!

1PJ-32

Instrumentation
for Operators

Unit 1
Sections 3, 4 & 5
2.500
2000 3000
1500

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 PILOT 6 -INSTRUMENTAnON FOR OPERATORS

UNIT ONE - MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

UQUID LEVEL, FLOW RATE
AND ANALYTlCAL INSTRUMENTS
Page
Section 3

Uquld Levellnstrumenls ....•............................................................

Introduction . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
How UquId LeveI_ Pressure ..............••.....................••........... 2
Pressure-Type Levellndlcatora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Gage Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Uslng 8 ManomeIer 10 Measure Level ............................................... 7
Sealing Auld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Diaphragm Level Oetector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Bubbler ............•............................................ , .. "' .. ,.,".". 15
Float-Type Levellndlcatora ......•. " " " ' , .. ', .. , .. " .. ,., .... , ... , ... , ... ',.,.,.,,.,'.. 16
Why 00 Objects Float? ......... , ..... , ' .. , ...... , .. , .......... , , .. , .. , , , .. , , . , .. .. 16
Tape-Type Float Gage .............. "." .. , ......... ' ... , ... ' .. , ... ' .. , , , .. ' .. ' , , 18
Float and Lever Gage .... , ........... ,'." .. , ................. ' ... , .. ', .. ,'," ... , 21
The Torque Tube ... , ............... , , .. , ... , .. , ... , ............. , .... , . , , , .. , ... , 21
Changes in Uquld Density Can Affect Level .. , ... , .................... " .. ,' .. , ... ,.. 25
Some Other Methods of Level Measurement .. ,' .. , .. , ... , ............. " .. , ... "." .. ,',.. 26
Review and Summary, ... , ...... , .... ' .... , .. ' , .. , ... , ......... , ... ' ...... ' , .. , .. , ' ... , . 29

Section 4

Flow Instruments ......... , .............. , , ...... , ...... , .......... , ... , .. , ... , , , , , .. , , , 33

What Is Flow Rate? ... , .. , ... , ' ..... , ... , .. , ... , ...... , .. , ... ' , ...... , ... , .. ' , .. , , 33
How Flow Rate and Pressure Are Rateted ... , , , , ' .. , ...... , ... , ... , ... , .. , , .. , .. , , .. . 35
Lat's Review , ....... , ..... , , , ...... , ...... , , .. , ............. , ... , , .. , .. , , .. , ... , , 38
Measuring Flow Rate Directly with Positive Displacement Flow Matera .,.", ... ".,' .. ,',".,', 39
The Impeller Meter ........... " " , ... "." ......... , ....... , .. , ... , .. ,',.".,',.. 39
The Turbine Meter ... , ............... , , .. , .. , ... , ........ , , , ...... , ... , , . , , . , , , .. , 41
The Vortex Meter .. , ............ , .... , ' .. , .. , ' .. , .......... , .. , , ..... , , .. , ... , ... , 42
Measuring Flow Rate Indirectly .......... , , .. , ' , . , , , , ' ......... , ... , , ..... , , ..... , , , . , , .. , 43
The Orifice Plate .......... , ...... " ... , .. , ... , ..... , ....... , ... , .. " .. " .. , .. ".. 44
The Flow Nozzle ... , ............... " .. , .......... , .............. , .. "." .. ', .. ,' 47
The Venturi Tube, ............. , .... , , .. , .......... , .. , .. , .... , .. , ... , , . , ... , ... , , 49
The Dahl Tube ............ , ....... " ... , .. , ... " ........ , ... , ... , .. ',.",.,', .. ,' 50
Lers Review ................... , .... , , , . , , .. , ...... , ......... , , .. , , . , , .. , , , . , , , .. 51
'The Variable-Area Flow Meter ...•.. , ... ' . , ... ' , . , , .. ' , . , , .. , ' . , .. , , ' .. , , . , , ' . , , . , , , ' , , , . . 51
Electrical Flow Matera . , .................. , , .. ' , ...... , ............. , ....... , .. , , , . ' , ... , 54
How Electricity Is U_1o Indicate Flow ' , .. , .. , , .. , ... , ...... , .. , ... , , .. , .. , , ... , .. , , 54
Temperature-Type Flow Matera ........ ,'" .. ', .. , ... , .. , .......... ' ... , ...... , .. ,',.,", 56
Temperature Can Be U_1o Measure Flow Rate .. , , ..... , .......... , ... , , . , , .. ' , .. , , 56
The Hot-Wire Anemometer " .. "', .. " .. " .. , .. , .......... , .. , ...... " .. ," .. , .. ,' 57
Review and Summary, , ............ , , , , .. , , .. , , , , , .. , , ..... ' ...... , ... , ...... , , .. ' , .. , , , 58

Section 5

Analytical Instruments ' ....... , ........... , , ... , ...... , .. , .. ' ....... , ... , .. ' , .. , .. ' , ... , , 83
Introduction .............. , .... , .... , , . , , .. , , .. , ............. , .. , , . , ' .. , , .. , , .. , , , 83
Acids and Alkals ......... , ..... , ...... " .. " ..... , .............. ,." .. ,'." .. ".. 64
Oxygen Analyzers ........... , , ..... , , .. , ... , .. , .. , .......... , , .. , ... , .. , , , ..... , , 67
The Gas ChromatDgraph ..... " .... , ... ,' .. , ...... , .. , ... , .. ', .. " .. , .. " .. , .. ,',. 72
Review and Summary ............. , ......... ' , .. , ................. ' .. , ... , .. , , .. , , .. , .. . 75
INSTRUMENTATION
FOR OPERATORS
Unit 1

Section 3

Liquid Level Instruments

 UNIT ONE

In Section 3 you will learn about liquid level as an operating

variable and how level is measured. The unit treats pressure-
type level indicators, float-type indicators and some miscel-
laneous indicators for specialized use.

In Section 4 you will learn about flow rate as an operating

variable and how it is measured. The unit discusses the posi-
tive-displacement flow meter, differential-pressure flow meter,
electrical flow meter, and the temperature-type flow meter.

In Section 5 you will learn about some analytical instruments

for specialized uses. The program discusses instruments
which are used as oxygen analyzers and process stream ana-
lyzers, and those used to measure pH.
 INSTRUCTIONS

This is a programed learning course.

Programed learning gives information in a series of steps

called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks
you to make use of it.

Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the

right with a mask.

Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the
blank.

A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in

thousandths of an inch.
A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very _ _ __ small
J differences in size.

Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the
frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word
that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next
frame.

The drawing of a micrometer ,provides information that will

help you fill in the next blanks.

THIIMB,LE

RATr .. ,,"
CAP

Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only

the and the _ _ _ _ _ _ contact the anvil; spindle
object to be measured.
The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap-
propriate word.

Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/
spindle) moves. spindle

A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you

have just done:

Read the frame.

Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice.
Move the mask down and check the response column.
Go on to the next frame.

Remember to cover the response column with a mask before

you begin each page.

Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down.
The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand
pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the
other pages.
 SECTION THREE

LIQUID LEVEL INSTRUMENTS

Introduction

• 1. The level of a liquid. unlike its pressure and temperature •

can be • if the liquid is in a glass container.

2. Determining liquid level seems as if it should be pretty

seen

easy; all you have to do is inside the tank. look

3. You could take off the top and look inside the tank and see
if it is empty or . full

4. But most storage tanks and refinery equipment are

closed units.
The liquid level (0 islO is not) visible to the operator. is not

5. However. changes in liquid level cause changes in other

variables which the operator can observe on dials or
gages.

5 PSIG

For example. the pressure on the bottom of a tank

(0 changeslO does not change) when the level changes
changes.

1
How Liquid Level Affects Pressure

6. Pressure which results from the weight of a liquid

is called static pressure. The height of the liquid
which causes the pressure is called static head.

The static pressure of this liquid is ______ psig. 43

The static head of this liquid is feet. 100

7. As the static head of a liquid increases, the pressure

on the bottom of a tank (0 increaseslO decreases). increases

8. Mercury is much heavier than water.

WATER MERCURY
A B

There is more weight pushing down on the bottom of

tank (0 AID B). B

9. There is more pressure on the bottom of tank

(OA/OB). B

10. Static (0 pressurelO head) on the bottom of a tank pressurp.

depends on the density (heaviness) of the liquid in
the tank.

2
11. Each of these tanks contains 1000 gallons of the
same liquid.

A B

But, more weight pushes" down on a square inch on

the bottom of tank (0 A/O B). B

12. The area of the bottom of this container has been doubled.

Since the liquid level is the same in each container, the pres-
sure per square inch on the bottom of the containers is
( 0 the same/O different). the same

3
13. Which addition of liquid will produce more static pres-
sure on the bottom of a tank?

A B

An addition to container (0 A/O B). A

14. Which of the following have a direct effect on static

pressure?
Static head (0 yes/O no) yes
Area of the bottom of the tank (0 yes/o no) no
The density of the liquid in the tank (0 yes/O no) yes
Height of liquid in the tank (0 yes/o no) yes

15. Each of these open tanks contains 10 feet of water.

The pressure per square inch at the bottom of each

tank is (0 the same/o different). the Bame

16. Static pressure (0 depends/O does not depend) on does not depend
the shape of the container.

17. Static pressure depends only on the _ _ _ _ __ height

of the liquid and the of the liquid. density, or weight

4
 18. You can tell the level in any shaped tank or container
by knowing two things:
the amount of _ _ _ _ _ _ on the bottom of the pressure
tank; and
the _ _ _ _ _ _ of the liquid in the tank. density, or heaviness

19. This drawing shows two vented tanks containing gaso-

line.

A B

The static head is greater in tank (0 AID B). A

20. The pressure is greater at the bottom of tank (0 AI

DB). A

21. We know that energy is needed to make things move.

There is more energy in tank _ _ _ _ __ A

22. If the valve between the tanks is opened, the liquid:

l o a . flows from A to B.
o b. flows from B to A.
o c. doesn't flow. a

23. The liquid flows until the pressure at the bottom of

A is the as the pressure at the bottom same
of B.

24. When the pressures are the same, the amount of energy
in the two tanks is (0 the samelO different). the same

25. When the levels are the same, the amount of energy
is (0 the samelO different). the same

26. When the amount of energy is the same, the liquid

does not _ _ _ _ __ flow, or move

5
27. Compare these two tanks of gasoline.

A B

The pressure in tank B is (0 less than/O the same as/

o greater than) the pressure in tank A. the same as

28. This is because the _ _ _ _ _ _ and density of the height. or level. or head
liquid in both is the same.

29. These two containers are hooked uP. and the valve is
opened; draw a line to show the liquid level in B.

A B

6
PRESSURE-TYPE LEVEL INDICATORS

The Gage Glass

30. The gage glass is the simplest kind of level instrument.

The tank liquid rises in the gage glass until both levels
arethe ____________ same

31. When the levels are the same, the amount of energy
is the same.
Then the liquid stops ____________, moving, or flowing

32. Even though the levels are the same, the tank and the
gage glass contain <0 the same volume/O different
volumes) of liquid. different volumes

33. The gage glass can be made much ____________ than smaller
the tank and still indicate level accurately.

34. Any tank can be built with a gage glass attached.

But a tall tank might need a ____________ gage tall, or long
glass.

35. Since the gages are made of glass, they are ________ fragile, or breakable
unless they are protected with metal cases and thick,
heavy-duty glass.

36. A gage glass for refinery equipment must often be

able to stand high process ____________ pressure

Using a Manometer to Measure Level

37. A big problem with a gage glass is that for many ap-
plications it must be made too <0long/O short) to long
be practical.

7
38. The liquid in the gage glass is (0 the same as/O dif-
ferent from) the liquid in the tank. the same as

39. To indicate liquid level, the range of levels in the

gage glass must be identical to the range of levels in
the _ _ _ _ __ tank

40. Compare these two "gage glasses."

TANK LIQUID URY

A smaller amount of _ _ _ _ _ _ is needed to exert mercury

pressure equal to tank pressure.

41. Using mercury instead of a tank liquid means that

a level indicator can be made much ______ than smaller, or shorter
a gage glass.

42. This tank uses a manometer instead of a gage glass

to indicate level.

Since the mercury is much denser than the tank liquid,

a small rise in mercury can be used to indicate a
(0 large/O small) rise in liquid level in the tank. large

8
43. This manometer is measuring level. Liquid is added
to the tank.

HEW
LEVEL
OLD
LEVEL

The pressure of this additional liquid forces the level

of mercury in the outer leg of the manometer to
rise. or increase

44. The manometer is calibrated so that the pressure

changes can be read as _ _ _ _ __ level

45. The only part of this manometer which needs to be

made of glass is the part where the mercury level has
to be _ _ _ _ __ seen, or read

46. Because the reading is taken near eye level. it is easy

to get an reading. accurate

47. Which of these tanks has the highest level?

A B

(0 AID B) A

9
48. Actually, the manometer measures pressure difference.

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

The manometer meaSures the difference between pres-

sure on the bottom of the tank and _ _ _ _ _ __ atmospheric
pressure.

49. This manometer also indicates liquid level by measur-

ing pressure difference.

Is it measuring the difference in pressure between the

tank and the atmosphere? (0 yes/o no) no

50. The pressure difference being measured is the differ-

ence between pressure at the of the tank top
and the pressure at the of the tank. bottom

Sealing Fluid

51. Manometer gages may need sealing fluid.

Sealing fluid isolates the process fluid from the
_______ in the manometer. mercury, or liquid

10
52. A fluid seal is necessary to isolate the gage fluid from
the tank fluid if the tank contains fluids. corrosive

53. The legs on this manometer contain sealing fluid.

SEALING FLUID

MERCURY

The sealing fluid (0 exerts/O does not exert) pres- exerts

sure on the mercury.

54. Here is a manometer that is measuring pressure dif-

ference between the top and bottom of a tank.

On this tank the manometer leg to the top of the tank

is (0 longer /0 shorter) than the one to the bottom longer
of the tank.

55. Therefore, the sealing fluid exerts more _ _ _ _ __ pressure

on one leg than on the other.

11
56. Here are two tanks; one is full and one is almost empty.

The level of the sealing fluid in the longer leg and the
level of the tank liquid are the same when the tank is
(0 empty/O full). full

57. When this tank is empty, most of the pressure exerted

in the manometer is in the (0 longer/O shorter) leg. longer

58. Let's say that the liquid in the tank and the sealing
fluid both have about the same density.

The pressure exerted by the sealing fluid on the mer-

cury is (0 more than/O less than/O the same as) the same as
the pressure exerted in the tank when it is full.

59. When the tank is full, the mercury manometer meaS-

ures (0 a large pressure difference/O no pressure
difference) between the tank liquid and the sealing no pressure difference
fluid.

12
60. Because of the seal leg, the pressure difference is great-
est when the tank is (0 empty/D full). empty

61. The "0" reading (no difference) occurs when the tank
is (0 full/D empty). full

62. With sealing fluid in the longer leg, the mercury level
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ in the leg next to the tank as the increases
. level drops.

63. Without sealing fluid, the mercury level in the leg

next to the tank becomes _ _ _ _ _ _ as the tank higher
level drops.

64. If connections are not well-tightened, the sealing fluid

may out. leak

65. If the valves are closed in the upper or lower taps,

the mercury level (0 changes/O will not change) even will not change
if liquid level does change.

66. The taps may become plugged.

PURGE OR FLUSH
TERS

In this system, the taps are continually _ _ _ _ __ purged, or flushed

to prevent plugging.

67. The purging material keeps the taps from becoming

blocked, or plugged

13
Diaphragm Level Detector

68. In this level indicator, a diaphragm is used to indicate

level.

POINTER

MECHANICAL LINKAGE

DIAPHRAGM

As the liquid level increases, pressure at the bottom

of the tank (0 increases/O decreases). increases

69. Since pressure is exerted in all directions, it pushes up

on the diaphragm.
As pressure increases, the diaphragm bulges up
<0 more/O less). more

70. The center of the _ _ _ _ _ _ connects to a me- diaphragm

chanical linkage and pointer.

71. As the center moves up and down, the _ _ _ _ __ pointer

also moves up and down.

72. The greater the amount of upward bulge, the

_ _ _ _ _ _ the level in the tank. higher

14
Bubbler
73. Look at this pressure-type level gage.

REST CTION

-p~;;:=:±==:;-'AIR OR GAS

Liquid level is determined by bubbling _ _ _ _ __ air, or gas

through the liquid.

74. The amount of pressure required to force the _ _ __ air, or liquid

out of the bottom of the dip tube depends on the level
of the liquid.

75. The higher the liquid level, the _ _ _ _ _ _ the higher

pressure needed to force air out of the tube.

76. This gage shows increased level by recording _ _ __ increased

pressure.

77. If the liquid is dense, it takes (0 more/O less) pres- more

sure to keep the dip tube open than if the liquid is
less dense.

78. If the density of the liquid increases, the pressure

reading _ _ _ _ __ increases

79. If the gage is calibrated for a low-density liquid and

the liquid actually has a high density, the level indicated
is than the actual level. higher

80. When tank liquid is changed, calibration corrections

must be made for changes in the _ _ _ _ _ _ of density
the liquid.

15
81. Oxygen reacts with some liquids.
Air (0 can/O cannot) be used as the bubbling gas cannot
if it reacts with the tank liquid.

82. Nitrogen or some other inert gas is used when the

tank liquid would react with _ _ _ _ __ air, or oxygen

FLOAT-TYPE LEVEL INDICATORS

Why Do Objects Float?

83. Liquid exerts pressure in all directions.

~}
'.11!.>

. . . . . . . '. . . •. .1L
.~::::::::,:
•
.....,.,.... ,..,..,." .... ,
\-: .•.':.:.:.\::: .:::.'::::.::.. ..';:.::.:'<:.>:.'::.

. . . . . . .•,.•. '.•. .' . ,. ,. . •. . . •.

This liquid is exerting pressure _______ as well as upward

downward and to the sides.

84. When an object is submerged in water, the water

exerts pressure on all sides of the object.

As the depth of the liquid increases, pressure (0 in-

creases/O decreases). increases

85. Therefore, the pressure exerted on the bottom of the

object is (0 less/o more) than the pressure exerted more
on the top of the object.

86. There is more (0 upward/O downward) force on sub- upward

merged objects.

87. Because of this "buoying force," objects act as if they

are (0 heavier/O lighter) when they are submerged lighter
in a liquid.

16
88. If the buoying force is greater than the weight of the
object, the object _ _ _ _ _ _, floats

89. Float-type instruments are common refinery level in-

dicators.
When an object is less dense than the process liquid,
it on the surface of the liquid. floats

90. ,When the object is more dense than the process liquid,
it into the liquid. sinks

91. A float is made of material which is (0 more/o less) less

dense than the liquid it is used with.

92. Compare these containers.

WATER MERCURY

The steel ball is _ _ _ _ _ _ than water and it sinks heavier

into the water.

93. However, the steel ball is (0 more/o less) dense than less
liquid mercury and (0 floats on/O sinks in) the floats on
mercury.

94. Water is more dense than gasoline.

An object which is lighter than water may be heavier
than _ _ _ _ __ gasoline

95. A float used for water measurement may _ _ _ _ __ sink

in gasoline.

96. A float gage for one type of liquid may not be appro-
priate if the density of the tank liquid _ _ _ _ _ _ , changes

97. A float rides on the surface of the liquid.

The higher the liquid level, the ______ the posi- higher
tion of the float in the tank.

17
Tape-Type Float Gage

98. This float indicates its position on a scale outside of

the tank.

INTER

SCALE

PULLEY
TAP 1:---1

TANK

This float is connected by a tape to a _ _ _ _ __ pulley

99. A pointer is also connect~d to the _ _ _ _ __ pulley

100. As the float changes position, the pulley moves the

pointer along a _ _ _ _ __ scale

101. If the pulley sticks, readings will be _ _ _ _ __ inaccurate, or false

102. This tape is slack.

Even though the level has risen, the indicator reads

as though the float were in the tank. lower

18
103. To prevent inaccurate readillgll. a weight is connected
to one end of the tape.

c:.~--W'EIGHT

The weight keeps the tape _ _ _ _ __ tight, or taut, or straight

104. The weight must be strong enough to overcome any

friction between the bearings and tape pulley
guides.

105. You should check frequently to see that the tape is _ __ taut

106. Compare these two gages.

If the float drifts and the tape is not straight up and

down, the level indicated by the gage is (0 higher/
o lower) than the actual liquid level. lower

107. This is prevented by the ____________ guide wires

19
108. Broken guide wires permit the float to _ _ _ _ __ drift
this gives inaccurate readings.

109. If the guide wires break, the tank must be _ _ _ __ emptied, or drained
to repair the instrument, unless special design arrange-
ments are made.

110. Some floats are hollow.

If the float leaks, it fills with liquid and becomes

_ _ _ _ _ _ and it may sink in the liquid. heavier

111. Then the gage will indicate a level which is (.0 higher/
olower) than the actual level. lower

112. The choice of float material is very important.

If the float is too heavy, it _ _ _ _ __ sinks

113. A float light enough to float on one liquid may be too

_______ to float on another liquid. heavy

114. Corrosion may cause a float to ______ and sink. leak

115. Acids can destroy some metals.

An aluminum float (0 is/D is not) a good measuring is not
float for an acid.

116. Different liquids require different _ _ _ _ __ floats

20
Float and Lever Gage

117. Look at this level indicator.

STUFFING BOX
LEVER

FLOAT POINTER

The float is connected to a _ _ _ _ __ lever

118. As liquid level changes, the lever twists a _ _ _ _ __ shaft

which is connected to a pointer.

119. As the shaft is twisted, the pointer _ _ _ _ __ moves, or turns

The Torque Tube

120. An object floats in a liquid because the liquid exerts a

_ _ _ _ _ _ on the object and pushes the object force
upward.

121. If the object weighs less than this upward force, the
object floats.
If it weighs more than the force, the object _ _ _ __ sinks

122. This force makes an object seem (0 heavier/O lighter) lighter

when it is submerged in a liquid than when it is out of the
liquid.

123. The denser the liquid, the (0 greater/O smaller) the greater
buoying force it exerts on an Qbject.

124. Water exerts (0 more/O less) force on objects than more

gasoline does.

21
125. But water exerts _______ force than mercury less
does.

126. This metal bar is held by a spring. In air the bar

weighs one pound.

Submerged in water, the bar weighs:

o a. one pound.
o b. less than one pound.
o c. more than one pound. b

127. The larger the portion of the bar that is submerged

in water, the it weighs. less

128. A spring holds the bar.

The further the bar is submerged, the (0 more/O less) less
tension on the spring.

129. Instead of stretching a spring, the weight can twist

a tube.

TORQUE

_-·WEIGHT

The heavier the weight on the metal tube, the

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ the amount of this twisting force greater
(torque).

22
130. Putting the weight in water (0 increases/O decreases) decreases
the amount of torque.

131. The amount of torque can be measured and used to

indicate level.

TWISTING END OF TORQUE TUBE

AFT

OINTER

The displacer (weight) is attached to the lever and

exerts a twisting force called _ _ _ _ __ torque

132. This displacer (0 floats/O does not float). does not float

133. The torque tube has spring-like force in it. so that it

can balance the full weight of the _ _ _ _ __ dispIacer

134. The displacer is kept from sinking by the twisting

force of the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ torque tube

23
 135. As the liquid rises, the displacer displaces liquid.

The liquid exerts force on the dis placer, and the dis-
placer becomes (0 heavier/O lighter). lighter

136. The torque tube rotates because there is less force

acting against it.

TWISTING END OF TORQUE TUBE

The twisting of the tube makes the pointer indicate a

_ _ _ _ _ _ in liquid level. change

24
137. The deeper the dispiacer is in the liquid, the _ _ _ __ greater
the upward force on it.

138. Once the dispiacer is totally submerged, it cannot dis-

place any more liquid.
It (0 can/o cannot) become lighter. cannot

139. Once the displacer is totally submerged, the indicator

on the torque tube (0 can/O cannot) show a rise cannot
in level.

140. The torque tube must have enough force to balance the
displacer; if it cannot, the torque tube is "dead."
A dead torque tube does not have the _ _ _ _ __ strength, or force, or
to balance the displacer when there is no liquid in its spring action, or torque
chamber.

141. A dead torque tube gives level readings that are too
(0 high/O low). low

Changes In Liquid Density Can Affect Level

142. Most liquids expand when heated and contract when

cooled.

Heating a liquid spreads the molecules out and makes

the liquid (0 more/O less) dense. less

143. The density of a substance is the amount of a substance

concentrated in a given volume.

The lower the concentration, the (0 lower/O higher) lower

the density.

25
144. Heating a liquid makes it <0 more/O less) dense. less

145. Hot water is <0 more/o less) dense than cold water. less

146. A gallon of cold water weighs <0 more/O less) than more
a gallon of hot water.

147. Let's say liquid level in a tank does not change signifi-
cantly but the temperature does change.
As the temperature increases, a float tends to _ __ sink

148. Heating a liquid makes a level indicator read _ _ __ lower

than the actual level.

149. Floats can be made so that density changes do not

affect them very much. But a displacer must be
selected according to the density of the liquid at operat-
ing conditions.

HOTTER LIQUID COLDER LIQUID

A hotter liquid <0 will/O will not) support the dis- will not
placer as well as colder liquids.

150. Changes in temperature cause a displacer to give

_ _ _ _ _ _ readings. inaccurate, or false

SOME OTHER METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT

151. Some liquids are extremely dangerous to handle and

the previous methods of level measurement cannot be
used.
For these liquids, the detector <0 can/O cannot) cannot
touch the liquid.

26
152. This level indicator uses light to measure level. Noth-
ing touches the corrosive tank liquid.

~=====r~-DETECTOR

1\~l.I-LIGHT SOURCE

A beam of light (0 can/O cannot) pass through a can

clear liquid.

153. As the liquid gets deeper, (0 more/O less) light less

passes through to the detector at the top.

154. An increased amount of light at the detector indicates

(0 an increase/D a decrease) in level. a decrease

155. It is easier to use this method with (0 gasoline/

o asphalt). gasoline

156. Other methods are needed for dirty or dark, non-

transparent liquids.
For muddy water, use (0 a light source/o some other
method). some other method

157. Could X-rays pass through muddy liquids?

(0 yes/O no) yes

158. Gamma rays (radiation) act like X-rays.

Gamma rays can be used to detect the _ _ _ _ __ level
of liquids which light cannot pass through.

27
159. Here is a gamma·ray level instrument.

ECTOR

.·--VAPOR

--LIQUID

RADIATION SOURCE

The radiation from the source passes through both

______ and to reach the detector. liquid, vapor

160. The rays pass through most gases (0 more/O less) more
easily than through liquids.

161. The vapor offers (0 great/O very little) resistance very little
to the rays.

162. The higher the level of liquid in the tank, the (0 morel
o fewer) gamma rays reach the detector. fewer

163. More radiation reaches the detector when the tank is

mostly (0 vapor/O liquid). vapor

164. Gamma radiation and X·rays are dangerous if not

handled correctly.
To protect personnel, the source must be _ _ _ _ __ shielded, or covered
to keep the radiation properly enclosed.

165. The operator should carefully study safety regulations

before working with materials. radioactive

28
REVIEW AND SUMMARY

166. What is this instrument?

gage glass, or level gage

167. The level in the gage glass must equal the level in the
tank because the on the bottom of the pressure
gage glass must equal that at the bottom of the tank.

29
168. Name the following methods used to detect level.

A _ _ _ _ _ __

c _ _ _ _ __
D_ _ _ _ __

A. radiation, or light
B. float (ball float)
c. torque tube, or
displacement
D. manometer
E. bubbler, or purge
E_ _ _ _ _ __ F_ _ _ _ _ __
F. diaphragm

30
169. Which of the following gages measure level by meas-
uring changes in pressure?
diaphragm gage (0 yes/o no) yes
bubbler (0 yes/O no) yes
torque tube (0 yes/o no) no
ball float and lever (0 yes/o no) no
mercury manometer (0 yes/o no) yes
radiation type (0 yes/o no) no

170. Which of the following gages physically touch the

process liquid?
gage glass (0 yes/o no) yes
bubbler (0 yes/o no) yes
diaphragm gage (0 yes/o no) yes
ball float and lever (0 yes/o no) yes
unsealed manometer (0 yes/O no) yes
sealed manometer (0 yes/o no) no
radiation type (0 yes/o no) no

171. Identify the level gages listed below which measure

level by pressure difference only.
bubbler (0 yes/o no) no
torque tube (0 yes/O no) no
manometer (0 yes/o no) yes
diaphragm gage (0 yes/o no) yes
ball float and lever (0 yes/o no) no
radiation type (0 yes/O no) no

172. Which of the following gages use a float or displacer?

bubbler (0 yes/o no) no
torque tube (0 yes/o no) yes
manometer (0 yes/O no) no
ball and tape (0 yes/O no) yes
radiation type (0 yes/o no) no
diaphragm gage (0 yes/o no) no

173. A displacer-type gage differs from a float because the

displacer is (0 heavier/O lighter) than the liquid heavier
being measured and the float is (0 heavier/O lighter). lighter

174. Many instruments measure level by determining static

head.
In other words, they measure the dif- pressure
ference between the top and the bottom of the tank.

175. Bubblers usually use air as the gas, unless oxygen

_ _ _ _ _ _ with the tank liquid. reacts

176. Instruments which use _ _ _ _ _ _ _ need special radiation

shielding and protection for personnel.

31
INSTRUMENTATION
FOR OPERATORS
Unit 1

Measuring Instruments

Section 4

Flow Instruments
SECTION FOUR

FLOW INSTRUMENTS

What Is Flow Rate?

1. Liquid is flowing through this pipe.

• • •
To find the rate of flow, you need to know _ _ _ __ how
_ _ _ _ _ _ Iiquid flows in a given amount of time. much

2. (0 Gallons/O Gallons per minute) is a measure of Gallons per minute

flow rate.

3. Flow rate may be measured as the number of cubic

feet of fluid passing through a meter in an hour.
Cubic feet refers to (0 time/o amount). amount

4. If 1000 cubic feet of gas moves through a gas meter

in an hour, the flow rate is cubic feet 1000
per hour.

5. The longer it takes for a fluid to flow, the:

a. lower the flow rate.
b. higher the flow rate. a

6. The faster a fluid moves through a pipe, the _ _ _ __ higher, or greater

the flow rate.

7. 1000 cubic feet of gas flowing through a line in one

hour is a (0 higher/O lower) flow rate than 1000 higher
cubic feet of gas flowing in two hours.

8. Flow rate is increased by:

_______ the amount of fluid flowing; or increasing
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ the time it takes to flow. decreasing

33
9. Both of these one-foot sections of pipe have the same
diameter.

(
B
Each section is capable of holding (0 the samelO a
different) amount of liquid. the same

10. To increase the flow rate through section A, you must

_ _ _ _ _ _ the amount of time it takes for liquid decrease
to flow through A.

11. Liquid is moving through these two pipe sections at

the same speed.

)+ •
• • •
A
• \

( • • • (
B

Pipe (0 AID B) has a larger diameter. A

12. Thus, flow rate is higher in pipe (0 A/O B). A

13. Liquid is flowing through this pipe.

RESTRICTION

1
•
To reach the outlet, the liquid must pass through a
_ _ _ _ _ _ in the pipe. restriction

14. For the flow rate to remain the same downstream from
the restriction, the velocity of the liquid must (0 in-
creaselO decrease) as it passes through the restriction. increase

34
15. The partially closed valve in this pipe acts as a re-
striction.

•
B c
Velocity is highest at <0 AID BID C). B

16. Pressure is "used" to make fluid flow faster.

When the velocity of a liquid or gas increases, pres-
sure _ _ _ _ __ decreases

17. Look at this pipe section .

• •
ABC
Velocity is highest at <0 AID BID C). B

18. Pressure at the restriction. decreases

19. Pressure is lowest at <0 AID BID C). B

How Flow Rate and Pressure Are Related

20. Pressure is a measure of the amount of energy stored

in a substance.

GAS IN

Increasing the pressure of a liquid stores <0 morel

o less) energy in the liquid. more

35
 21. A high-pressure gas (0 islO is not) doing work while is not
it is stored.

22. High-velocity gas is jetting out of this nozzle.

....,
(

NOZZLE

The gas jet _ _ _ _ _ _ the blade in its path. hits

t
23. The blade moves.
The high-velocity gas jet has done _ _ _ _ __ work

24. The high-pressure gas in this tank is released when

the valve is opened.

As it jets out of the pipe, the gas is moving at (0 highl

o low) speed. high

25. Pressure energy is "used" to _ _ _ _ _ _ the gas push, or move

out of the tank.

26. The high-velocity gas is now at (0 high/O low) low

pressure.

27. For ftuids to ftow, energy is changed pressure

to velocity energy.

36
28. Pressure difference is needed to move a fluid .

• • •
A B

For liquid to flow, pressure must be greater at

(0 AID B). A

29. The faster a fluid must be made to flow, the (0 greater / greater
o lesser) the pressure difference needed.

30. If pressure is "used up" to increase the velocity of a

fluid, the of the fluid decreases. pressure

31. Let's say that the flow of a fluid is blocked.

Pressure at the point where the flow is blocked:

o a. increases.
o b. decreases.
o c. remains the same. a

32. Anything that slows down the flow of a liquid or a

gas the pressure of the liquid or the gas. increases

33. What happens after liquid passes through a restriction?

A
•
The liquid (0 speeds up/o slows down) after it leaves slows down
the restriction (at B).

37
34. After leaving the restriction, the pressure (0 in-
creaseslO decreases/o stays the same). increases

Let's Review
35. A restriction is placed in this pipe.

• : •
To get through the restriction, the liquid velocity
increases

36. Pressure _ _ _ _ __ decreases

37. If a pressure gage is mounted on each side of the

restriction, the gages should record (0 the samelO dif-
ferent) pressures. different

38. Liquid is flowing through this pipe section.

~ • A
; B
•
C
• } D
Pressure is lowest at (0 AID B/O CIO D). B

39. The higher the velocity through the restriction, the

_ _ _ _ _ _ the pressure difference across the re- greater
striction.

40. Flow rate can be measured indirectly by measuring the

amount of difference across an orifice. pressure

41. When flow rate slows down, pressure _ _ _ _ _ _, increases

42. Where is pressure probably the highest?

A
• c
B

(0 AID BID C) A

Now tum the poge, 38

tum the book over, ond go on.
MEASURlNG floW RATE DIRECTLY WITH POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS
43. Flow rate can be measured directly by measuring the
volume of liquid passing through a meter in a given
amount of _ _ _ _ _ __ time

44. Direct-measurement flow meters:

o a. measure pressure difference.
o b. don't need to measure pressure difference. b

45. A positive-displacement meter allows only a specific

measured volume of fluid to pass through the meter
at each revolution.
The positive-displacement meter measures flow (0 di-
rectly10 indirectly). directly

46. Positive-displacement meters are normally affected by

amount only.
Within certain limits, changes in temperature, pres-
sure, or liquid density affect meter readings only if
_______ of liquid flowing changes. volume

The Impeller Meter

47. The drawing shows a typical positive-displacement

meter.

IMPELLERS

Two impellers rotate on shafts and allow _ _ _ _ __ liquid, or fluid

to pass between them and the case.

48. Only a set amount of liquid is trapped. Therefore for

each rotation of the impellers only a set amount is dis-
charged from the meter.
Each rotation of the impellers measures (0 the samel
o a different) amount of liquid. the same

39
49. The impeller shafts are turned by the flowing liquid.
Thus, some of the liquid's pressure is used up to
_ _ _ _ _ _ it through the meter. move

50. The faster the liquid flows, the _ _ _ _ _ _ the faster

shafts are turned.

51. A counter is attached to the shaft.

The counter measures the number of _ _ _ _ __ rotations, or turns
of the shaft.

52. Each rotation of the shaft indicates that a set

_ _ _ _ _ _ of liquid has passed through the meter. volume, or amount

53. Increased rpm of the shaft means that the flow rate
has ________ increased

54. A positive-displacement meter like the impeller meter

can be damaged if the liquid contains sand or other
abrasive material.
Gritty material acts like sandpaper and wears away
the _ _ _ _ __ impellers

55. If the impeller size changes, the volume of liquid

passed through at each rotation _______ changes

56. To use a positive-displacement meter to measure flow,

the liquid must be _ _ _ _ __ clean

57. The meter takes in and discharges each unit of fluid

separately.
The flow through a positive-displacement meter is
(0 smooth/O pulsed). pulsed

58. If smooth, even flow must be maintained, you

(0 would/O would not) use a positive-displacement would not
meter without a surge drum to smooth out pulses.

40
The Turbine Meter

59. This is a turbine meter.

TURBI

Do its rotating shaft and counter work the same

way as the impeller-type positive displacement meter?
(0 yes/O no) yes

60. The turbine itself turns like the _ _ _ _ _ _ on the impellers

previous meter.

61. The turbine is turned by the flowing _ _ _ _ __ liquid

62. The faster the liquid flows, the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the faster

turbine rotates.

63. A counter is driven by the turbine _ _ _ _ __ shaft

64. When shaft rpm increases, the counter indicates

_ _ _ _ _ _ flow. increased

65. Sometimes a small electric generator may be run off

the turbine shaft.
The faster the shaft turns, the (0 larger/O smaller) larger
the amount of electricity produced by the generator.

66. As the generation of electricity increases, it indicates

that the has increased. flow rate

67. Although each rotation of the turbine allows only a set

amount of liquid through the turbine, the fluid flows
(0 smoothly/o in spurts). smoothly

41
68. If flow must be smooth, use:
o a. an impeller-type meter.
o b. a turbine-type meter. b

69. Both the turbine meter and the positive displacement

meter can be by gritty fluid. damaged

70. Impeller meters and turbine meters are subject to a

lot of wear.
The higher the flow rate, the greater the amount of
_ _ _ _ _ _ on the meter parts. wear

The Vortex Meter

71. Look at this vortex meter.
ROTOR

•
Does it operate on the same general principles as the
positive displacement meter and the turbine meter?
(0 yes/o no) yes

72. Instead of a turbine, the rotating part is called a

rotor

73. The rotor floats in the liquid.

This _ _ _ _ _ _ the amount of wear on parts. decreases

74. All these meters which measure flow rate directly have
disadvantages.
They should be used only with _ _ _ _ _ _ fluids. clean

75. Friction or slippage between the liquid and the parts

can cause readings. inaccurate, or false

76. If the fluid becomes thicker, the rpm of the meter may
_ _ _ _ _ _.." even if the flow rate remains the same. decrease

42
77. Changes in liquid density _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the meter change
speed.

78. Unless specially compensated for, liquids generally be-

come less viscous (thick) when temperature increases.
Temperature changes (0 will/O will not) cause in- will
accurate readings on these meters, unless they are
compensated for.

MEASURING FLOW RATE INDIRECTLY

79. Direct-measurement flow meters measure flow by meas-

uring the volume of fluid passing through the meter
in a given amount of _ _ _ _ __ time

80. Differential-pressure flow meters measure flow by

measuring a difference. pressure

81. Compare these two flow meters.

A B

Meter (0 AID B) is a differential-pressure flow meter. B

82. A differential-pressure flow meter needs two basic

parts:
the orifice plate to cause a ____________ pressure difference
and,
the diaphragm indicator to _ _ _ _ _ _ this pres- measure, or indicate
sure difference.

43
 The Orifice Plate
83. Look at this drawing.
RIFICE PLATE

~
I }

C-
---
An orifice plate is a _ _ _ _ _ _ in the pipe. restriction

• 84. The velocity of the liquid through the orifice is

(0 higher/o lower) than the velocity through the
rest of the pipe.
higher

85. When velocity increases, the pressure _ _ _ _ __ decreases

86. Thus, liquid pressure is (0 greater/o lower) imme- lower

diately downstream from the orifice.

87. The orifice plate causes the pressure difference.

Can the orifice plate by itself measure the pressure
difference? (0 yes/o no) no

88. To measure the pressure differences across the orifice

plate, you need a pressure instrument.

A B
(0 A/o B) could be used to measure the pressure dif- B
ference across the orifice plate.

44
89. As fiow rate increases, pressure difference across the
orifice increases.
Increased How rate can be indicated by an _ _ _ __ increased
pressure difference.

90. Gas is flowing through these two process lines.

30 PSIG 10 PSIG 20 PSIG 15 PSIG

( ¥¥
I ) ~
B

Flow rate is highest in pipe (0 A/O B). A

91. Flow is greater because the pressure difference across

orifice A is than the difference across greater
orifice B.

92. A mercury manometer is measuring pressure difference

across this restriction.

The higher the flow rate, the _ _ _ _ _ _ the pres- greater

sure difference.

93. The pressure difference across the plate may be too

small to measure easily.
To make the difference measurable, a (0 larger/
o smaller) orifice may be used. smaller

45
94. In measuring the flow rate of a liquid-solid stream one
of the substances may build up on one side of the plate.
A build-up of material can make the size of the hole
_ _ _ _ _ _, and the gage reads a flow rate which smaller
is too (0 high/O low). high

95. Orifice plates are very simple to build.

Thus, they are _ _ _ _ _ _ expensive than many less
other kinds of meters.

96. Because they are small, they take up very little space.
They can be easily inserted in a _ _ _ _ __ line, or pipe

97. They can be changed (0 with difficulty /0 easily) easily

during shutdown of the process unit.

98. The orifice meter has some disadvantages.

After the liquid has passed through the restriction,

velocity energy is changed back to _ _ _ _ _ __ pressure
energy.

99. But the pressure does not return to the same value it
was before the liquid passed through the orifice.
Some of the pressure energy is used up to overcome
friction in the _ _ _ _ __ orifice

100. This energy loss across the plate is relatively high in

orifice meters.
Orifice meters (0 are/O are not) very efficient. are not

101. Because the plates are thin and sharp-edged they wear
quickly.
Dirt and sediment can also _ _ _ _ _ _ the size of change, or reduce, or enlarge
the orifice.

102. If the size of the orifice changes, readings may be

inaccurate, or false

46
The Flow Nozzle
103. The flow nozzle' works on the same general principles
as the orifice plate.

Instead of the plate, the restriction is the _ _ _ _ __ nozzle

104. As the liquid flows through the nozzle, its velocity in-
creases.
Its pressure _ _ _ _ __ decreases

105. The nozzle causes the pressure difference.

To measure the amount of pressure difference you need
a differential- gage. pressure

106. One pressure connection is placed upstream from the

restriction.
The other connection is placed _ _ _ _ __ downstream

107. Each of these lines is using a flow nozzle and man-

ometer to measure flow rate. /
I' ' .\,\
"'" \~\_" .... ~ L, ,

B
Flow is greater in line (0 AID B). B

47 ,
\
108. Compare this orifice plate and this flow nozzle.

;/)"
~/ ....
;/) V
l~ ,," /'A
fr~f
"- "-
%J

If the liquid contains grit, which restriction is pre-

ferred? (0 orifice plate/O flow nozzle). flow nozzle

109. Undesirable build-up of material is minimized by using

the flow nozzle instead of an qrifice plate.
If the velocity of the fluid is enough, fast, or high
everything is swept through the nozzle.

110. A flow nozzle is preferred for high-velocity process

streams (steam, for example).
For the same amount of pressure difference, it can
handle a (0 larger/O smaller) volume than the ori- larger
fice plate.

111. The flow nozzle offers less resistance to flow.

Energy losses are (0 greater/O less) with the nozzle less
than with the orifice plate.

112. Because there are no sharp edges, the nozzle _ _ __ wears

less quickly.

113. The flow nozzle is (0 more/O less) efficient than the more
orifice plate.

114. Flow nozzles are more costly than the orifice plates.
And it is more difficult to insert them in the line or
_ _ _ _ _ _ them from the line. remove

48
The Venturi Tube
115 __ This is a venturi tube.

It (0 islD is not) a restriction in this line. is

116. The venturi tube narrows (0 sharply10 gradually). gradually

117. After pressure decreases through the venturi tube, the

liquid gradually slows down and pressure returns to
about the same level it was at before entering the tube.
So, the energy loss is very _ _ _ _ __ low, or small

118. Because it has no corners or sharp edges, dirt and sedi-

ment are likely to build up in the tube. less, or not

119. If pressure losses must be kept at a minimum, use:

o a. an orifice plate.
o b. a flow nozzle.
o c. a venturi tube. c

120. Is flow rate being measured on this picture?

o a. yes
Db. no b

121. To measure the flow rate, add a (0, positive-displace-

ment/D differential-pressure) gage across the restric- differential-pressure
tion.

49
122. Is flow being measured on this venturi?

(0 yeslO no) yes

The Dahl Tube

123. The dahl tube is a less commonly used flow meter.

It consists of a pipe elbow, with _ _ _ _ _ _ taps. two

124. The dahl tube works on the principle that centrifugal

force is greater on the outside of a curve than on the
inside of the curve.
Centrifugal force increases as velocity _ _ _ _ __ increases

125. Pressure is greatest on the (0 outerlO inner) part outer

of the curve.

126. The high-pressure tap is on the (0 outerlO inner) outer

part of the curve.

127. The tap on the inside of the curve is the _ _ _ _ _~ low

pressure tap.

128. The pressure difference measured is the pressure dif-

ference between the two _ _ _ _ __ taps

50
129. Compare these two dahl tubes.
v

20 PSIG 40 PSIG

10 PSIG

A B

The flow rate is higher in dahl tube (0 A/O B). B

130. The flow rate is higher in B because the pressure dif-

ference is _ _ _ _ __ higher, or greater

131. The dahl tube is like an ordinary pipe elbow, except

that it has a very smooth bore and pressure taps.
It (0 is/O is not) always necessary to make major is not
changes in the piping to insert this type of flow meter.

Let's Review
132. Which of the following flow meters are positive dis-
placement flow meters?
vortex meter (0 yes/O no) yes
flow nozzle-manometer (0 yes/O no) no
orifice plate-diaphragm (0 yes/O no) no
turbine meter (0 yes/O no) yes

133. When velocity increases, pressure _ _ _ _ _ _, decreases

THE VARIABLE-AREA FLOW METER

134. In a differential pressure flow meter, flow rate is in-
dicated by the amount of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ difference pressure
across a restriction.

135. The size of the orifice (0 changes/O remains the

same). remains the same

51
136. In the variable-area flow meter there is a pressure dif-
ference. But no matter how high the flow rate is, this
pressure difference remains the same.
Pressure difference (0 islO is not) used to indicate is not
flow rate.

137. In the variable-area meter, the liquid passes through

a small opening.

,-..-GLASS TUBE

-/--FLOAT

This restriction is the entrance to the tapered glass

tube

138. A _ _ _ _ _ _ is free to move up and down in the float

tube.

139. As _ _ _ _ _ _ enters the tube, it pushes up on liquid, or flow

the float.

140. The higher the flow rate, the _ _ _ _ _ _ up in the higher

tube the float is pushed.

141. The liquid enters through the bottom of the container;

near the bottom the float takes up almost all the tube.
Because the tube is tapered, the area around the float
_ _ _ _ _ _ as the float moves up or down. changes

142. As the float rises, the liquid has (0 more/O less) more
area to flow through.

52
143. When flow rate increases, the size of the opening
increases

144. Flow rate in this type of flow meter is indicated by

an increase in:
o a. the pressure difference.
o b. the size of flow opening. b

145. The float's _______ in the tube indicates the position

amount of flow.

146. Compare these two meters.

B
Meter <0 AID B) indicates a higher flow rate. B

147. Because the float is completely surrounded with liquid,

it is difficult to read the meter if the liquid is cloudy,
turbulent, or _ _ _ _ __ dirty

148. If the meter is going to be hard to read, the float may

have an extension to the outside of the tube.
The reading is then taken on the _ _ _ _ _ _, outside, or extension, or
indicator

149. Since many of· the tubes are glass, the meters a~
sometimes enclosed in metal cases.
Care should be taken to avoid _______ the inner breaking
glass tube if it is removed from the case.

53
150. The variable-area meter is an example of a flow meter
which measures flow rate by changing area.

The meter is a variable- (0 pressure/O area) flow area

meter.

151. Variable-area flow meters must be calibrated for the

specific liquid being measured.

Select the right meter for the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ being liquid, or material, or fluid
measured.

ELECTRICAL FLOW METERS

How Electricity Is Used to Indicate Flow

152. This magnet sets up a magnetic field. Magnetism can

be used to create electric current.

HORSESHOE MAGNn

WIRE LOOP
N.X"",

Passing a wire loop through the field induces

_ _ _ _ _ _ in the loop. electricity, or current

153. Objects passing through magnetic fields can develop

electricity, or current

154. Electricity can be induced in a liquid passing through

a magnetic field.

The faster a conductive liquid flows in the field, the

- -_ _ _ _ the amount of electrical current pro- greater
duced.

54
155. Here is an electromagnetic flow meter.

VO TMETER

In this meter, two of wire supply a coils

magnetic field across the pipe carrying the liquid.

156. The liquid must pass through this _ _ _ _ __ magnetic

field

157. Two electrodes connected to a voltmeter are placed so

that they contact the in the pipe. liquid, or fluid

158. Current is induced in the liquid as it passes through

the magnetic field.
The amount of current measured by the voltmeter is
proportional to the rate of _ _ _ _ __ flow

159. The faster the liquid flows, the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the greater

amount of current produced.

160. The voltmeter shows a _ _ _ _ _ _ reading. higher

161. Can this kind of meter be used with all liquids ? (0 yes!
o no) , no

162. To use this kind of meter, the liquid must be a con-

ductor of _ _ _ _ __ electricity

55
163. If the pipe is not full of liquid, the electrodes may not
_ _ _ _ _ _ the liquid and no current will be produced. contact

164. All of the other flow meters discussed so far have meas-
ured flow rate by putting some in the obstruction, or restriction
process stream.

165. Electromagnetic flow meters offer no obstruction to

flow.
They are ideal for slurries or other (0 thick/O thin) thick
process streams.

TEMPERATURE-TYPE FLOW METERS

Temperature Can Be Used to Measure Flow Rate
166. This pipe is filled with water.

We are adding _ _ _ _ _ _ to the water. heat

167. If enough heat is added, the water _ _ _ _ __ boils

168. Suppose the water starts to flow.

Will the water still boil? (0 yes/O no) no

169. The flowing water will carry the _ _ _ _ _ _ down- heat

stream.

170. The rate at which the heat is carried away can in-
dicate the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ flow rate

171. Heat is being added to this process stream.

~- I

CONSTANT HEAT
I
~--+~
iTEMPERATURE
MEASURING DEVICE
It is carried away by the _ _ _ _ __ liquid, or flow

56
172. The faster the stream flows, the (0 greater/O smaller) smaller
the increase in temperature downstream from the heat
source.

173. This change in temperature is being measured by the

temperature _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ measuring device

174. The faster the flow rate, the (0 higher/D lower) the lower
temperature at the heat input point.

The Hot-Wire Anemometer

175. The hot-wire anemometer works on this principle.

• •
The anemometer adds _______ to the process heat
stream at a constant rate.

176. The lower the temperature of the wire, the greater

the amount of heat being carried away.
Or, the _ _ _ _ _ _ the flow rate. higher

57
REVIEW AND SUMMARY
177. Compare these flow meters.

They are both:

o a. direct-measurement flow meters.
o b. variable-area meters.
o c. differential-pressure meters. c

178. Look at this flow meter.

It is a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ flow meter. variable-area

179. The flow rate is indicated by the position of the

float

58
180. This is a turbine meter.

.....
It measures flow rate by counting the number of rpm's
ofthe ___________ shaft, or turbine

181. The turbine is turned by <0 the liquidlO an outside

power source). the liquid

182. Compare these meters.

A B

There is less friction and wear on meter <0 AID B). B

183. Electromagnetic meters are preferred for thick or

sandy liquid because they do not place an _ _ _ __ obstruction, or restriction
in the line.

59
184. Name the following flow meter elements.
I

A_ _ _ _ _ __

B,_ _ _ _ _ __

c _______

t"kJ,.............J.S
D' _ _ _ _ __

E_ _ _ _ _ _ __

A. variable-area
B. flow nozzle
C. orifice plate
D. venturi tube
F _ _ _ _ _ _ __ E. turbine
F. vortex
60
185. Which meter shown above uses a diaphragm to meas-
ure the pressure difference?
(D A/O B/O C/O D 10 E/O F). C

186. Which of these meters offers the least resistance to

flow?
a. hot-wire anemometer.
b. turbine meter.
c. electromagnetic flow meter.
d. flow nozzle-manometer. c

187. Which of these meters is a positive displacement flow

meter?
a. venturi tube-diaphragm.
b. vortex meter.
c. hot-wire anemometer. b

61
INSTRUMENTATION
FOR OPERATORS
Unit 1

Measuring Instruments

Section 5

Analytical Instruments
SECTION FIVE

ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Introduction

1. Water can exist in three different forms: solid, liquid,

and gas.

I~ ~ ••••••

Ice can be changed to wa~er by adding _ _ _ _ __ heat

to the ice.

2. Water can be changed to _ _ _ _ _ _ by boiling the steam, or gas

water (adding heat).

3. This process of changing the form of water is called

a physical change.
The water (0 islO is not) changed chemically to is not
something else.

4. The water is still water.

Basically, the ice is _ _ _ _ _ _ and the steam is water
_ _ _ _ _ _ too. water

5. Heating a material to its melting point produces a

(0 chemical/D physical) change. physical

6. When hydrogen and oxygen react, water is produced.

The hydrogen and the oxygen are _ _ _ _ _ _ into changed
something else.

7. This is a (0 physicallO chemical) change. chemical

63
 8. Liquifying a petroleum gas is a (0 chemical/O physi-
cal) change. physical

9. Using catalytic cracking to change gas oil into gasoline

is a change. chemical

10. Changes in temperature, pressure, flow rate, and liquid

level are all (0 physical/O chemical) changes. physical

11. Taking a pressure measurement does not give us in-

formation about the chemical composition of the sub-
stance we are measuring.
A flow meter (0 can/O cannot) tell you what fluid is cannot
flowing through the line.

12. It can only tell you _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ fluid how much

is flowing.

13. However there are instruments which can analyze

_ _ _ _ _ _ changes in a substance. chemical

Acids and Alkalies

14. Sulfur compounds can form acids; caustic solutions
are alkalies.
Sulfur compounds are present in some petroleum prod-
ucts and can form in the products. acids

15. Acids can be harmful to metals.

Finished products should not contain _ _ _ _ __ sulfur, or acids

16. Some products are treated with caustic solutions dur-

ing processing.
These harmful substances (0 should/O should not) should not
be present in finished products.

17. Products are tested to see whether or not they contain

harmful substances.
These tests are performed with _ _ _ _ __ instruments, or analyzers

18. There are several kinds of acids and several kinds

of alkalies. But when any acid and any alkali are
mixed together, the same type of chemical reaction
occurs.
Mixing sulfuric acid with an alkali (0 gives/O does
not give) the same reaction as mixing hydrochloric gives
acid with an alkali.

64
19. When an acid is mixed with an alkali, the result is a
salt plus water.
Finish this reaction:
acid + alkali = salt + ______. water

20. Mixing an acid with an alkali reduces the effects of

the acid and the alkali.

Mixing caustic soda (an alkali) with hydrochloric

acid makes the solution (0 more/O less) acidic. less

21. Mixing acid into caustic potash (an alkali) (Oin-

creases/O reduces) its alkalinity. reduces

22. Reducing the effects of an acid or an alkali is called

neutralization.
A substance that is neutral is neither a(n) _ _ __ acid
nor a (n) _ _ _ _ __ alkali, or caustic

23. A salt (such as table salt) is formed when acids and

alkalies are neutralized.
The salt is usually (0 acid/O alkaline/o neutral). neutral

24. Pure water is usually _ _ _ _ _ _. neutral

25. pH is a scale used to measure the degree of acidity or

alkalinity of a substance.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
acid
(sulfuric
•
neutral
(pure water
alkali
(caustic
acid) or salt) soda)

An acid substance has a pH (0 lower than 7/0 higher

than 7). lower than 7

26. A substance with a pH above 7 is a(n) _ _ _ _ __ alkali, or caustic

27. Mixing the right amount of acid and alkali produces

a neutral solution.
A neutral pH is a pH of _ _ _ _ _ _ (right in the 7
middle of the scale).

28. Sulfuric acid has a pH (0 above/o below) 7. below

The pH of caustic soda is (0 above/o below) 7. above
Table salt in water has a pH of _ _ _ _ __ 7

65
29. Acids and alkalies in solution can generate electric
current and produce a small voltage.
pH could be measured with a (0 very sensitive volt-
meter10 manometer). very sensitive voltmeter

30. The voltage generated is read on a voltmeter.

This voltmeter is calibrated to read in units of (0 pHI

o volts). pH

31. Temperature creates problems with voltage readings.

Chemicals usually become (0 more/O less) active at more
high temperatures.

32. Voltage increases if temperature (0 increases/D de-

creases). increases

33. pH readings must be corrected for changes in

temperature

34. To get accurate pH measurements, the liquid must be

well mixed.
The composition of any liquid may ______ from vary, or change
point to point in the container.

66
Oxygen Analyzers

35. Oxygen is necessary for things to burn.

If oxygen is present in a gas-storage tank, a spark
could the gas-oxygen mixture and cause ignite, or light off
a serious explosion.

36. It is sometimes necessary to measure the (0 oxygen/

o fuel) concentration in process streams or other oxygen
equipment.

37. Cold oxygen is slightly attracted to a magnet; most

other gases are not attracted to a magnet.
A _ _ _ _ _ _ can be used to indicate oxygen in magnet
the air.

38. The other components of the air (0 are/O are not) are not
attracted to the magnet.

39. This magnet is producing a strong magnetic field.

-1.-
B
--
The magnetic field is strongest at the (0 edges/
o center) of the magnetic field. center

40. So, if the magnet is attracting oxygen, oxygen concen-

tration is greatest at point (0 A/O B/O C). A

67
41. Oxygen flows toward the magnet.

The more oxygen flowing, the _ _ _ _ _ _ the rate greater

of flow toward the magnet.

42. The oxygen collects around the magnetic field.

To maintain flow, you must find some way to
_ _ _ _ _ _ this oxygen out of the magnetic field. remove, or push

43. Heated oxygen is less attracted by the magnetic field

than cold oxygen.

TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR

So, if we heat the collected oxygen, it will be pushed

out of the magnetic field by the oxygen cold, or new
flowing into the field. The more circulation past the
heater, the cooler the temperature-indicator probe.

68
44. Some instruments use this principle to measure the
oxygen present in a gas.
A _ _ _ _ _ _ is used to attract the oxygen. magnet

45. And a temperature indicator determines the cooling

rate of oxygen flowing toward the _ _ _ _ __ magnet

46. One type of oxygen analyzer measures flow rate of

oxygen toward the magnet by comparing the tempera-
ture difference between two resistance-element ther-
mometers.
MEASURING
MAGNET ELL

• • FIELD

PARISON CELL

RESISTANCE
TEMPERATURE
ELEMENT

One thermometer is in the measuring cell; the other is

in the cell. comparison, or reference

47. The gas stream which contains oxygen flows past two
cells.
The (0 measuring/O comparison) cell contains a measuring
magnet.

48. As the gas stream flows past the two cells, gas flows
into each cell.
The magnet attracts all cold _ _ _ _ _ _ in the gas oxygen
stream.

49. Cold oxygen is drawn into the magnetic field of the

(0 measuring cell/O comparison cell). measuring cell

50. More circulation occurs in the (0 measuring/O com-

parison) cell. measuring

69
51. Each cell contains a resistance-element thermometer
and heater unit.
The greater the amount of oxygen circulating past the
thermometer, the the cooling effect on greater
the thermometer.

52. Since the measuring cell has a higher circulation rate,

the temperature will be cooler in the cell. measuring

53. The temperature difference between the two cells in-

dicates the amount of in the gas. oxygen

54. If the gas stream contains no oxygen, gas circulation

in both cells is the same.
If oxygen is present it is attracted by the _ _ _ _ __ magnet
in the measuring cell.

55. Circulation rate is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in the measuring higher, or more

cell if oxygen is present.

56. Circulation rate is the same in both cells if no

_ _ _ _ _ _-'is present. oxygen

57. When oxygen is present, circulation rate is greatest

in the cell. measuring

58. This oxygen analyzer works on the principle that oxy-

gen supports combustion.

OXYGEN HYDROGEN
A stream of hydrogen brought into contact with a gas
stream containing oxygen can be made to _ _ _ _ __ burn

70
59. One pound of hydrogen combines with eight pounds
of oxygen.
If there is more than the correct amount of hydrogen,
the excess amount does not _ _ _ _ __ burn

60. The combination of one pound of hydrogen with eight

pounds of oxygen releases a definite, known amount
of heat.
If a large amount of hydrogen is introduced into the
gas stream, the amount of heat given off when it burns
indicates the of oxygen present. amount

61. It is necessary to add an excess of hydrogen to be sure

that all the is used up in combustion. oxygen

62. The hydrogen used must be pure, so that the burning

characteristics will always be the _ _ _ _ __ same

63. If the gas stream being tested contains other com-

bustible gases, the amount of heat released may be
_ _ _ _ _ _ from that of pure hydrogen. different

64. Appreciable amounts of other combustible gases make

it necessary to make a in the reading. correction, or adjustment

65. Some oxygen analyzers use the magnetic property of

oxygen.
Others work because of oxygen's ability to support
combustion
Both types pick up a temperature change to determine
how much oxygen is present.

71
The Gas Chromatograph
66. The gas chromatograph is another analytical instru-
ment; it can tell you how much of a substance is in
a process stream.

CARRIER

RESISTANCE
ELEMENT
THERMOMETER

RESIST ANCE-
ELEMENT
THERMOMETER
EEEEB--SAMPLE OUT

It consists of a metal tube containing a _ _ _ _ __ porous

material.

67. This material is porous (like sand) so that the

_ _ _ _ _ _ can pass through it. gas

68. Liquid may be absorbed onto the surface of the

_ _ _ _ _ _ material. porous

69. A carrier gas runs continuously through the tube. This

carrier gas does not react with the liquid absorbed on
the solid. nor is it absorbed into this liquid.
A very small sample of the gas to be analyzed is in-
troduced into this stream of gas. carrier

70. Let's say a sample contains components A and B. The

porous material attracts A more than it attracts B.
When both components are present in the sample. more
(0 AID B) will be absorbed. A

72
71. As the sample flows through the tube with the car-
rier gas, A and B remain in the tube longer than the
carrier gas.
A remains (0 moreiO less) time in the tube than B, more
because it is absorbed in the porous material.

72. Thus, different components of the sample reach the

outlet of the tube at times. different

73. A specific component always takes the same amount

of time to get through the tube, if the temperature and
the flow rate of the gas remain constant. carrier

74. If you are testing methane gas, for example, it (0 willi

o will not) always take the same amount of time to will
go through the tube.

75. Different substances carry heat away from a hot wire

at different rates.
So, a thermometer placed in pure carrier gas gives a
_ _ _ _ _ _ reading from one placed in a carrier different
gas containing another substance.

76. A resistance-element thermometer may be placed at

the carrier gas inlet and another at the outlet.
When only carrier gas is flowing, the two thermometers
read the _ _ _ _ __ same

77. But, when one of the components of the sample

reaches the outlet, the two thermometer readings are
different

78. Thus, we can tell when a component has reached the

outlet by noting the time it takes for the outlet ther-
mometer's temperature to _ _ _ _ __ change

79. The difference in thermometer readings indicates the

_ _ _ _ _ _ of a particular component present. amount

73
80. The graph shows the result of the analysis of a gas
stream by a gas chromatograph installed on a process
stream.

.!

../'
L
/ \
i\. /f\ ......
......

o 1 2 3 4 5 6
TIME (MINUTES) - - - - - - - - - - -

This graph shows _ _ _ _ _ _ peaks. 2

81. Each peak represents an increase in temperature.

Each peak indicates that a particular component has
reached the _ _ _ _ __ outlet, or detector

82. The component taking the longer time to get through

the tube is component _ _ _ _ __ B

83. The gas chromatograph is a very sensitive instrument.

The amount of sample needed is very _ _ _ _ __ small

84. The gas chromatograph records the amount of each

_ _ _ _ _ _ in a sample. component

85. Frequent calibrations with known samples are made

to avoid _ _ _ _ __ inaccuracies, or errors

86. If a gas chromatograph unit is too sensitive, com-

ponents in high concentration may cause the pen to
go off the scale.
If the sensitivity is too low, a component (0 may I
o may not) register at all. may not

87. Thus, during the original setup we compromise the

sensitivity to deal with a sample containing components
in both and concentrations. high, low

74
REVIEW AND SUMMARY
88. A number on the pH scale can tell you whether a sub-
stance is acid, alkaline, or _ _ _ _ __ neutral

89. A pH of 1 is (0 acid/O alkaline/O neutral). acid

90. A pH of 7 is _ _ _ _ __ neutral

91. A pH of 14 is _ _ _ _ __ alkaline

92. Oxygen analyzers are needed to determine exactly how

much excess air should be put into boilers and heaters
for maximum fuel economy and efficiency.
Oxygen analyzers are also needed in areas where gas,
a spark, and oxygen can cause an _ _ _ _ __ explosion

93. Gas chromatography can be used to indicate the

_ _ _ _ _ _ of a specific gas in a mixture of gases. amount, or percent

94. Look at this instrument.

MEASURING
MAGNET LL

,
FIELD

PARISON CELL

RESISTANCE-
TEMPERATURE
ELEMENT

It is used to indicate how much _ _ _ _ _ _ is pres- oxygen

ent in a gas.

95. It works because cold oxygen is attracted to a

magnet

75
96. Look at this instrument.

OXYGEN HYDROGEN
This instrument is used to determine the percent of
_ _ _ _ _ _ in a gas. oxygen, or combustibles

97. It works because of oxygen's ability to support

combustion, or burning

98. Look at this instrument which is installed on a process

stream.
CARRIER

SAM PLEI N - C·::::::z:z::;;Z

RESISTANCE
ELEMENT
THERMOMETER ,

RESISTANCE -
ELEMENT
THERMOMETER
EEEEi--SAMPLE OUT
It is used to:
a. find out what the components in an unknown sample
are.
b. find how much of a component is in a sample. b

I THE END I 76