Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Investigation of the heavy duty truck gear drive failure

Mileta Ristivojević a , Vojkan Lučanin a , Aleksandar Dimić a ,∗, Žarko Mišković a ,
Zijah Burzić b , Zoran Stamenić a , Milan Rackov c
a
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia
b
Military Technical Institute, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia
c University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, 21102 Novi Sad, Serbia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: For heavy vehicle systems, within the power transmission chain from the driving machine to the
Operating conditions working components (wheels), gears have a large share of application in the form of gearboxes,
Gearbox differentials and speed reducers. Their purpose is to achieve the highest possible output torque
Helical gear failure
at the working components. In one heavy-duty truck, the gearbox lost its working capacity due
Tapered roller bearing
to the failure of its vital parts: a tapered roller bearing and a helical gear. The analysis presented
Thermal expansion
Wear
in this paper, conducted on the basis of experimental and analytical methods, showed that, due
Tolerances to inadequate installation of the bearings’ outer ring in the gearbox housing in one intermediate
shaft support, the roller bearing performed its elementary function in very unfavorable working
conditions of mechanical and thermal nature. Due to the damage accumulation, the roller
bearing gradually lost its working capacity. As a result, the intensity of the working conditions
of the entire gearbox increased. At the moment when they reached the critical value from the
aspect of the gear teeth bending strength, volumetric destruction occurred, i.e fracture of the
helical gear tooth, and thus the cessation of gearbox power transmission.

1. Introduction

The generation of economic, energy and environmental crises at the end of the 21st century has led to the working conditions of
mechanical structures becoming more severe in terms of: speed, load, heating, vibration, noise, etc. Gear drives are also affected by
this phenomenon. With the exception of their high manufacturing cost and the noise they generate, gear drives have a significant
advantage in operating characteristics compared to other mechanical drives. This is particularly pronounced in terms of operational
safety, durability, efficiency, smaller dimensions and reliability. These are the main reasons why the domain of application of gear
drives, despite their high production requirements [1,2], is approximately 80% compared to other mechanical drives [3]. Everything
that serves humanity on such a large scale should work without delay, with as few failures as possible, therefore it should work
reliably. High reliability in the gearbox operation is ensured primarily by the high reliability of vital components (gears, shafts,
bearings, couplings, etc.) which are built inside [4]. Therefore, increasing the reliability of all elementary and partial functions
executors is a priority for all participants involved in the process of mechanical structure design.
The manufacture, installation and operation of gear drives, which are vital parts of the gearbox, are a key parameter that affects
its service life. Long-term statistical analyzes show that installation errors and improper operation are the cause of as much as 75%
of total gear failures [5]. Due to the importance they have in the power transmission and transformation process, gear failures most
often mean failures of entire systems in which gears are installed [6–9].

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adimic@mas.bg.ac.rs (A. Dimić).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106995
Received 26 August 2022; Received in revised form 28 November 2022; Accepted 7 December 2022
Available online 9 December 2022
1350-6307/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

In addition to gear drives, there are other vital components of the gearbox for which the assembly process has a significant
impact on their performance. The pronounced impact of improper installation and operation on the premature failure of vehicles
rolling ball bearings is analyzed in paper [10]. In [11], it was shown that improper installation of a double-row spherical roller
bearing on the shaft sleeve, whereby the connection was achieved with a multi-layer pressed joint, led to the failure of fresh air fan
and a major delay in the production of one thermal power plant. In many cases, the vital components of the gearbox fail only after
reaching critical operating conditions caused by the accumulation of damage [12,13]. Components which are mounted in machine
assemblies with an interference fit, show a special sensitivity to irregularities during installation [14–17]. In addition to errors in
installation and operation, technological heritage also has a significant impact on the performance and service life of new, as well
as repaired gear drives [18,19].
Transport of goods and materials by road accounts for about 75% of total transport in Europe for the 2013–2018 period [20].
The key participants in the transport of materials by road are heavy-duty trucks. For this reason, permanent work is necessary to
improve their reliability, and also to clarify and eliminate the causes of their failures. Failures of certain elements of heavy-duty
trucks, key participants in the transport of materials, and their impact on overall reliability were analyzed in the papers [21,22].
The geometric accuracy of machine parts in terms of dimensions, shapes and positions has a great influence on the working
capacity of subassemblies and assemblies in which they are installed. This effect is especially pronounced in gears and roller bearings.
For this reason, the ISO code system for tolerances on linear sizes [23] is not applied to these machine elements, but they are subject
to special tolerance systems [24,25]. In addition, these machine elements have a mutual influence on the working ability in terms
of reliability in operation, i.e the reliability of gear drives depends on the reliability of roller bearings, and vice versa [4,26].
During the operation of the heavy-duty truck considered in this paper, a large amount of damage was generated on the inner and
outer ring raceways of the bearing built into the support of the intermediate shaft of gearbox located between the engine and the
differential. Damage was also generated on the contact surfaces of the outer ring and housing, the inner ring and the shaft sleeve,
and the bearing cover and bearings outer ring. The pinion on the input shaft, which is meshed with the gear on the intermediate
shaft, suffered a tooth breakage. According to these facts, based on analytical and experimental methods, it was shown that the
generated damage to the roller bearing was caused by inadequate installation of the bearings’ outer ring in the gearbox housing
seat. The damage which occurred in the bearing led to the destruction of the gear tooth, and consequently to the failure of the
entire gearbox.

2. Gearbox structure

The heavy-duty truck, with an output power of 328 kW and a carrying capacity of 41 t, which is the subject of this paper, has
covered about 100.000 km by the time the gearbox failed. The kinematic scheme and the power flow through the gearbox are shown
in Fig. 1.
The gearbox consists of one input shaft (CD), which is connected to the vehicle’s main transmission gearbox from which power is
fed to the gearbox (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) via a Cardan shaft, and one output shaft, which connects the gearbox with two differentials via two output
couplings (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ). In addition to the input and output shafts, the gearbox also has one intermediate shaft (AB), Fig. 1. In the gearbox’s
first operational mode, power is transmitted from the input to the output shaft via the gear coupling 𝑆 and the helical gear pairs
1 − 2 and 4 − 5 (red line in Fig. 1). In this stage of transmission, the working gear ratio of the gearbox is 𝑖 = 1, i.e the gearbox only
transmits power, and does not transform it. In the second operational mode, power is transmitted via the gear coupling 𝑆 and the
helical gear pairs 3 − 4 and 4 − 5 (blue line in Fig. 1). In this operating mode, the working gear ratio of the gearbox is 𝑖 = 1652, i.e
the gearbox works as a speed reducer.
Tapered roller bearings are installed in the gearbox intermediate shaft supports A and B. Single bearing is installed in each
support. The bearing mark is 33 213 and the mounting arrangement is X. Power transmission between the shafts of the multistage
gearbox is achieved by helical gear pairs, Fig. 1. Gears 1 and 3 are located on the input shaft and form a loose fit with it, i.e a
sliding joint. Between these gears is a toothed coupling 𝑆. By means of fork and gear coupling 𝑆, gears 1 and 3 are being activated
(engaged) in power transmission. Gears 2 and 4 are located on the intermediate shaft AB. They are made in one piece with a shaft,
and are in constant engagement with the gears on the input shaft. Gear 4 on the intermediate shaft is simultaneously meshed with
gear 3 on the input shaft and gear 5 on the output shaft. Gear drive 4–5 is involved in power transmission in both operational modes.
Gear 5 on the output shaft is also made in one piece with the shaft. Oil lubrication is used for gears and roller bearings contact
surfaces.

3. Gearbox damage analysis

The damage generated on the gearbox unit parts is shown in Fig. 2. Damage occurred on gear 1 of the input shaft (Fig. 2a) and
on the bearing in the intermediate shaft support B (Fig. 2b).

No surface damage due to intense wear was observed on the gearbox gear’s teeth flanks. Only the fracture of one tooth on gear 1
was observed, Fig. 2a. On the inner and outer ring raceways of the bearing built into the support B of the intermediate shaft (located
next to gear 4, Fig. 1), high-intensity surface damage in the form of wear and plastic deformation was generated, Fig. 2b. Due to
the high temperature, the material of the inner ring lost its metallic color. In addition to these damages, a large amount of plastic
deformations also appeared on the contact surface of the inner ring side face, Fig. 2b. A plastically deformed rim with a diameter of
98 mm was formed on it. The diameter of the undamaged inner ring side face, according to the manufacturer’s catalogue, should be

2
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 1. Kinematic scheme and the power flow through the gearbox.

92.5 mm. On the outer ring side face, which is in contact with the bearing cover, damage in the form of sliding wear was observed,
Fig. 2b. Due to the intensive wear, the bearing and its manufacturer mark were read only at high magnification.
Damage in the form of wear and plastic deformation also occurred on the outer ring outside surface and gearbox housing, Fig. 2b.
On this contact surface, two characteristic areas marked with the letters G and K were observed. Area G extends to approximately
1/3 of the bearing outer ring width. The width of this zone is about 10 mm, measured from the outer ring side face, Fig. 2b. Only
surface damage in the form of sliding wear was noticed on it. In addition to sliding wear, plastic deformations and discoloration of
the material due to thermal stress were observed on the remaining part of the outer ring (zone K, which is approximately 2/3 of
the outer ring width), Fig. 2b.
In the other intermediate shaft support (support A) no wear damage was generated on the contact surfaces of the outer ring and
gearbox housing, nor the inner ring and sleeve. Also, no surface damage occurred on the outer ring side face and housing, so the
bearing and bearing manufacturer marks are easily identified.

4. Intermediate shaft load analysis

In order to consider the influence of the working load on the intensity of reactions in the intermediate shaft supports during
the power transmission in the gearbox, the loads acting on the shaft in the first and second operating modes were analyzed. The
analyzed intermediate shaft with the used mechanical models is shown in Fig. 3, where the values of the influential angles were
𝜑 = 40◦ and 𝜓 = 130◦ . The indicated spans on the shaft were: 𝑙1 = 60 mm, 𝑙2 = 140 mm, 𝑙3 = 40 mm.
The load intensity was determined for two cases of working conditions. First, the loads on the intermediate shaft were analyzed in
the designed operating conditions of the gearbox, when only the torque 𝑇 is transmitted (Fig. 3a). Then the analysis was performed
in conditions when additional thermal and mechanical loads began to arise in the bearing of the intermediate shaft support B, i.e
when the friction moment 𝑇𝜇 of high intensity started to generate on the bearing raceways (Fig. 3b).
For the load analysis of the intermediate shaft, a static mechanical model was formed in the form of a simply supported beam,
which is acted upon by a spatial system of forces: axial 𝐹𝑎 , radial 𝐹𝑟 and tangential 𝐹𝑡 , Fig. 3c. In gear drives, the intensity of
the axial and radial forces is a function of the tangential force intensity. At the same time, the tangential force depends on the
intensity of the torque. Accordingly, the intensities of the spatial system of forces can be expressed as a function of transmitted
torque: 𝐹𝑎 , 𝐹𝑟 , 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑓 (𝑇 , 𝑇𝜇 ). For the given geometry of the shaft and the associated gears, the intensities of these forces are:
( )
𝑇𝑖 + 𝑇𝜇
𝐹𝑡𝑖 = ;
𝑟𝑖 (1)
𝐹𝑟𝑖 = 𝐹𝑡𝑖 ⋅ tan 𝛼𝑖 ;
𝐹𝑎𝑖 = 𝐹𝑡𝑖 ⋅ tan 𝛽𝑖 ;

3
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 2. (a) Damage to gear 1 of the input shaft, (b) Bearing damage in intermediate shaft support B.

wherein, depending on the gearbox operational mode, the symbol 𝑖 indicates the gear on the intermediate shaft that participates in
the load transfer.
Based on the static equilibrium conditions of the mechanical model of the intermediate shaft in the designed conditions (𝑇𝜇 = 0),
and in the conditions when additional loads began to generate (𝑇𝜇 > 0), appropriate analytical models were formed to determine
reactions in intermediate shaft supports in the first and second operational mode, Table 1.
Functional relations of the intermediate shaft supports A and B force reactions ratios, in the radial 𝑭 𝒓𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝒓𝑨 and axial 𝑭 𝒂𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝒂𝑨
direction, as well as the resulting bearing load 𝑭 𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝑨 , from the ratio of the friction moment on the bearing raceways and the
torque transmitted by the intermediate shaft in the designed operating conditions 𝑻 𝝁∕𝑻 , are shown in Fig. 4a, when the gearbox is
operating in the first operational mode, and in Fig. 4b when the gearbox is operating in the second operational mode.
Reactions of supports under normal operating conditions
Under the designed operating conditions of the gearbox, the influence of the bearing raceways friction moment on the intensity
of reactions in the shaft supports is neglected, because the torque 𝑇 is much higher than the friction torque 𝑇𝜇 , i.e 𝑇𝜇 ∕𝑇 → 0.
Under such conditions, resulting reactions in supports A and B, in the gearbox’s first operational mode (diagram in Fig. 4a) are
of approximately the same intensity. In this case, the intensity of the reaction in the axial direction is 40% higher in support B
compared to the same reaction in support A. The intensity of the reaction in the radial direction is higher in support A compared
to the same reaction in support B by 20%.
In the gearbox second operational mode (diagram in Fig. 4b), the intensity of the resulting reaction in support B is three times
higher than the same reaction in support A. Reactions in the axial direction are of the same intensity. The radial reaction of support B
is three times greater than in support A. Based on the conducted analysis, it follows that, in the designed gearbox working conditions,
the bearing in support B is exposed to a higher intensity load in relation to the bearing in support A.
Reactions of supports in disturbed operating conditions
Under conditions when damage to the bearing in support B has started to generate, the friction moment 𝑇𝜇 > 0 increases on
the bearing raceways. In the first gearbox operational mode, Fig. 4a, with increasing friction moment, the intensity of the axial, as

4
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 3. Intermediate shaft torque: (a) in the designed operating conditions, (b) in the conditions of friction moment, (c) static mechanical model of intermediate
shaft.

Table 1
Review of analytical expressions for the intermediate shaft supports A and B reactions ratio in
𝐼 and 𝐼𝐼 gearbox operational mode.
𝑭 𝒓𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝒓𝑨
16.55𝑇 2 − 15.47𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 22.68𝑇𝜇2
I ( )0.5
522.15𝑇 − 2613.1𝑇 3 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 4906.4𝑇 2 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇2 − 4972.7𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇3 + 3021.4𝑇𝜇4
4

( )0.5
10.11𝑇 4 + 18.54𝑇 3 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 28.21𝑇 2 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇2 + 15.30𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇3 + 9.41𝑇𝜇4
II
𝑇 2 + 0.44𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 0.58𝑇𝜇2
𝑭 𝒂𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝒂𝑨
2.597𝑇 + 16.3𝑇𝜇
I 1+ ( )0.5
31.55𝑇 2 + 12834𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 133.2𝑇𝜇2
( )0.5
77.75𝑇 2 + 108.2𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 123.6𝑇𝜇2
II ( )0.5
−0.51𝑇 − 12.77𝑇𝜇 + 77.75𝑇 2 + 108.2𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 123.6𝑇𝜇2
𝑭 𝑩 ∕𝑭 𝑨
( )0.5 ( )0.5
1.30𝑇 + 8.15𝑇𝜇 + 2.65𝑇 2 − 2.47𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 3.63𝑇𝜇2 + 7.88𝑇 2 + 32.1𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 33.3𝑇𝜇2
I ( )0.5
31.55𝑇 2 + 128.4𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 133.2𝑇𝜇2
( )0.5
62.98𝑇 + 87.64𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 100.1𝑇𝜇2
2
II
7.67𝑇 2 + 3.36𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇𝜇 + 4.47𝑇𝜇2

well as the intensity of the resulting reaction in support B increases, relative to the same reactions in support A. The intensity of
the reaction in the radial direction decreases.
In the second gearbox operational mode, Fig. 4b, with increasing friction moment 𝑇𝜇 on the raceways of the bearing in the
intermediate shaft support B, the intensity of all reactions (axial, radial and resulting) increases concerning support A. The largest
gradient of the reaction increase is in the axial direction. The reaction in the radial direction, as well as the resulting reaction have
approximately the same increase gradient.
Based on the conducted analysis it follows that the operating conditions of the intermediate shaft support B bearing are
significantly unfavorable than the ones in support A, in terms of workload intensity. This phenomenon is present in the gearbox
designed operating conditions, as well as in conditions of damage generation to the bearing parts 𝑇𝜇 . This is especially pronounced
in the second operational mode, when the gearbox works as a speed reducer (𝑖 = 1652).

5
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 4. Support reactions ratio: (a) 𝐼 gearbox operational mode, (b) 𝐼𝐼 gearbox operational mode.

5. Analysis of geometrical, mechanical and thermal conditions in support B

In operating conditions, the fit of the bearing outer ring and the housing seat should prevent the outer ring from rotational
movement. Depending on the bearing operating conditions, the operating temperature and the working load, the fit between the
bearing outer ring and the gearbox housing seat, at a standard temperature of 20 ◦ C, can be loose with a clearance, or firm with
interference. In order to determine the fit between the bearing outer ring and the housing seat in the intermediate shaft supports A
and B, the bearing outer ring diameter measurements, as well as the diameter of the housing seat in both supports were performed.
Measurements were performed in three zones ‘‘UZ — Upper zone’’, ‘‘MZ — Middle zone’’ and ‘‘LZ — Lower zone’’, Fig. 5. The results
of these measurements are shown in Figs. 6a and 6b.
Based on the measuring results of the support A (Fig. 6a), it can be concluded that the connection between the bearing outer
ring and housing seat is achieved by an interference fit. If the operating conditions in the intermediate shaft supports A and B are
approximately the same in terms of load and temperature, then the outer ring fit should be the same for both bearings.
Due to the uneven distribution of plastic deformations in the region K, on the outer ring outer surface of the support B bearing
(Fig. 6b) the actual values of the outer ring diameter are highest in the zone ‘‘UZ’’ and lowest in the zone ‘‘LZ’’. In area G, where
destruction due to sliding wear is present, the actual diameter values are approximately the same throughout the entire area. The
housing material, gray cast iron, does not have a pronounced yield strength, so there is destruction due to sliding wear in the housing
seat, without traces of plastic deformations. Accordingly, the actual values of the diameter of the seat in the housing do not have
much scattering. Based on the results of the measurements of the geometrical characteristics in support B, Fig. 6b, it can be stated
that, due to the generated damage in the bearings outer ring and the housing seat connection, at standard temperature, there is a
loose fit, with a clearance which changes along the line of contact of these parts.
In order to identify the initial, mounting clearance between the outer ring and the housing seat in the support B, it is necessary
to perform an analysis of the thermal expansion of the assembly parts. For this analysis, it is necessary to know the temperature field
in the contact zone of the bearing’s outer ring and the housing seat. Since the hardness of the material depends on the temperature,
hardness measurements were performed on the support B bearing’s inner and outer side face surfaces, in order to determine the

6
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 5. Measuring points on the bearing outer ring.

Fig. 6. Geometrical characteristics measuring results: (a) support A, (b) support B.

operating temperature of the bearing parts. Initial values of hardness are determined based on the same measurements performed
on an undamaged bearing in support A. The position of the measuring points and the measurement results are shown in Fig. 7.
The bearing in the intermediate shaft support A has a hardness within the required limits, following the recommendations of
the bearing manufacturer from 57 to 65 HRC, with a very little scattering of the measurement results. The bearing built into the
support B has significantly lower hardness values and high scattering of the measurement results. The smallest difference in hardness
in relation to the required values was measured at measuring point O1 (Outer ring 1). At other measuring points, there are large
differences in hardness in relation to the required values. Based on the mechanical characteristics and temperature dependence, for
the bearing material (steel 100Cr6) [27–32] and measured hardness values, the temperature can be determined at different bearing
points, the diagram in Fig. 7b. The lowest measured hardness value of 32 HRC was registered at the O2 measuring point. A value
of about 600 ◦ C corresponds to this hardness.
In zone G of the support B bearing’s outer ring, no plastic deformations were generated, but only sliding wear damage. This
means that, in the most unfavorable working conditions, when the temperature in this zone is 300 ◦ C, there is a clearance between
the bearing outer ring and the housing seat. Its size depends on the size of the initial mounting clearance. In order to determine
the initial mounting clearance between these parts, a dependence which takes into account clearance, thermal expansion of the
assembly parts and the operating temperature was formed:
( )( )
𝑍𝜃0 = 𝐷 𝛼𝑖 − 𝛼𝑒 𝜃0 − 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑍𝜃𝑟 , (2)

wherein:

𝑍𝜃0 - initial-mounting clearance,

𝐷 - bearing outer ring diameter (housing seat diameter),

7
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 7. (a) Hardness measurement points position, (b) results of hardness measurement.

Fig. 8. Influence of initial clearance and operating temperature on the formation of interference fit in the area K of the contact surface.

𝛼𝑖 - the coefficient of thermal expansion for the inner part (bearing outer ring),
𝛼𝑒 - the coefficient of thermal expansion for the outer part (housing),
𝜃0 - initial, standard temperature 20 ◦ C,
𝜃𝑟 - operating temperature,
𝑍𝜃𝑟 - operating temperature clearance.

The minimum value of the mounting clearance will appear in the limiting case, when it is assumed that at an operating
temperature of 300 ◦ C, the clearance between the outer ring of the bearing and the housing is equal to zero, 𝑍𝜃𝑟 = 0. The dependence
between the clearance and the temperature, in this limiting case, is shown by the solid line DCP in Fig. 8. The position of point C
is determined by the boundary conditions: 𝑍𝜃𝑟 = 0, 𝜃𝑟 = 300 ◦ C. These boundary conditions correspond to the minimum value of
the mounting clearance, at a temperature of 20 ◦ C, which is 100.8 μm, point D in Fig. 8. Bearing in mind the fact that no plastic
deformations occurred in area G on the bearings outer ring, this means that at temperatures of 300 ◦ C, the operating clearance was
𝑍𝜃𝑟 > 0 and the mounting clearance is greater than 100.8 μm. Equidistant lines located in the area above the DCP line correspond
to these conditions. According to the bearing manufacturer’s recommendations, for extremely high operating temperatures, the
maximum permissible mounting clearance for the nominal outer ring diameter of 120 mm should be 67 μm, point E in Fig. 8
(fit designation ∅120 G7∕hB). The interval of change of the working and assembly clearance limiting values, according to the
recommendations of the bearing manufacturer is shown by dashed lines in the diagram from Fig. 8, while the allowable space in
which the actual clearance value should be found is colored gray.
Based on this analysis, it follows that the connection of the bearings outer ring and the housing seat, in the support B of the
intermediate shaft, is made with a clearance that is significantly larger than the permitted one. This is the main reason why the outer
ring slides in relation to the housing seat. In the area K of the outer ring, due to the high operating temperature (approximately
600 ◦ C), an interference was formed between the bearing outer ring and housing seat.
In the boundary case, when the clearance in area G, at an operating temperature of 300 ◦ C is equal to zero (point C in Fig. 8),
the interference in area K is 108 μm (point P in Fig. 8). Due to this interference, the contact surface of the bearings outer ring and

8
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 9. Distribution of tangential and radial stress in the cross section of the bearing outer ring in region K.

Fig. 10. Influence of safety factor, interference and temperature on the generation of plastic deformations in the area K of the bearing outer ring.

housing seat in the area K is exposed to the contact pressure 𝑝, Fig. 9. Its intensity depends on the size of the interference, the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the meshed parts and their geometric characteristics. Due to the action of contact pressure,
radial and tangential operating stresses are generated on the contact surface of the outer bearing ring in area K, Fig. 9. When the
operating stresses reach the critical values (in this case the material yield stress), plastic deformations are generated on the contact
surface of the bearing’s outer ring, Fig. 2b.
The working ability analysis of the bearing’s outer ring contact surface in the area K, from the aspect of the plastic deformations,
was conducted on the basis of the safety factor. It represents the ratio of critical and operating stress. Due to the inevitable scattering
of the critical and operating stress values, the minimum value of the safety factor against plastic deformation should be greater than
or in the limiting case equal to 1.50.
To analyze the working capacity of the bearings’ outer ring contact surface in area K, a relationship was established between the
plastic deformations safety factor, interference and the operating temperature, the diagram in Fig. 10. The dashed line in Fig. 10
represents the boundary line. At this boundary line, the safety factor takes its minimum value, which is 1.50. The boundary line
divides the diagram into two zones. In one zone there are no plastic deformations, while in the other zone plastic deformations are
generated on the bearings outer ring contact surface. The intensity of plastic deformations increases with decreasing values of the
safety factor. The highest intensity of plastic deformations of the parts of the outer ring is in the area where the values of the safety
factor are equal to one, Fig. 10.
Based on the diagram on Fig. 10, it can be concluded that, depending on the initial interference/clearance, for values of operating
temperatures over 300 ◦ C there is a risk of plastic deformation of the most endangered parts of the bearing’s outer ring.

9
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 11. (a) The appearance of a damaged gear, (b) Tooth fracture surface.

6. Gear tooth fracture analysis

The heavy-duty truck lost its working capacity when the tooth on gear 1 (positioned on the gearbox input shaft) fractured. The
fracture of the tooth occurred while the truck was moving on the landfill, in order to position the rear part of the truck for unloading
materials. At the time of the failure, the gearbox was in first operational mode. For the analysis of tooth fracture, in addition to
visual inspection, appropriate experimental research was conducted. Fig. 11a shows gear 1 of the gearbox with a fractured tooth.
The fracture surface of the tooth is shown in Fig. 11b. It extends from the bottom land of the gear front surface, and ends at the
tooth top land, on a position which is approximately 10 mm away from the gear’s back surface. The fracture surface is dominated
by a zone of static fracture, with traces of rupture of the material structure. This indicates the fact that the fracture of the tooth
occurred instantaneously, suddenly and not in the process of long-term development of the initial fatigue crack.
In order to analyze the influence of the profile shape on the bending strength of the gear drive teeth, the ratio of the gear teeth root
stress for gears 1 and 2 was considered. The stress state at the gear tooth root was analyzed according to conventional calculation
methods [33]. The considered stress ratio of the meshed gears teeth root can be reduced only to the ratio of the corresponding
factors — the tooth form factor 𝑌𝐹 and the stress correction factor 𝑌𝑆 :
𝜎𝐹 1 𝑌 ⋅𝑌
= 𝐹 1 𝑆1 . (3)
𝜎𝐹 2 𝑌𝐹 2 ⋅ 𝑌𝑆2
For the given geometry of analyzed gears, using values for factors 𝑌𝐹 and 𝑌𝑆 according to the [33], gear teeth root stress ratio
was calculated to be 1.08. Based on this value, it can be concluded that the gear 1 teeth have a less favorable profile shape from the
aspect of the tooth root stress state, i.e. gear 1 tooth root stress is approximately 8% higher than the gear 2. Such small differences in
the gears’ tooth root stress indicate that the geometric characteristics of the tooth profile were not the main cause of tooth breakage.
Large surface damage of the bearing in the intermediate shaft support B was reflected in the loss of parallelism of the rotational
axes of the meshed gear pair 1–2 shafts. Studies have shown [34–37] that the parallelism of the rotational axis of the shafts has
a particularly large influence on the load distribution along the line of contact of the meshed teeth. The influence of the line load
distribution over the gear face width on the gear teeth root stress is taken into account by the face load factor 𝐾𝛽 [33]. In the ideal
case, when the line load distribution is uniform over the gear face width 𝑏, each point of the line of contact equally participates in
the transmission of the gear pair load, Fig. 12a. In that case, the factor 𝐾𝛽 reaches a minimum value equal to the number one.
With the increase in the non-parallelism of the meshed gears rotational axes, the uniform distribution of the line load changes
to an uneven distribution. A characteristic example of uneven load distribution is shown in Fig. 12b. In this case, only one point of
the contact line does not participate in the load transfer. Then the value of the factor 𝐾𝛽 equals 2. With a further increase in the
non-parallelism meshed gears rotational axes, the unevenness of the linear load distribution also increases. In this case, there is a
reduction in the length of contact lines (𝑏𝑘 ) which take part in the transmission of the load of the gear drive, Fig. 12c. With this
distribution, the maximum values of the line load (𝑞max ) are significantly higher than the mean line load 𝑞, so the value of the 𝐾𝛽
factor is greater than the number 2.
The simultaneous influence of the load distribution and the gear teeth profile shape on the stress state at the gear pair 1 tooth
root was analyzed using the finite elements method. The main parameters of gear 1 on the basis of which the finite elements method
model was formed are: number of teeth 𝑧 = 33, module 𝑚𝑛 = 6 mm, helix angle 𝛽 = 18◦ , profile shift coefficient 𝑥 = 0.75, gear face
width 𝑏 = 72 mm. Fig. 13a shows how the single tooth is separated from the rest of the gear, as well as finite elements mesh. The
analysis was carried out for the most unfavorable case from the aspect of the tooth root stress state, when the total load of the gear
pair is transmitted only through one pair of simultaneously meshed gear teeth and acts at the tooth tip. In this case, the arm of the
tooth bending force is the furthest away from the critical section — tooth clamped end. For this reason, the tooth is divided into
eight equal widths. Also, in the uppermost part of the tooth, surface segments were introduced through which the load was applied,
Fig. 13b.

10
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 12. Line load distribution of simultaneously meshed gear teeth.

Fig. 13. FEM model of analyzed tooth: (a) elements mesh, (b) load and boundary conditions, (c) tooth root stress results.

11
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 14. Gear tooth root stress ratio.

Table 2
Chemical composition of steel gear.
Element C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Al
Mass. % 0,22 0,22 0,75 0,005 0,016 0,76 0,15 0,40 0,24 0,02

In the case of uniform line load distribution, the attack point of the load is located in the middle segments of the tooth width,
𝑦 = 𝑏∕2, and the tooth root stress has the lowest value 𝜎𝐹 (𝑦=𝑏∕2) . The effect of increasing the non-parallelism of the meshed gears
rotational axes on the load distribution is simulated by moving the attack point of the load along the width of the tooth, from
central to end segments, Fig. 13b (𝑦 = 0 … 𝑏). For the case of displaced load action, the values of the maximum tooth root stress
𝜎𝐹 (𝑦) , which depend on the position of the load attack segment, were registered. Each segment was loaded with the same intensity.
Fig. 13c shows the results of the stress state at gear 1 tooth root when the line load distribution is extremely uneven. In this case
the entire load of the gear acts on the end segment of the tooth, and root stress has highest value.
𝜎
Fig. 14 shows the diagram of the dependence of the gear teeth root stress ratio 𝜎 𝐹 (𝑦) as a function of the teeth load attack
𝐹 (𝑦=𝑏∕2)
point position.
From Fig. 14, it can be concluded that the line load distribution of the meshed gear teeth has a particularly strong influence on
the stress state in the critical cross-section of the tooth root. In the case of extremely uneven line load distribution, the stress at the
tooth root of gear 1 is approximately 100% higher than in the case of uniform line load distribution, Fig. 13. Due to the extremely
uneven distribution of the line load, the fracture surface of the tooth does not extend over the entire length of the tooth, i.e. from
one to the other face surface of the tooth, Fig. 11. The fracture surface starts on one face surface and ends on the fractured tooth top
land, at a place that is about 5 mm away from the other face surface (addendum extend crack). These observations are in agreement
with [38] in which it was shown that the crack propagation in helical gears has such a growth tendency.

6.1. Experimental research

6.1.1. Chemical composition test

The chemical composition was tested by optical emission spectrometry (OES) on a 𝐵𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑃 𝑜𝑟𝑡 device. The results of the
chemical composition test are given in Table 2.
Based on the results of the chemical composition, the gear material was determined, 20MoCr3 cementation steel-according to
the standard EN 10084.

6.1.2. Microhardness test

Hardness was measured by the Vickers method, with an indentation force of 2 N, according to the EN ISO 6507-1, on the cross
section of the gear tooth, through the cementation layer. The results of microhardness measurements are shown in Fig. 15.
The depth of cementation on the gear tooth flank is 1.15 mm (criterion 540 HV). Based on the hardness measures carried out on
gear teeth, and taking into account gear module, it can be concluded that the depth of the hardened layer is within the recommended
limits, most commonly found in the literature [39].

6.1.3. Microstructure test

For this test, samples were prepared by mechanical grinding and polishing. The etching of the microstructure was performed
in 3% Nital. Microstructure testing was performed on a 𝐿𝑒𝑖𝑐𝑎 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛 optical microscope, using 𝐿𝐴𝑆 𝑉 4.3 image processing
software. The change of microstructure through the cementation layer is shown in Fig. 16.
For the purpose of this testing, specimens were prepared by mechanical grinding and polishing. Etching of the specimens
was carried out using Nital solution with 3% concentration of nitric acid. Microstructure examination was performed on an
optical microscope Leica Metalloplan, and using LAS V 4: 3 image processing software. The change in microstructure through the
cementation layer is shown in Fig. 13. The hardness values on the contour contact surface correspond to low-tempered needle-like

12
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 15. Microhardness distribution along the depth of the tooth cementation layer.

Fig. 16. Microstructure of tooth cementation layer and core at 200x magnification: (a) upper plateau of hardness, (b) transition layer, (c) core.

martensite microstructure (Fig. 16a). In the transition layer, the observed microstructure is martensitic–bainitic (Fig. 16b), while
the core has a more bainitic–martensitic one (Fig. 16c).
It can be concluded that the heat treatment was performed on a satisfactory level, based on the presence of characteristic phases
in the respective zones which are in accordance with microhardness measurements (diagram in Fig. 12)).

13
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Fig. 17. Microcracks: (a) at the tooth root, (b) at the tooth addendum.

Fig. 18. Tooth flank micropitting.

6.1.4. Microfractographic examination

Microfractographic examination of the section of cut teeth was performed on an optical microscope (OM) and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). In the analyzed teeth, microcracks were observed on the cemented and grinded side surfaces. Some were located
in the lower zones (oriented towards the root, Fig. 17a), while some were located in the upper zones (oriented towards the tooth
addendum, Fig. 17b). Cracks are initiated in areas which are at a relatively large distance from the gear pitch diameter, i.e in areas
where pronounced wear occurs due to high intensity sliding of meshed flanks. The observed cracks had a depth of slightly less than
1 mm in the tooth flank material.
In addition to the cracks observed on the optical microscope, the presence of micropitting on the flank surface was observed in
most of the teeth analyzed on the SEM microscope. The typical appearance of the micropitting on the gear teeth flanks is shown
in Fig. 18. The presence of micropitting is inevitable in the initial period of gear operation, and is a side effect of the gear teeth
running in process. The depth of micropitting from 5 to 7 μm, as well as the fact that it did not grow into macropitting (or some
other form of pitting damage) indicate that the gear teeth flanks suffered a small number of load cycles before gear failure due to
tooth breakage. The micropitting observed on the gear teeth flanks represent the stress concentration, with a tendency to grow into
microcracks, Fig. 17.
The experimental studies presented in the Section 6.1 ruled out the possibility that the tooth fracture occurred due to poor heat
treatment, microstructural irregularities or long-term development of fatigue damage.

7. Discussion

Based on the intermediate shaft working load analysis (Figs. 4a and 4b), it can be stated that, in the designed working conditions,
in support B, in the first gearbox operational mode, less favorable conditions are generated from the aspect of outer ring sliding.

14
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

Significantly higher intensity of the reaction in the axial direction in the support B generates a higher frictional resistance on the
bearing raceways in relation to the support A. At the same time, the reaction in the radial direction is of lower intensity in support
B, so the resistance against the bearings’ outer ring sliding in this support is lower than in support A. This means that, in order to
reduce the risk of the bearing outer ring sliding in support B, it should be installed in the gearbox housing with a interference which
is larger than the one in support A.
Based on the results of measuring the geometrical characteristics (bearings outer ring diameter and housing seat diameter, Figs. 6a
and 6b), it is shown that the fitting of these parts in support A is achieved with interference. The same fit in support B is achieved
with a clearance, Fig. 6b. Due to this clearance, the actual contact surface between the bearings’ outer ring and the housing seat
in the support B was significantly reduced, which was reflected in the reduction of the friction moment of this contact surface.
The reduced friction moment could not prevent the outer ring from sliding under the action of the friction resistance formed on
the bearing raceways in the support B. As a result, the outer ring of the bearing in support B slide. Under the sliding conditions
thermal energy was generated on the contact surfaces. Different conditions of heat dissipation from the contact zone, led to uneven
heating of the bearing’s outer ring. Based on the results of hardness measurements and the correlation between hardness, mechanical
characteristics of the material and temperature, Fig. 7, it was shown that the temperature field in the contact zone was extremely
inhomogeneous. The highest temperature of 600 ◦ C is in the region K at the measuring point O2, where the thickness of the ring
is the smallest, and the conditions of heat exchange with the environment are unfavorable. The lowest temperature of 300 ◦ C is in
the region G at the measuring point O1, where the thickness of the ring is greatest, and the heat exchange conditions are favorable
due to the direct contact of the bearing cover with the environment.
Due to the uneven temperature field, the dimensional increase of the bearings outer ring in the radial direction is also uneven.
Dimension increase gradient in zone K is larger than in zone G. Due to this, the formed clearance, achieved during the bearing
assembly process, decreased unevenly along the width of the bearing. Depending on the truck operating conditions and the time of
continuous operation, the clearance in the area K of the bearing’s outer ring gradually turned into interference. The maximum value
of the interference corresponds to a maximum temperature of 600 ◦ C. Due to the increase in interference, compressive stresses were
formed on the outer ring in zone K, Fig. 9. Depending on the magnitude of the operating temperature and the safety factor against
the occurrence of plastic deformations, the operating stresses reached the value of critical stresses, i.e. material yielding. The largest
amount of plastic deformations was generated at a temperature of 600 ◦ C in the area where the values of the safety factor are equal
to one, Fig. 10.
Large axial forces in the intermediate shaft support B, in conjunction with high temperature, led to the formation of a plastically
deformed rim on the contact surface of the bearing’s inner ring and rolling elements, and to intense sliding wear of the outer ring
side face surface in contact with the bearing cover, Fig. 2b.
Due to the gradual deterioration of the working capacity of the bearing in the support B in the gearbox, higher loads were
generated compared to the designed ones. Under the action of these loads, significantly higher operating stresses were generated
in the gearbox gears teeth roots and flanks. It is known that pitting is generated on the tooth dedendum [40], where high stresses
occur at the tooth root. The formed initial pitting at the tooth root represents a strong source of stress concentration. Under the
action of high periodic stresses at the tooth root, the formed sources of stress concentration were transformed into fatigue cracks.
Due to their gradual spread, a small area of dynamic damage of the tooth root was formed, Fig. 11b. It has led to a reduction in the
static fracture area. When the bearing damage in the support B achieved a critical value, i.e when there was a wedge (jamming) of
tapered rollers between the raceways of the outer and inner ring, the load in the gearbox reached a critical value in terms of gear
teeth root strength. A critical load appeared during the positioning of the truck for material unloading at the landfill. The generated
critical load in conjunction with the formed cracks at the tooth root led to the fracture of the tooth.

8. Conclusion

Damage to two machine elements was generated on the heavy duty truck’s gearbox. Tapered roller bearing in intermediate shaft
support, and helical gear on the gearbox input shaft. Theoretical and experimental research conducted in this paper showed that
the generated damages are interdependent. First, the damage was generated on the bearing in the support B of the intermediate
shaft. This damage has led to additional loading of the gearbox. When the additional loads reached a critical value from the aspect
of the gear tooth root strength, volumetric destruction occurred, i.e fracture of one tooth.
It is shown in the paper that the damage to the bearing in the support B of the intermediate shaft was caused by the inadequate
mounting of the bearing’s outer ring in the housing seat. The required interference fit was replaced by a loose fit with a clearance.
The formed clearance enabled the rotational movement of the bearing’s outer ring in the housing seat. The sliding joint generated
damage in the form of sliding wear and heat energy that was unevenly dissipated from the contact zone of the connected parts. The
inhomogeneous temperature field led to the formation of interference on one part of the contact surface. The formed interference
prevented the relative movement of the bearing’s outer ring in the housing seat, but at the same time enabled the generation of a
large surface pressure in the contact zone of the connected parts. Due to the action of surface pressure in the bearing’s outer ring,
compressive stresses were induced which led to the formation of permanent plastic deformations in the contact zone.
A large number of scientific papers and statistical analyzes of bearing manufacturers and users have shown that the correct
installation of bearings has a very strong impact on the reliable functioning of bearings and other elements of the machine system.
Accordingly, work should be done to increase the level of awareness of all actors involved in the chain of formation of the
shaft–bearing–housing systems. Engineers who design system tolerances and technicians who install and maintain them.

15
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mileta Ristivojević: Conception and design, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Writing – original draft, Writing – review
& editing. Vojkan Lučanin: Conception and design. Aleksandar Dimić: Conception and design, Analysis and interpretation of the
data, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Žarko Mišković: Analysis and interpretation of the data. Zijah Burzić:
Analysis and interpretation of the data. Zoran Stamenić: Analysis and interpretation of the data. Milan Rackov: Writing – review
& editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments

This work has been performed as a part of activities within the project 451-03-9/2021-14/200105 supported by the Republic of
Serbia, Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, whose financial help is gratefully acknowledged. All authors
have participated in approval of the final version.

References

[1] K.-D. Bouzakis, E. Lili, N. Michailidis, O. Friderikos, Manufacturing of cylindrical gears by generating cutting processes: A critical synthesis of analysis
methods, CIRP Ann. 57 (2) (2008) 676–696.
[2] C. Özel, Research of production times and cutting of the spur gears by end mill in CNC milling machine, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 54 (1) (2011)
203–213.
[3] D.T. Jelaska, Gears and Gear Drives, John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
[4] F. Oyague, C.P. Butterfield, S. Sheng, Gearbox Reliability Collaborative Analysis Round Robin, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US Department of
Energy, Office of . . . , 2009.
[5] L.E. Alban, Systematic Analysis of Gear Failures, ASM International, 1985.
[6] G. Kosec, A. Nagode, I. Budak, A. Antic, B. Kosec, Failure of the pinion from the drive of a cement mill, Eng. Fail. Anal. 18 (1) (2011) 450–454.
[7] O. Asi, Fatigue failure of a helical gear in a gearbox, Eng. Fail. Anal. 13 (7) (2006) 1116–1125.
[8] S. Netpu, P. Srichandr, Failure of a helical gear in a power plant, Eng. Fail. Anal. 32 (2013) 81–90.
[9] Z. Yu, X. Xu, Failure analysis of an idler gear of diesel engine gearbox, Eng. Fail. Anal. 13 (7) (2006) 1092–1100.
[10] K. Gurumoorthy, B.D. Faye, A. Ghosh, Handling abuse causes premature bearing failures, Case Stud. Eng. Fail. Anal. 4 (1) (2013) 235–242.
[11] M. Ristivojevic, R. Mitrovic, T. Lazovic, Investigation of causes of fan shaft failure, Eng. Fail. Anal. 17 (5) (2010) 1188–1194.
[12] M. Ognjanovic, A. Simonovic, M. Ristivojevic, T. Lazovic, Research of rail traction shafts and axles fractures towards impact of service conditions and
fatigue damage accumulation, Eng. Fail. Anal. 17 (7–8) (2010) 1560–1571.
[13] W. Hu, Z. Liu, D. Liu, X. Hai, Fatigue failure analysis of high speed train gearbox housings, Eng. Fail. Anal. 73 (2017) 57–71.
[14] C. Truman, J. Booker, Analysis of a shrink-fit failure on a gear hub/shaft assembly, Eng. Fail. Anal. 14 (4) (2007) 557–572.
[15] E. Zdravecká, M. Ondáč, J. Tkáčová, M. Vojtko, J. Slota, Failure analysis of the pulleys during the press-fit assembling process, Case Stud. Eng. Fail. Anal.
3 (2015) 34–38.
[16] M. Ristivojević, V. Milošević-Mitić, Z. Burzić, M.Š. Radić, Analysis of the stress state of multilayer pressed joints, Eng. Fail. Anal. 18 (6) (2011) 1477–1486.
[17] Z. Miskovic, R. Mitrovic, Z. Stamenic, G.M. Bakic, M.B. Djukic, B. Rajicic, The development and application of the new methodology for conveyor idlers
fits testing, Procedia Struct. Integr. 13 (2018) 2143–2151.
[18] S.L. Markovic, T.M. Lazovic, Technological heredity–A decisive factor for tribological features of regenerated gears, Eng. Fail. Anal. 42 (2014) 121–132.
[19] A.K. Das, Technological heredity in spur gear manufacturing, J. Mater Process. Technol. 91 (1–3) (1999) 66–74.
[20] J. Nowakowska-Grunt, M. Strzelczyk, The current situation and the directions of changes in road freight transport in the European union, Transp. Res.
Procedia 39 (2019) 350–359.
[21] V.N. Rao, J.W. Eischen, Failure analysis of mixed mode crack growth in heavy duty truck frame rail, Case Stud. Eng. Fail. Anal. 5 (2016) 67–74.
[22] Z. Yu, X. Xu, Failure investigation of a truck diesel engine gear train consisting of crankshaft and camshaft gears, Eng. Fail. Anal. 17 (2) (2010) 537–545.
[23] ISO 286-1, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — ISO code system for tolerances on linear sizes — Part 1: Basis of tolerances, deviations and fits,
Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, 2010.
[24] ISO 355, Rolling bearings — Tapered roller bearings — Boundary dimensions and series designations, Standard, International Organization for
Standardization, Geneva, CH, 2019.
[25] ISO 1328-1, Cylindrical gears — ISO system of flank tolerance classification — Part 1: Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to flanks
of gear teeth, Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, CH, 2013.
[26] Y. Gong, J.-L. Fei, J. Tang, Z.-G. Yang, Y.-M. Han, X. Li, Failure analysis on abnormal wear of roller bearings in gearbox for wind turbine, Eng. Fail. Anal.
82 (2017) 26–38.
[27] A. Hor, F. Morel, J.-L. Lebrun, G. Germain, An experimental investigation of the behaviour of steels over large temperature and strain rate ranges, Int. J.
Mech. Sci. 67 (2013) 108–122.
[28] M. Wendel, F. Hoffmann, W. Datchary, Bearing steels for induction hardening–part I, HTM J. Heat Treatment Mater. 71 (1) (2016) 20–34.
[29] R. Kawulok, I. Schindler, J. Sojka, P. Kawulok, P. Opěla, L. Pindor, E. Grycz, S. Rusz, V. Ševčák, Effect of strain on transformation diagrams of 100Cr6
steel, Crystals 10 (4) (2020) 326.
[30] N.T. Boca, Ž.Z. Mišković, R.M. Mitrović, B.M. Obradović, M.M. Kuraica, Effects of high thermal loads produced by interaction of accelerated plasma with
steel surfaces (100Cr6, 16MnCr5, 42CrMo4), Surf. Coat. Technol. 416 (2021) 127157.

16
M. Ristivojević et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 144 (2023) 106995

[31] W. Püttgen, B. Hallstedt, W. Bleck, J.F. Löffler, P.J. Uggowitzer, On the microstructure and properties of 100Cr6 steel processed in the semi-solid state,
Acta Mater. 55 (19) (2007) 6553–6560.
[32] H. Bhadeshia, Steels for bearings, Prog. Mater. Sci. 57 (2) (2012) 268–435.
[33] ISO 6336-3, Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears — Part 3: Calculation of tooth bending strength, Standard, International Organization
for Standardization, Geneva, CH, 2019.
[34] K. Mao, Gear tooth contact analysis and its application in the reduction of fatigue wear, Wear 262 (11–12) (2007) 1281–1288.
[35] M. Hotait, A. Kahraman, Experiments on root stresses of helical gears with lead crown and misalignments, J. Mech. Des. 130 (7) (2008) 074502:1–074502:5.
[36] R. Guilbault, C. Gosselin, L. Cloutier, Helical gears, effects of tooth deviations and tooth modifications on load sharing and fillet stresses, J. Mech. Des.
128 (2) (2006) 444–456.
[37] J. Haigh, J. Fawcett, Effects of misalignment on load distribution in large face-width helical gears, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part K: J. Multi-Body Dyn. 217
(2) (2003) 93–98.
[38] Y. Huangfu, K. Chen, H. Ma, L. Che, Z. Li, B. Wen, Deformation and meshing stiffness analysis of cracked helical gear pairs, Eng. Fail. Anal. 95 (2019)
30–46.
[39] J.R. Davis, Gear Materials, Properties, and Manufacture, ASM International, 2005.
[40] M. Ristivojević, T. Lazović, A. Vencl, Studying the load carrying capacity of spur gear tooth flanks, Mech. Mach. Theory 59 (2013) 125–137.

17