Flexible Pavement Design –

From Cradle to Cradle

Prof. A. Veeraragavan
av@faculty.iitm.ac.in
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 Lectures so far….
• Design of Flexible Pavement Using Coir Geotextiles
• Principles of pavement design – An Overview
• Role of pavement distress and wheel load characteristics
• Traffic characteristics – axle load spectrum, VDF, ESAL
• Material Characterization / Lab. Based Performance Tests
• Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design
• Role of subgrade and Environmental Characteristics
• Guidelines for Flexible Pavement Design
• Flexible Pavement Design using IITPAVE

Based on the lessons learnt:

Can you design a pavement that will not reach 20 mm rutting and / or
20% crack area, during the design life and guarantee the performance?
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 Pavement Design Period

• Pavements are typically designed for a specified “design life”.

• Design period- 20 years for NH/SH/MDR
• Other category of roads- 15 years
• “Design period to be adopted for pavement design is the time
span considered appropriate for the road pavement to function
without major rehabilitation”. (IRC:37-2018)

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 Rehabilitation and Maintenance
• Minor rehabilitation (thickness less than 40 mm) and Preventive
Maintenance – Fog Seal/ Slurry Seal/ SD/ Micro-surfacing etc.
• Improves functional performance; thickness more than 40 mm is
considered as major rehabilitation, to improve the structural condition
viz., load carrying capacity

• Extend the life / Delay the time for Major Rehabilitation

• Reduce the life cycle cost

• Improves performance
• Pavement thickness design does not consider pavement
preservation / maintenance
• Pavement design process should integrate maintenance and
rehabilitation 4
 Benefits of Preventive Maintenance Treatment
Do – nothing
condition indicator
curve Application of Condition
PM activity indicator curve
5.0 after PM
application

4.0 AREABENEFIT
Serviceability

3.0
Condition trigger
level = 2.5
2.0
Expected do-
nothing service
life = 15 yr
1.0
Expected
service life with
PM = 17 yr

2 5 10 15 20
Age, yrs
 Points to Ponder
• Will the materials to be used in construction be the similar to that
tested in the lab. – soil, aggregates, binder, etc.?
• Will the mix that is constructed be similar as that characterized in
the lab., viz., gradation, binder type, binder content, modulus,
density, modulus etc.?
• Are mix characteristics constant or will vary with the test protocol?
Eg: Resilient Modulus – ASTM D4123 or D7369. If so, how should it
be accounted in the design?
 Points to Ponder

• Will the traffic spectrum assumed in the design will represent

the actual spectrum during the design life?
• Are maintenance and preservations considered in the design
process? Will they have an influence on the performance?
• Are all performance parameters accounted in the design?
• How quality of construction is related to design parameters?
• Will reliability concept address all the design uncertainties?

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 Road Composition

Vehicle

Black Topping

Base Road
Crust
Sub Base

500mm Sub Grade

450
Embankment
Ground Level
Design- Cradle to Cradle?

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Pavement Design Principles

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 Traditional Approach
Binders: VG-30/
VG-40/ PMB/
CRMB/NRMB

BC/SDBC/SMA ?
NMAS - 19mm/13.2 mm
Asphalt (Surface Mix) 4% Air Voids
E* = 1250 / 2000 MPa
26.5 mm NMAS – Density: 92-96% of Gmm
DBM-2 or DBM-1 or
SMA? Asphalt (Binder Mix)
4% Air voids
E-2000/ 3000 MPa 37.5 mm NMAS
Density: 92-96% of Gmm -DBM-2/DBM-1 or SMA?
Asphalt (Base Mix) 4% Air Voids E*=2000 /
3000 MPa
Density: 90-94% of Gmm
 Pavement Layers: Roles?
• Bituminous Laywers:
• Resistance to Deformation
• Resistance to Fatigue
• Resistance to Environmental Surface
Degradation
• Durable
• Low Permeability Upper Binder Course
• Good Workability
• Sufficient Surface Texture Asphalt
Lower Binder Course
Base Course:
Enhances load carrying capacity Granular Base/
Sub-Base:
Sub-Base
Enhances Load carrying /
improves permeability

Subgrade : Subgrade Soil

Supports all pavement
layers and traffic loads
 Role of Asphalt Pavement Layers

Ensures Ride quality

Rut resistant
Wearing
Top Down Crack resistant
Aging (time/climate)

Rut resistant/Crack resistant?

Asphalt Distributes to load to lower layers
Upper Binder Support surface layer
High modulus (stiffness)
Granular Base

Subgrade Soil Crack/fatigue resistant

Protect underlying layers
Lower Binder
Support upper layers
Durable (moisture damage)
 Bituminous Pavement Layers: How?
Ride quality Modified Binders?
Rut resistant Balanced Mix Design?
Top Down Top Down Cracking?
Wearing Crack resistant Recycle?
Aging(time/climate)

Rut resistant/Crack Modified Binders?

Resistant - High Modulus High Modulus –
Base Lower thickness?
Asphalt Intermediate
Distributes to load to Recycle?
lower layers
Support surface layer
High binder % to
Crack/Fatigue Resistant
increase fatigue
Protect underlying layers
Base life?
Support upper layers
Low voids?
Recycle?
 Choice of Bituminous Mixes in India
• Bituminous Macadam (BM) Grading 1
• Bituminous Macadam (BM) Grading 2
• Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) Grading 1
• Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) Grading 2
• Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) Grading 1
• Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) Grading 2
• Bituminous Concrete (BC) Grading 1
• Bituminous Concrete (BC) Grading 2
• Stone Matrix Asphalt Grading 1
• Stone Matrix Asphalt Grading 2
• Open-Graded Premix Carpet
• Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS)
Source: Wayne Jones, ’Managing Density for Asphalt Pavement’, 57th Annual Asphalt Pavement
Conference, Asphalt Pavement Association Michigan rence, 2013 16
 Dense Bituminous Mixes (Proposed)
Sieve Size DBM - 1 DBM -2 BC -1 BC - 2
NMAS 26.5 19 13.2 9.5
LAYER THICKNESS 75-105 50-75 40-50 25-40
CUMULATIVE PERCENT WEIGHT OF TOTAL AGGREGATE PASSING
37.5 100 - -
26.5 90-100 100 - -
19 71-95 90-100 100 -
13.2 56-80 59-79 90-100 100
9.5 - 52-72 70-88 90-100
4.75 38-54 35-55 53-71 55-75
2.36 28-42 28-44 42-58 40-55
1.18 - 20-34 34-48 29-44
0.6 - 15-27 26-38 21-33
0.3 7-21 10-20 18-28 14-25
0.15 - 5-13 12-20 7-15
0.075 2-8 2-8 4-10 4-7
BINDER CONTENT% BY MASS Min. 4.5% Min 5.2% Min 5.4% Min 5.7%
OF TOTAL MIX
 Specification
Compaction level (Number of
blows)
Minimum stability (kN at 60oC)
IS 17127
Minimum flow (mm) IS 17127
Criteria
75 blows on each face of the specimen for
heavy traffic and
50 blows on each face for light to medium
traffic
9.0 for heavy traffic roads
(75-blow Marshall specimen)
5.3 for light to medium traffic roads
(50-blow Marshall specimen)
2

Maximum flow (mm)IS 17127 4

% Air Voids (MS-2 and ASTM 3 –5

D 2041)
% Voids filled with bitumen 65–75 for heavy traffic
(VFB) Asphalt Institute MS-2 (75-blow Marshall specimen)
65-78 for light to medium traffic
(50-blow Marshall specimen)
Marshall Quotient. kN /mm 2 to 5
(stability/flow)
Tensile Strength Ratio 80
(minimum), %, IS 17116 (with
freeze & thaw option)

Nominal Maximum Particle Min % VMA related to designed % air voids

size (mm) **
3 4 5
9.5 14 15 16
13.2 13 14 15
19.0 12 13 14
26.5 11 12 13 20
 Asphalt- Test Relationship

BitVal – Analysis of Available Data for Validation of Bitumen Tests, FEHRL

 Bitumen Modifiers
Types of Examples
Modifiers
Plastomeric Polythylene (PE), Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA),
Thermoplastics Ethylene Butyl Acrylate (EBA) and Ethylene Ter
Polymer (ETP), etc.
Elastomeric Styrene Isoprene Styrene (SIS), Styrene-
Thermoplastics Butadiene – Styrene (SBS) block copolymer,
etc.
Synthetic Rubber Styrene Butadine Rubber (SBR) latex and any
Latex other suitable synthetic rubber
Natural Rubber Latex or Rubber power
Crumb Rubber Crumb Rubber powder from discarded truck
tyres further improved by additives
 Fundamental Questions
• What do we want ? – Materials of needed strength, thickness of
layers as per design/code, stresses and strains within allowable
limit? or Performance - rut/crack/deflection/ roughness etc., within
allowable limits; Or both?

• How do you order? Materials with expected properties and design

thickness through MEPDG analysis to ensure satisfactory
performance

• How do you know, what you get (thickness from design) is what
you wanted (to ensure satisfactory performance)?

• Sample Size and Tests: How many samples are to be tested?

What are the significant QC/QA tests that will ensure “good” quality
construction? Which tests significantly ensure satisfactory
performance?
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 What Do You Want?
• Strength / Modulus • Tensile Strain at the
bottom of bituminous
layers within allow. limits
• Durability • Compressive strain on top
of subgrade within allow.
limits
• Voids • Tensile strain at the
bottom of stabilized layer
within allow. limits
• Thickness • Cracking < 20%

• Deflection • Rutting < 20 mm

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 How Do We Order?

• Materials that will ensure min. modulus values at anticipated

temperature and moisture ranges
• Min. thicknesses that will ensure limits of stresses and strains at
different traffic levels
• How do you account the variation in moduli values with age,
deterioration due to traffic?
• Contract: Method or recipe based / End result / EPC/
warranty/performance based specifications

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IRC:37-2018 GUIDELINES

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 ‘Indicative’ Values of Resilient
Modulus of Bituminous Mixes

Source: IRC:37-2018 27
 Performance Tests
• Deformation resistance (rutting)- static creep, repeated
load test, dynamic modulus test, empirical tests

• Fatigue life (cracking) – Flexural tests

• Tensile strength (cracking esp. at low temp.) - ITS

• Stiffness – Elastic/resilient modulus

• Moisture susceptibility – Modified Lottman Tests / HWTD

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Fatigue Resistance Of Bottom Bituminous Layer
(IRC:37-2018)
 Fatigue Related Cracking Tests

Source: Shane Buchanan,’ Balanced Asphalt Mixture Design – A formula for Success’,
Hartford, Connecticut, 2017
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 Anticipated Mode of Distress
Related to Testing

Source: Shane Buchanan,’ Balanced Asphalt Mixture Design – A formula for Success’,
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Hartford, Connecticut, 2017
 Relation Between As-built Quality and
Pavement Performance

Asphalt

Base

Subgrade

Construction Material Models Pavement

Parameters Performance

As-Built
Quality ? Pavement
Performance
 PROCESS

Construction
Modulus &

Process
Control
Cons Regression Cons
Thickness of truc truc
tion Equations tion
Each Layer

Asphalt Content,
• Fatigue Example: Witczak Model
Compaction,
Cracking for Asphalt Layer
Dry Density,
• Subgrade Modulus is a function
Moisture Content
Rutting of: Agg. passing 4.75 mm
• AC Rutting air voids, asphalt Agg. passing 0.6 mm
• AASHTO content, agg. passing Agg. Passing 0.3 mm
0.075 mm,asphalt Agg. Passing 0.075 mm
Failure
viscosity,etc…
Criterion
 Main Idea

t1, E1
t2, E2
Analysis
t3, E3 Pavement
Performance
Pavement Parameters
“Rational”
Single Value
Estimation
Design
& of Performance
Analysis ( mean, COV )

t1, E1
t2, E2 -2s +2s
-s +s
Analysis
t3, E3 m, COV
Pavement
Pavement Parameters Performance
 Methodology
Impact of Construction Parameters
Pavement on Performance
Performance 5% 6%
12%

10%

48%
21%
P200 Percent Air Voids
Viscosity Percent asphalt content
Dry density of base Specific gravity of subgrade
Time

Thickness of Asphalt Modulus of Asphalt

etc...

Asphalt Content Temperature

etc... etc...

Construction
Design
etc...
Mix
 3%
Impact Performace Chart
Impact Chart 14%
28%
25%

TSG
Structural
23%
Impact Chart
CSGP
b) Structured
Approach 1%
29%
5%
Impact of construction on baseThickness of AC Thickness of Base Thickness of Subgrade
Modulus of AC Modulus of Base Modulus of Subgrade
1% 2%
1% 8%
10% 28%
4%

7%
3%
3%
Material Impact Chart
33%

OMC MDD COM MC

Sat SH SW PClay
PSilt P40 CBR
 Pavement Deterioration Model

Very Good Over Designed

5
Adequately Designed
Under Designed
(Pavement condition Indicator)
Present Serviceability Index

4 Good

3 Fair
Warning Level
Intervention level
2 Poor

1
Very Poor
Maintenance Period

Age (Years)
Pavement Deterioration with Age
 Type of Treatments

Source: FHWA, ‘Concrete Pavement Preservation Guide’, 2014

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 DISTRESSED PAVEMENTS –
RECYCLE- REJUVENATE – REUSE

CRADLE TO CRADLE

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Recycling is one of several
rehabilitation alternatives
Why Rehabilitate?
 Future of Recycling
• Conservation of materials
• Reuse of materials
• Landfills becoming more and more scarce
• New materials vis-a vis- recycling
• Same pavement can be recycled over and
over again
 Reasons that
Rehabilitation is Needed
• Inadequate ride quality
• Excessive pavement distress
• Reduced surface friction
• Excessive maintenance requirement
• Unacceptable user costs
• Inadequate structural capacity for planned
use or projected traffic volumes
Methods of Asphalt Recycling
• Hot In-place Recycling
• Hot Mix Asphalt Recycling (Central Plant)
• Cold Mix Asphalt Recycling (Central Plant)
• Cold In-place Recycling
• Full Depth Reclamation

Selecting a Recycling Method

 Pavement Condition and Choice of
Recycling

Source : NCHRP Synthesis 421: Recycling and Reclamation of Asphalt Pavements Using In-place Methods 45
 Applicability and Considerations

Process Applicability Considerations

Sufficient amount of
Surface defects work and space for
Corrugation maneuvering of
Hot
Surface rutting equipment is
In-place required; crack
Longitudinal and
slippage crack sealing material can
cause smoke
Applicability and Considerations

Process Applicability Considerations

All types of May require

Cold Mix cracks except aeration before
Recycling fatigue and compaction to
(central those caused reduce moisture;
plant) by base wearing surface
failures normally required
 Applicability and Considerations

Process Applicability Considerations

May require curing

Rutting in sub- period, followed by
surface layers application of
Cold In- Load associated wearing surface;
place cracks bigger equipment
Maintenance train needs more
patching manoeuvering
space
Applicability and Considerations

Process Applicability Considerations

Rutting in sub- Requires wearing
surface layers course; may
Roads with require significant
Full Depth base problems amount of curing
Reclamation or insufficient time; lack of proper
structural guidelines;
capacity experienced
supervisor needed
 REHABILITATION OPTION 1
PATCH & OVERLAY WITH ASPHALT

Existing Patch 15% Overlay

30mm UTFC
90mm 60mm HMA
150mm 75mm
HMA ( 6" )

150mm
CBR >80
( 6" )

200mm
CBR >45 CONSTRUCTION COST: $ 30 / m²
( 8" )

CBR ±10

STRUCTURAL CAPACITY : 30 x 106 ESALs

 REHABILITATION OPTION 2
CONVENTIONAL MILL & REPLACE ASPHALT
Mill off all asphalt
Replace asphalt
Existing
30mm UTFC
150mm
HMA ( 6" ) 120mm HMA

150mm Rework 125mm

CBR >80
( 6" )

200mm
CBR >45
( 8" ) CONSTRUCTION COST: $ 45 / m²
CBR ±10

STRUCTURAL CAPACITY : 30 x 106 ESALs

 REHABILITATION OPTION 3
RECYCLE WITH CEMENT + CRUSHED STONE OVERLAY
30mm UTFC
35mm HMA
Existing 215mm 150mm
G1

150mm
HMA ( 6" )
300mm
150mm CTB
CBR >80
( 6" )

200mm
CBR >45
( 8" )
CONSTRUCTION COST: $ 42 / m²

CBR ±10

STRUCTURAL CAPACITY : 30 x 106 ESALs

 REHABILITATION OPTION 4
RECYCLE / STABILISE WITH BITUMEN

30mm UTFC

65mm 35mm
150mm
HMA ( 6" )
250mm

150mm BSM
CBR >80
( 6" )

200mm
CBR >45 CONSTRUCTION COST: $ 24 / m²
( 8" )

CBR ±10

STRUCTURAL CAPACITY : 30 x 106 ESALs

 DESIGN OF RECYCLED MIXES FOR HOT PLANT-
MIXED DENSE GRADED BITUMINOUS MIXES
• Total amount of RAP in the recycled mix shall be limited to 20% in
wearing courses and 50% in binder and base courses.
• At least 5 random samples of RAP shall be obtained from the
approved RAP stockpile for extraction tests – check binder
content & gradation
• Extracted aggregate to be considered as one of the aggregates.
• If RAP has 5.0% bitumen content and 20% RAP is used in the
recycled mix, 1.0% bitumen content in the recycled mix shall be
considered to be contributed by the RAP during mix design.
• If the desired bitumen content of trial mix is 5.5% then only 4.5%
virgin bitumen shall be added to the trial mix.
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55
56
 Binder Viscosity in RAP Mix Design

• If the target is to obtain VG-30 bitumen in the recycled mix,

the target viscosity at 60C shall be 3,000 poises.
• Under no circumstances the selected viscosity grade shall be
more than two grades softer than the grade normally used for
100% virgin mix.
• The viscosity of the recovered bitumen shall be within the
range of 5,000 to 15,000 poises.
• If not, the Engineer may change the viscosity grade of the
virgin bitumen.

57
 What is Full-Depth Reclamation? –
Reconstruction - Cradle to Cradle
• Full-depth reclamation of asphalt pavement (FDR) is one of the rehabilitation
techniques

• FDR involves reclaiming an old distressed pavement layers into a new base
layer

• Mill and reclaim the old pavement layers; pulverize the layer material; mix
uniformly with an additional stabilizing material to provide an upgraded,
homogeneous material; Compact in place with rollers to result in a stiff,
stabilized base

• Ensure supporting layers are strong; sub-surface drainage is adequate

• Cost-effective, conservation of resources; increased durability; lower life cycle

cost
 Full Depth Reclamation

Source: NCHRP Synthesis 421

 Summary
• Understand variability on materials and mixes prepared
under ideal conditions in the lab and field
• Lab performance tests on individual materials/mixes may
not predict the field performance of the pavement system
• Pavement system does not understand their complicated
models and equations
• Prediction of performance of the pavement system from
limited lab tests on materials in isolation will be misleading

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 Summary
• Test field samples to understand the effect of variability in
construction quality on the test results and relate it to the
observed field performance
• Collect field performance data and Non-Destructive Tests in
the field to understand the effect of construction quality on
material characteristics
• Need for development of NDT equipment to test the quality
of construction and relook at the quality control tests and
sample size suggested
• Need of the hour- relate theory to practice or vice-versa

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 Summary
• Construction translates design recommendation into
reality
• Construction quality - influences performance – Need to
link both and change our knowledge on pavements
• How to define construction quality?; What tests define
construction quality?
• Can we develop pay factors based on quality of
construction? If yes, how?
• Issue: Lab tested material property and consequent
design for the desired performance vis-a-vis as-built
material property; input in design & predict performance;
Validate; Lab test results are far away from reality
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 Summary
• Lab test results / APTFs do not simulate actual traffic,
climate and environmental conditions and also the actual
construction quality

• Field performance is the key as it considers in-situ

construction quality and actual traffic and climatic
conditions

• Solution: Field to Lab; Learn from performance and

modify the design process and characterize the
materials to field conditions duly accounting the
construction variability

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 Pavement Design –
From Cradle to Cradle?
MATERIALS

DESIGN
PERFORMANCE

CONSTRUCTION

MAINTENANCE
 ACNOWLEDGEMENTS

 Prof. Soheil Nazarian, UTEP, El Paso

 Kevin D. Hall, Hicks, University of Arkansas
 Col. Deepak Baskandi, Indian Army
 Wirtgen (India)

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