Solar Thermal Energy

• Solar technologies tap directly into the infinite power of the sun
and use that energy to produce heat, light, and power
• The conversion of radiation energy into heat is currently the best
known and more extensively developed method of using solar
energy
 Solar thermal energy conversion : Process of heating a secondary
fluid

Domestic solar hot water system Air Collectors for home heating
2010, Z. Dehouche, Brunel University 175
SOLAR THERMAL IN EUROPE
• Solar thermal grows strongly in Europe
• Three factors are mainly responsible for the strong growth in solar
thermal energy usage in Europe:
1. Decision-makers realise that gas, oil and electricity are not a longer-
term option: they are increasingly expensive;
 oil production has reached its peak and is about to decrease;
gas supply to Europe is too much dependent on a single supplier
2. Building codes are more and more requiring the use of renewable
energy, and
 solar thermal offers a cost-effective solution
3. Solar thermal technology is widely available and is supported by a
broad range of companies:
from small installation companies to the leading heating equipment
manufacturers, for all kinds of applications

176
SOLAR THERMAL IN EUROPE
• The solar thermal market in the EU showed a strong performance
in 2008: It grew by 60% to 3,3 GWth of new capacity (4,75 mil m2 of
collector area)
• The biggest push came from the German domestic market which
increased its share of the European market to 44% in 2008 (2,1 mil
m2 of newly installed capacity)

In 2009, Germany became the

latest country to require renewable
heating in new buildings
Share of the European solar thermal Market 177
Solar Thermal Collectors
 Solar thermal conversion represents the process based on
the absorption or concentration of the solar energy in order
to convert it into heat, at reasonable efficiency
 The active parts of a solar system are called solar collectors
 Classifications:
1. End-use:
 Domestic;
 Industry;
2. By operating temperature:
 Low temperature collectors (<40°C)
 Middle temperature (40°C to 80°C)
 High temperature (> 80°C)

178
 “Batch” collectors Flat-plate collectors Evacuated Tube Collectors

3. By operating way:
 Plate collectors;
Evacuated Tube Collectors
 Concentrator collectors;
4. By fluid types (HTF):
 Water;
 Air;
 Oil. Parabolic trough collectors

3M Metalized Polymer Films exhibit broad

HTF: Heat Transfer Fluid spectrum reflectance
179
Solar Thermal Collectors
• The key parameters in solar thermal system design are the temperature
level and proportion of useable energy, which are determined by the
absorber surface characteristics and the radiation concentration
• The major application of these units are in solar water heating
Conventional Domestic Water Heating systems
Thermosyphon systems Forced-circulation systems

Source: www.volker-quaschning.de

• The principle of the Thermosyphon system is that cold water has a higher
specific density than warm water, and so being heavier will sink down
• At solar irradiances, warm water rises and the circulation of water adapts itself
to the level of solar irradiance
• An electrical pump is used to move water through the solar collector system by
forced circulation. Collector and storage tank can then be installed independently
180
Solar Water Heating System
•The solar collector preheats cold
feed-water contained in a storage
tank before it is further heated by
conventional boiler using,
electricity or gas
• Preheating of a large volume of
water is preferable to heating a
smaller volume of water to the
temperature of use Solar water heating system with boiler
for additional heating
• The efficiencies of solar collectors decrease as the operating
temperature rises
•The function of the control system, for which the temperature differential
is the input, is to switch the circulating pump on only when useful energy
can be collected (switch-on temperature differences are normally between
5°C and 10°C)
•This avoids the pumping of warm water through a cold solar collector
•The data needed to size a solar water heating system are: heating load,
solar radiation, and the required supply reliability 181
 Solar Collector Designs
• A solar collector is at the heart of a solar thermal system
• It is a special kind of heat exchanger that absorbs and transforms solar
radiant energy into heat
•The major application of these units are in solar water heating, building
heating, air conditioning, and industrial process heat

Liquid heating flat-plate collector

• The main components of the flat-plate collector are transparent front cover
(glazing), collector housing and the black solar energy absorbing surface.
• The absorber, inside the flat plate collector housing, converts sunlight to heat
and transfers it to water circulating in the absorber tubes
•The collector can reach stagnation temperatures of 200oC (when no water flows
through) 182
Solar Collector Designs
• The task of a solar collector is to achieve the highest
possible thermal yield

Different collector designs

• Evacuated collectors further reduce convective heat loss by
surrounding the hot absorber with a vacuum (< 10-2 atm) 183
Solar Collector Designs
•The absorber consists of a heat conducting metal sheet (made of copper
or aluminium, as a single surface or in strips) with a dark coating
•The tubes for the heat transfer medium, which are usually made of
copper, are connected conductively to the absorber
• The black coating absorb sunlight very well, and heat up as a result;
they emit part of the heat energy again as infrared radiation
• The performance of solar metallic absorbers depend on the selective
coating materials (coating maximizes absorption at short wavelengths)

Absorber wrapped around copper tube Typical flat-plate solar collector 184
 Optical Properties of Materials
Electromagnetic Radiation Interaction with Materials

• The first law of thermodynamics gives that, the sum of the energy that is
reflected, transmitted, and absorbed must equal the incident energy:

ρ +α +τ = 1
185
Absorber Materials
• Most spectral-selective layers have an absorption
rate of 90-95%, and an emission rate of 5-15%
• The mid-temperature selective coatings commonly
used are black chrome, black nickel or TiNOX (Titan-
Absorber)
• For efficient photo-thermal conversion solar
absorber surfaces must have high solar
absorptance α(,) and a low thermal emittance
ε(,T) at the operational temperature T
•Where, λ is the wavelength, and θ is the incidence
angle of light
186
Mid-Temperature Absorber Materials

TSSS1= Thickness-sensitive spectrally selective 187

TiNOX Absorbers
• The TiNOX absorbers collect almost all available solar radiation, at wavelengths
below 2.5 m, and convert it into heat
• The energy is directly transferred into the heating-support and water heating systems
by the TiNOX absorbers
•The TiNOX absorbers are selective and capable of reacting differently to wavelengths
below and above 2.5 m (heat radiation from a hot water collector surface at maximum
operational temperature of 100°C)

188
Efficiency curves of a collector provided with different
absorber coatings
•TiNOX is capable of absorbing 95% of incident solar radiation and converting it
into heat
•The highly selective TiNOX coating only loses ~4% of the captured solar energy
as heat radiation

189
Glazed Flat-Plate Collector
Advantages
• offers multiple mounting
options
• good price/performance
ratio
• cheaper than vacuum
collector
Principle of an evacuated tube
Disadvantages collector with heat pipe

• lower efficiency than vacuum collectors for high

temperature applications, because the heat loss coefficient
is higher
• not suitable for generating high temperatures (>100˚C)
• requires more roof space than vacuum collectors do
• support system is necessary for flat roof mounting 190
Flat Plate Collectors Vs Vacuum Tube
The amount of energy a collector can gain through radiation
decreases, as its temperature increases above the ambient
air temperature

191
Flat-Plate Energy Balance Equation
• In steady state, the useful energy output of a collector
of area Ac is the difference between the absorbed solar
radiation and thermal loss to the surroundings (by
conduction, convection and infrared radiation):

Energy Balance

Q= Absorbed Solar Energy - Thermal Losses

[ ]
Q = Ac (τα )I − U L (T pm − Ta ) = m C P (T fo − T fi )
It is also the energy absorbed by the heat transfer
fluid. I the total solar irradiance, (τα τα)
τα is
transmittance-absorptance of the solar collector and
UL is the overall heat loss coefficient 192
τ is the transmittance of the cover system and α is the
absorptance of the aborber plate, T pm = T p the mean absorber
plate temperature, Ta the ambient temperature, Cp and  are
respectively the specific heat and the mass flow rate of the
working fluid, Tfi and Tfo the temperatures of the fluid entering
and exiting the collector

Double glazed flat-plate solar collector

• The transmittance of single layer of 5 mm glass, τ =

0.83 and τ = 0.87 (for a glass between 3 and 4 mm)
193
Flat Plate Solar Collectors Performance
•The transmission, reflection, and absorption of solar
radiation by the various parts of a solar collector are
important in determining collector performance
•The collector efficiency η is defined as the ratio of usable
heat to incident solar radiation energy :

η=
[
AC (τα )I − U L (T pm − Ta ) ] = (τα ) − U (T pm − Ta )
L
AC I I

Flat Plate sheet and tube configuration 194

Cross-section view of flat-plate collector

195
Flat Plate Solar Collectors Performance
It is more convenient to express
the collector performance in
terms of the fluid inlet
temperature. This equation is
known as the classical Hottel-
Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation
used to predict the collector
performance:
Sheet and tube solar fluid heater
Governing Equation:

[ ]
Q = Ac FR (τα )I − U L (T fi − Ta ) = m C P (T fo − T fi )
Where FR is the collector heat removal factor
(correction factor):
actual useful energy gain m C P (T fo − T fi )
FR = =
maximum useful energy gain AC [(τα )I − U L (T fi − Ta )]
196
FR is affected only by the solar collector
characteristics, the fluid type, and the fluid flow rate
through the collector. The collector heat removal
factor can be expressed as:

   S   S 
    T fo − Ta −  −  T fi − Ta −  
m C P T fo − T fi m C P   UL   U L 
FR =  =
AC U L  S  AC U L  S 
− (T fi − Ta )  − (T fi − Ta ) 
 U L  U
 L 

Or:
 S 
 − (T fo − Ta )
m C P UL S = (τα )I
FR = 1 −  Where:
ACU L  S
− (T fi − Ta ) 
 U L 
197
Which from equation of fluid temperature
distribution, FR can be expressed as:

m C P   ACU L F ′  
FR = 1 − exp −  
  
ACU L   m C P 

Where F/ is the collector efficiency factor, which is a measure

of how enhanced the heat transfer is between the fluid and
the absorber plate. UL the overall heat loss coefficient is
dependent on the collector design only.
The steady-state useful energy delivered by a solar flat plate
collector is given by:

[ ]
Q = Ac F ′ S − U L (T fm − Ta ) = m C P (T fo − T fi )
Where, T fm = T f is the mean fluid temperature in the collector 198
FR is a measure of the solar collector performance as a heat
exchanger, since it can be interpreted as the ratio of actual heat
transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer. It is related to F/
by:
FR m C P   ACU L F ′  

′
=
′  1 − exp  −
  
F ACU L F   m C P 
FR
The ratio is the collector flow factor
F′
FR m C P   ACU L F ′  

= 1 − exp  − 
F ′ ACU L F ′   m C P  


  
   
FR m C P  1    1
= 1 − exp −  = r 1 − exp−  
F ′ ACU L F ′   mC P   
  r 
  ′  
  A U
C L F 
m C P
r= ; r is the dimensionless collector mass flow rate
ACU L F ′
199
Collector Efficiency
[
Q = Ac FR S − U L (T fi − Ta ) ]
Q  (T fi − Ta )
η= =  FR (τα ) − FRU L 
AC I  I 
Note that, if FRUL is constant, this is the equation of
a straight line Y=a +b X, with :
Y =η
a = FR (τα )
b = − FRU L 200
 Efficiency Curve (ASHRAE method)
η
FR (τα )

Slope = − FRU L

(T fi − Ta )
I
The American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) method.
201
Flat Plate Collector Efficiency
•The thermal losses increase as temperature difference
between the inlet fluid and ambient air rises
•At low solar irradiances, the efficiency decreases at a faster
rate

202
Flat Plate Collector Efficiency
•Collector efficiency as a function of the irradiance level. Systems
operating at low temperature levels (such as swimming pool heating
systems) can derive heat from the sun at very low levels of irradiance
•Higher temperature operating systems such as domestic hot water
systems only derive energy from the sun when the irradiance level is high

203
How to improve the efficiency of flat-plate solar collectors
The thermal efficiency of the collector is the proportion of
total incident radiation power I that is converted into usable
heat which is given by:

η = FR (τα ) − U L
(T fi − Ta )

 I 

204
Temperature Distribution in the Fluid Flow Direction
• Energy balance on the fluid element (steady state)

•The energy balance on the fluid flowing through a single

tube of length ∆y is expressed as:
 m   m 
 C p T f y − C p T f y + ∆y + ∆yqu′ = 0
n n
Where m is the total collector flow rate and n is the number of parallel
tubes. 205
q/u is the useful energy gain per unit flow length (W/m)
transferred to the fluid, which is expressed by:

Q Ac
qu′ = =
nL nL
[ ] [ ]
F ′ S − U L (T f − Ta ) = WF ′ S − U L (T f − Ta )

Thus,

[
q u′ = WF ′ S − U L (T f − Ta ) ]
Where L is the collector length in the flow direction and
Ac=nLW the collector total area

206
Substituting equation for qu′ , dividing through by y and finding the
limit ∆y → 0 we obtain:
dT f
m C p
dy
[ ]
− nWF ′ S − U L (T f − Ta ) = 0
Assuming F ′ and UL are constant, the solution for the fluid temperature
at any Position is:
S
(T f − Ta ) −  U L nWF ′ 
UL
= exp − y
S  m C 
(T fi − Ta ) −  p 
UL
The outlet fluid temperature Tfo is found by substituting L for y and the
quantity nLW is the collector area Ac
S
(T fo − Ta ) −  ACU L F ′ 
UL
= exp − 
S  
m C 
(T fi − Ta ) −  p 
UL 207
Mean fluid temperatures
The mean fluid temperature can be found by
integrating the equation of fluid temperature
at any position from zero to L:

1 L
T fm =  T f ( y )dy
L 0

208
Temperature Distribution Between Tubes

W is the distance between the

tube, D is the tube diameter and δ S = (τα )I
the absorber sheet thickness. Tb is
the local temperature of the sheet
above the bond
• Energy balance on fin element
Assuming steady-state conditions and the temperature gradients in the flow
direction and through the sheet (δ
δ) are negligible, the energy balance on this
element:
 dT   dT 
S∆x − U L ∆x(T − Ta ) +  − kδ  x − − kδ  x + ∆x =0
 dx   dx  209
Where k is thermal conductivity of the absorber. S=(τατα)I
τα is the absorbed
solar energy. Dividing through by x and finding the limit ∆x → 0 , yields

d T UL 
2
S 
=  T − T − 
kδ  U L 
a
dx 2
The two boundary conditions necessary to solve this second-order
differential equation are:

dT and T = Tb
x =0 = 0  W −D 
x = 
dx  2 
For convenience, we can define two variables, m and Ψ

UL
m=
kδ
S
Ψ = T − Ta −
UL 210
 2
d Ψ 2
The energy balance equation becomes
2
−m Ψ =0
dx
dΨ
Which has the boundary conditions x =0 =0
dx
S
Ψ (W − D ) = Tb − Ta −
x=
2 UL
The general solution is then Ψ = C1 sinh mx + C 2 cosh mx
The constant C1 and C2 can be found by substituting the boundary
conditions into a general solution, which yield,
C1 = 0
S
Tb − Ta −
UL
C2 =
 (W − D ) 
*
Derivatives of elementary functions
cosh m
 2  (sinh x )′ = cosh x ; (cosh x )′ = sinh x
211
The result is:
S
Tb − Ta −
S UL
Ψ = T − Ta − = cosh(mx )
UL  (W − D ) 
cosh m
 2 
S
T − Ta −
UL cosh (mx )
=
Tb − Ta −
S  (W − D ) 
cosh m
UL  2 

212
•A fin-and-tube type absorber plate
The energy conducted to the region of one side of a
tube per unit of length L in the flow direction can be
found by evaluating Fourier’s law at the fin base:

dT kδm  (W − D ) 
q ′fin = −kδ (W − D ) = [S − U L (Tb − Ta )] tanh m 
dx x=
2
UL  2 
kδm 1
=
UL m

*Derivative of elementary function:

(cosh x ) /
= sinh x
213
The energy collected for both sides of a tube is
 (W − D )
tanh m
 2 
q ′fin = (W − D )[S − U L (Tb − Ta )]
m
(W − D)
2
It is convenient to use the concept of a fin efficiency
 (W − D ) 
tanh m
 2 
q ′fin = (W − D )F [S − U L (Tb − Ta )] = (W − D )[S − U L (Tb − Ta )]
m
(W − D )
2
Where the function F is the standard fin efficiency for straight fins with
rectangular profile
 (W − D ) 
tanh  m
 2  ; m=
UL
F=
m
(W − D) kδ
2 214
The useful gain of the collector also includes the energy collected above
the tube region. The energy gain for the tube per unit of length L in the
flow direction is:

′ = D[S − U L (Tb − Ta )]
qtube
The useful energy gain for the tube and fin per unit of length L in the flow
direction is:

′ = [(W − D )F + D ][S − U L (Tb − Ta )]

qu′ = q ′fin + qtube
This energy gain is ultimately, transferred to the fluid. The useful energy
gain can be expressed in terms of two resistance to heat flow to the fluid:

Tb − T f
qu′ =
1 1
+
h fiπDi Cb
Where Di is the inside tube diameter and hfi is the convective heat transfer
coefficient between the fluid and tube wall. Cb the bond conductance is
estimated from: 215
 kbb
Cb = On a per unit of length basis
γ
Where kb, γ and b are respectively the thermal conductivity, average
thickness and width of the bond.
Substituting Tb into the useful energy gain equation for the tube and fin:
 1 1 
Tb = T f + qu′  + 
 i fi
πD h C b 

   1 1  
qu′ = [D + (W − D )F ] S − U L  T f + qu′  +  − Ta 
  
  πDi h fi Cb  
  1 1 
qu′ 1 + [D + (W − D )F ]U L  +   = [D + (W − D )F ][S − U L (T f − Ta )]
  πDi h fi Cb  
1
UL
qu′ = [S − U L (T f − Ta )]
 1 1 1 
 + + 
 L
U [D + (W − D )F ] C b πDi fi 
h  216
And solving the result for the useful energy gain, we obtain

[
q u′ = WF ′ S − U L (T f − Ta ) ]
Where the collector efficiency factor F/ is

1
UL
F′ =
 1 1 1 
W + + 
U L [D + (W − D )F ] C b πDi h fi 
The collector efficiency factor F/ is essentially a function
of UL and hfi. Increasing the overall heat loss coefficient
UL decreases F/ while increasing the fluid-tube heat
transfer coefficient increases F/. 217
218
219
Example 5:
Calculate the collector efficiency factor for the following specifications:
Overall loss coefficient=5 W/(m2K)
Tube spacing=150 mm
Tube diameter (inside)=10 mm
Plate thickness=0.5 mm
Plate thermal conductivity (copper)=385 W/(mK)
Heat transfer coefficient inside tubes= 300 W/(m2K)
Bond conductance= ∞ W/(mK)
Solution
The fin efficiency factor F, is determined as follows:
UL 5
m= = −4
= 5.09
kδ 385 X 5 X 10
 (W − D )  (0.15 − 0.01)
tanh m  tanh 5.09 
F=  2 
=  2
= 0.959
m
(W − D)
5.09
(0.15 − 0.01)
2 2 220
The collector efficiency factor F/, is determined from:

1
UL
F′ =
 1 1 1 
W + + 
U L [D + (W − D )F ] Cb πDi h fi 
1
F′ = 5 = 0.893
 1 1 1 
0.15 + + 
 5[0.01 + (0.15 − 0.01)0 .959] ∞ πX 0.01 X 300 

221
Example 6:
Calculate the daily useful gain and efficiency of an array of 10 solar collector
modules installed in parallel near London, UK, at a slope of 30°° and a surface
azimuth of 0°°. The hourly total radiation on the plane of the collector I, and the
hourly ambient temperature Ta are given in the table. For the hourly radiation
absorbed by the absorber plate S calculation assume (τα τα)=0.8
τα . For the collector
assume the overall loss coefficient UL to be 3.0 W/(m2°C) and the plate efficiency
factor F/ to be 0.841 . The water flow rate through each 1 X 2-m collector panel is
0.03 kg/s and the inlet water temperature remains constant at 40°°C. assume a
controller turns off the water flow whenever the outlet temperature is less than the
inlet temperature.
Time, Ambient Beam Diffuse Reflected Total
(h) Temperature Irradiance Irradiance Irradiance Irradiance
Ta (°°C) (W/m2) (W/m2) (W/m2) I, (W/m2)

8-9 4.5 34 42 0 76
9-10 5.0 73 71 1 145
10-11 5.4 103 87 1 191
11-12 5.9 117 94 1 212
12-1 6.3 115 93 1 209
1-2 6.6 96 84 1 181
2-3 6.7 64 65 1 130
3-4 6.6 24 33 0 57
222
Average daily irradiance and ambient temperature
variations for the chosen location

Source:
http://sunbird.jrc.it/pvgis/apps/radmonth.php?lang=en&map=europe

223
Solution:

The dimensionless collector mass flow rate is:

m C P 0.03 X 4190
r= = = 24.91
ACU L F ′ 2 X 3 X 0.841
So that the collector flow factor is
  
  
FR m C P  1    1 
= 1 − exp −  = 24.911 − exp −  = 0.98
F ′ ACU L F ′   
mC P     24.91 
  A U F ′ 
  C L 
FR = 0.948F ′ = 0.98 X 0.841 = 0.824
The average loss rate for hour 10 to 11, based on an inlet
temperature of 40°°C, is

U L (T fi − Ta ) = 3(40 − 5.4) = 103.8 W / m 2

224
And the average useful energy gain by the collector is

R [ L fi a ]
Q = A F (τα )I − U (T − T ) = 2 X 0.824[0.8 X 191 − 103.8] = 80.75 W
C

The collector efficiency for this hour is

Q 80.75
η= = = 0.211
AC I 2 X 191
And the day-long collector efficiency is

η day =
 Q
=
398.96
= 0.166
A  I 2 X 1201
C

The daily useful energy gain of the 10 collector modules in

the array is

Q T = 10 Q = 10 X 398.96 = 3.9896 kW

225
Time Ta (°°C) S=(τα U L (T fi − Ta ) Q
I
(W/m2)
(τα)I
(τα
(W/m2) (W / m 2 ) (W)
η
8-9 4.5 76 60.8 106.5 0 0
9-10 5.0 145 116 105 18.12 0.062
10-11 5.4 191 152.8 103.8 80.75 0.211
11-12 5.9 212 169.6 102.3 110.91 0.261
12-1 6.3 209 167.2 101.1 108.93 0.26
1-2 6.6 181 144.8 100.2 73.5 0.203
2-3 6.7 130 104 99.9 6.75 0.025
3-4 6.6 57 45.6 100.2 0 0
 1201  398.96 0.166

226
Example 7:
.

Solar heating system is to be designed for Madrid,

Spain (latitude 40˚ N), using one-cover collectors
with average daily efficiency of 33% as determined
from standard collector tests performed on month of
January. The collectors are to face south at a slope
of 45˚. The water heating load is 400 liters/day
heated from 11 to 60˚C (for space and hot water).
Estimate the fraction of the January heating load
supplied by solar energy for this system with a
collector area of 10 m2. The average daily radiation
on a 45˚ surface for January in Madrid is 13.7 MJ/m2
PROPERTIES - Water (60˚C): Cp = 4190 J/(kg.K)

227
Solution
The monthly load is the energy required to heat the
water from 11 to 60˚C (neglecting the tank loss). For
January, the energy to heat the water is:

400x31x4190(60 - 11) = 2.55 GJ

The daily useful heat gain by the collector is:

Q = AC Iη = 10 X 13.7 X 0.33 = 45.2 MJ

The monthly useful heat gain by the collector is:

Q = 45.2 X 31 = 1401.2 MJ 228

The monthly heating load is 2550 MJ
Thus, the % of collectors’ heat contribution would
be:

1401.2
% load = = 55%
2550

229
Example 8
In recent years there has been considerable interest in
developing flat-plate solar collector for home heating
needs. Consider a single-glass Solar Flat Plate Collector
having the following specifications, listed in table A8 (next
slide).
(a) Calculate the exit temperature of the water.
(b) If the efficiency of the collector system is reduced to 42%,
what mass flow rate of water would be needed to deliver
the same rise in water temperature?
(c) How could this efficiency be increased?
Assuming steady state conditions, the collector heat removal
factor FR is:

  1  m c p
FR = F ′r 1 − exp −  and r=
  r  AcU L F ′
230
(d) The solar water heating system operating conditions can
be regarded as averages which are applicable to 8 hours per
day operation for 30 days per month. The day-long average
total irradiance and collector efficiency are respectively 230
W/m2 and 30%. If the monthly household water heating load is
4200 MJ, what is the percentage of solar heating
contribution? 231
Solution:
(a) The dimensionless collector mass flow rate is :

m c p0.03 X 4180
r= = =6
AcU L F ′ 3 X 8 X 0.87

So that the collector heat removal factor is

  
 
m C P   = 6 1 − exp − 1  = 0.92
1 − exp −
FR 1
=  
F ′ ACU L F ′   m CP    6  
  
  ACU L F ′ 
FR = 0.92 F ′ = 0.92 X 0.87 = 0.8

The collector efficiency η


η = FR (τα ) − U L
(T fi − Ta )  (20 − 15) 
 = 0.80.97 X 0.97 − 8 400  = 0.672 or 67.2%
 I   
232
The useful energy gain by the collector is:

Q = AC Iη = 3 X 400 X 0.672 = 806.4 W

Exit temperature (Tfo) is then given by:
Q = m c p (T fo − T fi )
Q 806.4
T fo = T fi + = 20 + = 26.4°C
m c p 0.03 X 4180
(b) If the efficiency of the collector system is reduced
to 42%, the mass flow rate of water needed to cause
the same water temperature rise is
Q = Ac Iη = m c p (T fo − T fi )
Ac Iη 3 X 400 X 0.42
m = = = 0.0188 kg / s
c p (T fo − T fi ) 4180 X (26.4 − 20) 233
(d) The daily (8 hours) useful heat gain by the
collector is:
Q = AC Iηx8 = 3x 230 x 0.3x8x 3600 = 5.96 MJ
The monthly useful heat gain by the collector is :

Q = 5.96 X 30 = 178.8 MJ
The household load is 4200 MJ

Thus, the % of collector heat contribution would be:

178.8
% load = = 4.25%
4200
234
Dimplex solar thermal collector

235