+l-p>q

s + q +p < l s+q-p<l
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An ideal system of classification of mechanisms does not exist. Many attempts

have been made, none has been very successful in devising a completely
satisfactory method.

Example mechanism

Beam engine
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Example mechanism

Coupling rod of a locomotive

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Example mechanism

Slider-crank mechanism
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Example mechanism

Scotch yoke mechanism

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Example mechanism

Geneva mechanism