I.

Introduction
A. Background and motivation

On small planetary bodies like Mars, the Moon, and asteroids, there is always a layer of loose granular
material called regolith, which is formed from the impact of meteorites and the gradual accumulation
of fine particles on the surface. However, because the gravity on these bodies is lower than on Earth,
we don't know much about how the regolith behaves under different conditions. To learn more, scientists
conducted experiments using granular materials in environments with reduced gravity. The goal was to
understand how the regolith flows on these small planetary bodies by studying the behaviour of granular
materials under different levels of reduced gravity.

B. Importance of studying granular flows under low gravity

Studying how granular materials flow in low gravity is crucial for space missions exploring celestial
bodies like the Moon, Mars, asteroids, or comets. The gravitational environments on these bodies differ
from Earth, which affects how granular materials behave. By investigating granular flows in low
gravity, scientists can enhance the design of equipment and strategies for managing granular materials
in space. Granular materials, such as lunar or Martian soil, present challenges for surface exploration
and resource utilization. Understanding how these materials behave in low gravity conditions is
important for tasks like moving, digging, building, and extracting resources. By studying granular flows
in low gravity, researchers can develop models and technologies that optimize exploration missions and
enhance the design of robotic systems used to handle granular materials on other planetary surfaces
II. Key concepts in understanding granular flows
A. Granular Bond number and its significance
The granular Bond number is a dimensionless parameter used to describe the relative importance of
interparticle cohesive forces to gravitational forces in granular materials. It is defined as the ratio of the
cohesive forces between particles (such as van der Waals forces or capillary forces) to the gravitational
forces acting on the particles. The granular Bond number is given by:
Bond = Cohesive Force / (Particle Diameter × Gravitational Force)
The significance of the granular Bond number lies in its ability to characterize the behaviour of granular
materials under different conditions. Here are some key points regarding its significance:
1. Cohesion dominance: The granular Bond number helps determine whether cohesive forces are
dominant over gravitational forces in a granular system. When the Bond number is small (Bond
<< 1), the gravitational forces dominate, and cohesive forces have a negligible effect.
Conversely, when the Bond number is large (Bond >> 1), cohesive forces become significant,
and the behaviour of the granular material is influenced by cohesive interactions between
particles.
2. Material behaviour: The granular Bond number affects the macroscopic behaviour of granular
materials. In cohesive-dominated systems (large Bond numbers), particles tend to stick
together, leading to the formation of aggregates or agglomerates. This can affect the flow
properties, compaction behaviour, and shear strength of the material. On the other hand, in
cohesionless systems (small Bond numbers), particles move relatively freely, and the material
behaves more like a granular assembly.
3. Granular flow regimes: The granular Bond number helps define different flow regimes in
granular materials. For cohesive-dominated systems (large Bond numbers), cohesive forces can
induce cohesion-induced solid-like behaviour, resulting in the formation of arches, stable
aggregates, or jammed states. In contrast, for cohesionless systems (small Bond numbers), the
flow behaviour is primarily governed by gravitational forces, and the material exhibits more
fluid-like behaviour, such as avalanches or flows in hoppers.
4. Material behaviour: The granular Bond number affects the macroscopic behaviour of granular
materials. In cohesive-dominated systems (large Bond numbers), particles tend to stick
together, leading to the formation of aggregates or agglomerates. This can affect the flow
properties, compaction behaviour, and shear strength of the material. On the other hand, in
cohesionless systems (small Bond numbers), particles move relatively freely, and the material
behaves more like a granular assembly.

5. Granular flow regimes: The granular Bond number helps define different flow regimes in
granular materials. For cohesive-dominated systems (large Bond numbers), cohesive forces can
induce cohesion-induced solid-like behaviour, resulting in the formation of arches, stable
aggregates, or jammed states. In contrast, for cohesionless systems (small Bond numbers), the
flow behaviour is primarily governed by gravitational forces, and the material exhibits more
fluid-like behaviour, such as avalanches or flows in hoppers.
B. Cohesive interparticle forces and their role in low gravity
1. Particle Agglomeration: Cohesive forces can cause particles to aggregate or stick together,
forming larger clusters or agglomerates. This can significantly alter the flow behaviour of
granular materials, leading to the formation of cohesive regions within the flow. These cohesive
clusters can affect the flow dynamics, particle segregation, and overall flow rates.
2. Flow Instabilities: Cohesion can lead to flow instabilities in granular flows under low gravity.
As particles interact and stick together, they can form cohesive bridges or arches that obstruct
the flow of particles. This can result in flow interruptions, flow channelling, or the formation
of stagnant regions within the granular material. These flow instabilities can affect the overall
flow characteristics and hinder efficient transportation or handling of granular materials.
3. Flow Rate Reduction: Cohesive forces can impede the movement of particles, reducing the
flow rates of granular materials. Under low gravity conditions, cohesive interparticle forces can
be relatively stronger compared to the gravitational forces acting on the particles. As a result,
particles may experience more significant resistance to motion, leading to reduced flow
velocities and flow rates. This has implications for various applications, such as resource
extraction or material transportation in space exploration missions.
4. Flow Transitions: Cohesive interparticle forces can influence the transition between different
flow regimes in granular materials. In low gravity, where gravitational forces are weaker,
cohesive forces may become more dominant and play a significant role in determining the flow
behaviour. The transition from a granular flow to a more solid-like behaviour, such as jamming
or compacting, can be influenced by cohesive forces. Understanding these transitions is crucial
for designing efficient systems for handling and manipulating granular materials in low gravity
environments.
III. Experimental Insights
3.1. Low gravity platforms and experimental setups
When we talk about microgravity, we mean gravitational accelerations that are much lower than the
standard gravity on Earth (1g= 980cm/s2). It is required that the effective gravity be less than or equal
to 10^-6g in order for this to apply. Effective gravity is so low that gravity's impact on a granular flow
can be completely negated. A test in a space station, a satellite, a parabolic flight aircraft, a microgravity
rocket, an altitude balloon, and a drop tower (or drop well) are only a few of the current ways to achieve
microgravity. Table 1 lists the variations between these means.
Table 1 Different microgravity experimental platforms 1
Microgravity Microgravity Microgravity Advantages Shortcomings
equipment duration level

Space station, A few years in 10^-5 – 10^−6g providing stable Test

Recoverable space station, a microgravity environment opportunities
satellite few days to a with long microgravity are relatively
few years in duration and good rare and
satellites microgravity level expensive
Manned 5-10 days 10^−4 – 10^−5g providing superior Test
spacecraft, microgravity environment; opportunities
space shuttle the space shuttle is are relatively
recyclable rare and
expensive
Sounding 5-10 minutes 10^−3 – 10^−4g relatively cheap; used for relatively
rocket pre test poor stability

Parabolic 20-30s 10^−2 – 10^−4g several experiments can be relatively

flight aircraft conducted in one flight poor stability

Drop Tower 1-10 s 10^−2 − 10−5g relatively cheap and relatively

reusable poor stability
and short
duration
Drop Balloon 30-60 s 10^−2 – 10^−4g relatively cheap and relatively
reusable poor stability

To select one of the several methods mentioned above, experimental expenditures, the testing cycle, the
length of time that must be spent in microgravity, and microgravity level must be taken into account.
Table 1 displays the differences between the main microgravity platforms. A suitable experimental
instrument for granular flow under microgravity is equally important as selecting the proper test
methods to create an adequate microgravity environment for performing advanced research.
One of the best microgravity platforms is the International Space Station (ISS), which is currently
undergoing development and construction. However, due to financial limitations, the majority of
granular flow experiments under Microgravity experiments are carried out from a drop tower.
3.2 Experimental method
Drop tower
Out of the few microgravity experimental setups available, drop tower facility is cheap and
reusable. In this method different granulates and different types of experimental cells were
chosen to analyse distinct properties in order to examine the flow behaviour under lower
gravity settings. The three experimental cells used were a revolving tumbler (Fig. 1d), an
avalanche box (Fig. 1c), and a flat quasi 2D sandglass (Fig. 1b).

Figure 1: Experimental setup (a)Drop tower capsule, The experimental cells are mounted on
to a centrifugal platform(b)Sandglass cell ,6×8×0.5cm (c)Avalanche box ,4×4×10cm
(d)Rotating tumbler(e)Basalt beads, 0.5mm diameter (f)sand, 0.3mm diameter 2
The sandglass cell allows for the measurement of both the mound angle, which represents the
accumulation of sand in the bottom compartment of the cell, and the crater angle, which
represents the accumulation of sand in the top compartment of the cell. The volume flux as a
function of g-level is a second parameter investigated using the sandglass setup. When the
experiment begins the upper compartment of the sandglass is filled with basalt beads of
diameter 0.5mm and the shutter is closed, on release of the capsule the shutter is opened and
the beads are allowed to flow to the lower compartment under microgravity conditions. Video
cameras record the granular material's physical behaviour during sandglass studies. Before the
platform is released, the centrifuge platform begins to rotate, changing the effective
acceleration's value and direction when the platform is released. The vector sum of the
centrifugal acceleration and the Earth's gravity is what determines the effective acceleration
prior to the descent. Only the centrifugal acceleration that is directed outward during the drop
constitutes the effective acceleration.
The avalanche box with an inner dimension of 4×4×15 cm3 is fixed upright on the centrifuge
platform prior to the drop so that after the drop, due to the decline in gravitational force and
dominance of centrifugal force an avalanche will be formed
4. Observations and findings from experimental studies
4.1 Sandglass
Multiple frames taken from the video pictures were used to calculate the angle of repose. The
frames were assessed using Matlab's (MathWorks Inc.) image processing methods to apply a
linear fit to the surface and calculate the slope angle.

Figure 2: Static angle of repose with basalt glass beads of 0.5 mm in diameter as a function of
g-level. (a)Mound angle (angle of repose) in the bottom container. (b) Crater angle at the top
container's angle of repose. The crater angle appears independent of g, but the mound angle
exhibits a considerable dependence on the g level.2

FIGURE 3: The sandglass experiment's software output. White areas are empty, black parts are
full, and grey parts are streaming particles.3
The increasing heap's angle of repose is shown in Fig. 2a as a function of g-level. The angle of
repose steepens when g level drops. The angle of the crater that is developing in the upper
reservoir as a function of g-level is depicted in Fig. 2b. No g-level dependency is visible in this
situation. Different factors can affect how sand or another granular materials slope4. One factor
is the shape of the pile. When pouring the material, it can either form a depression (like a crater)
or a heap. Research has shown that craters have a steeper slope than heaps for many materials.
We might expect that the slope angles would be different at different levels of gravity (g-levels),
but follow similar patterns for both craters and heaps. However, experimental results didn't
confirm this. Instead, they showed that the slope angle of the heap depends on the level of
gravity, while the slope angle of the crater does not change.
Another factor is how the particles move4. In the upper container, the particles are mostly still,
and their movement is determined by the shape of the pile. But in the lower container, where
the particles accumulate with some speed, the slope of the heap can vary with the level of
gravity. The speed at which particles arrive and form the heap depends on gravity.
In summary, the slope angles of granular materials can be influenced by the shape of the pile
and the movement of particles. The angle difference between craters and heaps may not change
with different levels of gravity, but the slope angle of the heap can be affected by the speed of
particle arrival, which is influenced by gravity.
The particles dropping from the higher container are less accelerated as the g-level drops,
leaving them with less speed when they exit the orifice. This has an impact on the total mass
throughput, which falls as the g-level drops, see figure 5. The sandglass experiment's flat (quasi
2D) design made it simple to calculate how much material was delivered through the aperture.

Figure 5: volume flow if basalt beads as a function of g3

4.2 Avalanche box
Analysis of results from avalanche box reveals that the breadth of the avalanche grows with
rising gravity level while the duration from launch to expiration of the avalanche increases with
decreasing gravity (see Fig. 5). However, unlike the results from sand glass experiment it has
been found that the surface pattern developed on the avalanche has significant dependence on
the type of material2.

Figure 5: Avalanches at varying gravity levels3.The top image shows the binarized images and
the bottom figure shows the original image as recorded by the video camera
Table 2: Experimental data from avalanche box experiments2
Sample Gravity level [g] Slope angle [degrees]
Basalt spheres 0.3 19.5 ± 1.0
0.1 20.2 ± 1.0
0.01 20.8 ± 1.0
Sand 1 29.9 ± 0.8
0.33 31.3 ± 0.8
0.03 31.3 ± 0.8
Glass beads + basalt spheres 1 19.7 ± 2.0
0.1 20.4 ± 2.0
0.03 20.3 ± 2.0

The information in Table 1 makes it clear that the sample type, not the gravity level, is the main
factor affecting the angle of repose in avalanche box studies. The angle of repose of angular
particles, such as the sand grains utilized for tests, is significantly greater than that of spherical
basalt beads.
4.3
References
1.Huang, Y.; Zhu, C.; Xiang, X., Granular Flow Under Microgravity: A Preliminary Review. Microgravity
Science and Technology 2014, 26 (2), 131-138.
2.Brucks, A.; Richter, L.; Vincent, J.-B.; Blum, J., Effect of reduced-gravity conditions on the flowability
of granular media. In Earth & Space 2008: Engineering, Science, Construction, and Operations in
Challenging Environments, 2008; pp 1-8.
3.Hofmeister, P. G.; Blum, J.; Heiβelmann, D. In The Flow Of Granular Matter Under Reduced‐Gravity
Conditions, AIP Conference Proceedings, American Institute of Physics: 2009; pp 71-74.
4.Duran, J., Sands, powders, and grains: an introduction to the physics of granular materials. Springer
Science & Business Media: 2012.