Land Reclamation in Singapore, Hong Kong and Macau

Author(s): R. Glaser, P. Haberzettl and R. P. D. Walsh

Source: GeoJournal , August 1991, Vol. 24, No. 4 (August 1991), pp. 365-373
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41145219

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 GeoJournal 24.4 365-373 365
© 1991 (August) by Kluwer Academic

Land Reclam
Macau

Glaser, R., Dr.; Haber zettl, P., Universität Würzburg, Geographisches

Institut, Am Hubland, 8700 Würzburg, Germany;
Walsh, R. P. D., Dr., University College of Swansea, Department of
Geography, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

ABSTRACT: The spatial and temporal significance of land reclamation from the sea in
relation to the development of the three SE Asian small coastal territories of Singapore,
Hong Kong and Macau are examined and compared. In all three territories the rate of
reclamation has been an index of the rate of economic development. Four phases of land
reclamation are identified: (1) pre-1900: involved relatively unplanned and uncostly projects
in shallow water and swamplands around the main focus of settlement; (2) 1900-1945:
involved military projects outside the main settlement core; (3) 1945-1980: this phase of
large-scale projects unconstrained by natural conditions because of advances in technology
and high rate of reclamation was driven by rapid industrial and population growth; (4) 1980
to date: a period marked by large infrastructure projects designed to maintain and extend
the status of the territories as world economic and commercial centres. Currently 10%, 5%
and 33% of the total land surfaces of Singapore, Hong Kong and Macau respectively
comprise land reclaimed from the sea and these proportions will continue to rise.

Introduction The paper focusses upon the spatial extension of these

states through land reclamation. This aspect is of
Small territories play contrasting roles in world affairs.
particular interest, because smallness, namely small
Thus the European small territories, namely Gibraltar,
spatial extent, is the common criterion of all these small
Monaco, Liechtenstein, Andorra, San Marino and Malta,states. Inland states, which do not possess such an
are more or less on a par in their living standards and
expansion possibility, will not be considered. Clearly land
industrial level with their greater European neighbours.
reclamation has played or is currently playing a role in
Liechtenstein, according to Deicha & Roegier (1988),
many coastal lands, particularly in large urban
counts as one of the most highly industrialized states agglomerations,
in and hence the phenomenon is not
Europe. Some have achieved international importanceconfined to small territories. The three Asian territories,
primarily through a liberal tax system and have found however, stand out in terms of the long duration of their
their economic niche as "tax paradises". Also they owe reclamation history, which in the cases of Hong Kong and
their fame in part to tourism and philately and some areSingapore began shortly after their foundation, and the
historically very old. In contrast, some other small states,
considerable proportions of the total areas of the
including some in the Caribbean and most of the Pacific territories now accounted for by reclaimed land (Tab 1).
island nations, count according to socioeconomic criteria Reasons for this lie in the first instance in the favourable
as Third World countries. A further group of small natural setting (shallow water areas, mangroves), which
territories have developed into prosperous world demanded less costly investment, and in the cases of
métropoles (Helle 1989). These include the south-east Hong Kong and Macao an acute lack of flat land. The
Asian territories of Singapore, Hong Kong and (though traditionally maritime orientation of these regions and the
to a much lesser extent) Macau: they count as Newlystrategic and military significance of the territories in
Industrialized countries (NICs) and have been described relation to an often unfriendly hinterland are additional
as "economic dragons". They form the subject of theimportant reasons. (Gibraltar is a European example of
present study. the latter factor).

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366 GeoJournal 24.4/1991

quarters. Contemporary accounts substantiate that the

Singapore Hong Kong Macau coastline in the central part of Singapore Town in the
Naturai surface area mid-nineteenth century lay about 500 m landwards of its
(km2) 523 1031.5 11.37 1960 position (Marr 1986, p. 142).
Reclaimed Land Apart from this S extension, there were no significant
(km2) 103 32.5 ('85) 5.55 ('88) alterations until 1849, when essentially new impulses were
42.5 ('90)
provided by the building of port facilities. They become
Total surface area
necessary with the increasing strategic, military and
(km2) 626 ('89) 1064.0 ('85) 16.92 ('88)
1074 ('90) administrative significance of the region in the context of
Reclaimed Land the British 'Straits Settlements', and even more so when
(% of total) 10 ('91) 3 ('85) 32.8 ('88) the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 further improved
4('9O) links with Europe. This first phase lasted until the turn of
Pop. density (000/km2)
1960 2720 2820 10911
the century.
1986 4157.9 5467 ('85) 25207 After this time, and particularly between 1919 and
1923, land reclamation for public utilities and military
Sources: Singapore: Wong (1985); Hoe (1988)
purposes and also for coastal protection intensified. Port
Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government (1964);
extension
Survey Division Lands Department was further hastened by the establishment of a
(1986)
Macau: SPECE (1988) Dock Board. Further land reclamation was required for
the construction of transport links (including road and
railway embankments). This second phase was
Tab 1 Significance of land reclamation in Singapore, Hong Kong interrupted by the Japanese occupation during WW II.
and Macau and population densities in 1960 and 1986
After the war until autonomy in the 1960s, there was a
relatively quiescent phase which resulted from backward
infrastructure, housing shortage and a low rate of
industrialisation.
A new land reclamation phase commenced after
independence (as part of Malaysia in 1963 and as a
separate republic in 1967) with the help of economic
Since the end of WW II, the demand for new land for development programmes. Since this time, large-scale
industry, settlement and infrastucture has been able to beland reclamation projects hundred of hectares in size
satisfied often only through costly land reclamation inbecame necessary in order to provide for the ever
deep water areas. Sustained economic growth and increasing demand for land for industry, transport
technological advances in engineering construction wereinfrastructure, commerce and housing. The high demand
essential pre-requisites for this. This paper seeks to for industrial land was met by the construction of the
identify the most important phases of land reclamationJurong Industrial Estate, a project (still current) which
has involved reclamation of around 600 ha from the sea.
and the factors responsible for them. In this sense land
reclamation will be demonstrated as a geographical As during the early phase, this has also involved the
criterion for small coastal territories. razing of various hills in the locality. Marr (1986) has
calculated that land reclamation from the sea totals about
8 km2 between the City Centre and the new Changi
Land Reclamation in Singapore (Fig 1) Airport. Particularly notable is the extension of the CBD
into areas formerly covered by the sea.
The first land reclamation measures in Singapore were At the start of 1986, 266 hectares were reclaimed in
taken shortly after the establishment of the territory by the Marina South area (Information Division of
the Briton, Raffles, in 1819. Raffles, who acquired theSingapore 1986). Other areas have been reclaimed in
island on behalf of the East India Company, forced theadjacent offshore islands for the expanding petrochemical
conversion of a small fishing village into a significantindustry. Pulau (= island) Sakra and Pulau Bakau will be
trading centre. This involved a relatively small amount of increased in size from 15 ha to 155 ha. On Pulau Busing
land reclamation. The material for this first constructional51.2 ha have already been reclaimed for the oil tank site.
phase came from the immediately surrounding hills. The In 1987 measures enclosing 276 ha by Pasir Ris and
land reclamation work was concentrated at this time on Punggol were completed (Hoe 1988).
areas which were flooded only by the very highest tides. This intensive reclamation phase is identifiable from
Land was reclaimed in particular through the draining of 1959, when the island achieved full internal self-
mangrove swamps. Plans were drawn up for a Singapore government though not at that time complete
New Town on both sides of the Singapore river as early independence form Great Britain, until 1980 through a
as 1822-23. The expansion of the town followed an period of continuous and since the first half of the 1970s
English pattern. The Chinese immigrant groups on the extraordinarily strong industrial growth. Labels such as
island were decisive in this phase in the establishment of "the Switzerland of South East Asia" and "Investment

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 GeoJournal 24.4/1991 367

Fig 1 Land reclamation in Singapore

Paradise" (Heineberg domain. In this respect at least the extent 1986, of further p
Singapore, which reclamation is beingnow set. In the knowledge
has of thesethe h
Asia. The scale absoluteof land
limits, the government has for areclama
long time been
be understood as
considering a
a meaningful response
optimal land-use strategy. to
population growth Since 1961, a total
andof around 5400 theha new land has
associ
activity thereby been reclaimed at set in
a total cost of around motion
4.25 m Singapore
correlations (at Dollars. By 1991 around
the 99 10% of its
% land surface
significwill
the terms of constitutetrade reclaimed land and (Wong 1985).the In the near size
hand and thefuture, area the governmentreclaimed
is planning to increase the land o
time, the World area of Singapore by a further 15%. Ifclassifie
Bank and when this
aspiring threshold new program is completed,
lands. the total area of Singapore
During the 1980swill be around 25% the greater than inpace 1967. The new of d
considerably.project In will for recent years,
the first time involve the infilling of sea
the north coast areas 15 m have
deep, while previous reclamation work has
been dyk
initate land-infilling been confined to areas lessprocesses.
than 10 m deep. The total T
of shallow coastal waters
surface area of Singapore reached 626 km2 by 1989. and This s
Ris and Jalan Kayu will be completed by 1992 (Hoe expansion in the land area mirrors, in later times at least,
1988). These measures have, however, led to ecological economic development. Singapore ranks today amongst
damage, which has had consequences in the political the world's top five commercial centres and top ten world

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 368 GeoJournal 24 Al 1 991

Fig 2
Land reclamation history of northern
Hong Kong island, the Kowloon
peninsula and the southern New
Territories up to 1990

centres, if one bases the calculation on the number of Victoria Harbour (Fig 2). By 1855 they had doubled the
multinational concerns, the banking importance and theland area of their companies' sites in this way. The
number of international organizations (Helle 1989, p. Ordinance of 1842, which prohibited such reclamation, in
165). fact constituted no barrier to it. After reclamation, the
owners commenced construction of warehouses. The
coast at Victoria, the core settlement of the colony,
Land Reclamation in Hong Kong (Fig 2) underwent significant change within a very short time-
span: by 1855 the shallow water zone had almost
A major reason for reclamation of land from the sea disappeared, the coastline had advanced by an average of
in Hong Kong throughout its history has been its 100 m and exhibited a sharply irregular plan-form. At the
mountainous topography. Both Victoria, the capital onsame time, the first measures to drain the swampland
Hong Kong Island, and Kowloon on the mainland are areas W and E of Victoria (at West Point and Happy
hemmed in by hills reaching over 900 m in altitude andValley respectively) were also carried out for disease and
Hong Kong has only been able to expand into the sea hygiene reasons. The first government infilling operations
(Hong Kong Government 1964). Although the commenced in 1852 on Bonham Strand in the W part of
acquisition of the New Territories in 1898 included some Victoria. In doing this they used the debris produced by
significant stretches of flatter land close to the Chinesea fire as infill material.
border, until the last two decades the leasehold nature of The accelerated growth of the town's population as a
the land and Chinese political uncertainties largely ruledresult of migration from the Chinese mainland resulted in
out this land for largescale industrial, commercial and the second land reclamation phase. In 1868, a 825 m long
urban development. embankment was built between Bonham Strand West and
As in Singapore, the first phase of land reclamation Wilmer Street in the W part of Victoria and the area
began shortly after the founding of Hong Kong in 1841. landward of it was filled in. These measures was carried
The bodies responsible were the various trading out by both the Public Works Department and private
companies which extended their land abutting the concerns. By 1873 the coastline lay along what is now
coastline northwards across the shallow water zone into Des Voeux Road. Further infilling followed around the

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GeoJournal 24.4/1991 369

periphery of Victoria in Causeway Bay (9 ha 1884) and

technological advances in land reclamation. Almost 2000
Kennedy Town (9 ha 1886). The largest extensionhainof land is scheduled to be reclaimed in the 1990s for
Victoria occurred through Catchik Paul Chater, thethe construction of apartments for a third of Hong Kong's
founder of Hong Kong Land, who created by debrispopulation in five new towns at Tsuen Wan, Sha Tin,
Tuen Mun, Tai Po and Junk Bay. Apart from land
deposition a 75 m wide strip of land 3100 m long seaward
of Des Voeux Road between 1889 and 1904 (Chiù 1973, reclamation, recent decades have also witnessed dramatic
p. 21). The seaward extension in this part of Hong Kong damming and reclamation of bay areas from the sea for
island was thereby for the time being complete. the construction of water supply reservoirs, notably the
In Kowloon, which was ceded by China to Great Plover Cove Scheme completed in 1968 and the High
Britain in 1860, land reclamation between 1875 and 1900 Island Scheme completed in 1978. Although also
changed almost the whole W coast of the peninsula. involving expansion into the sea, such schemes preclude
Though only private concerns were involved, government land reclamation in the areas involved.
control and influence was stronger than at the start on In order to maintain Hong Kong's importance as a
Hong Kong island. As a consequence the street patterns world commercial and finance centre in the next few
developed in the Kowloon districts of Tsim Sha Tsui and decades, notwithstanding the current political
Yau Ma Tei were much more regular than in West Point uncertainties, the transport infrastructure needs to be
or Tai Ping Shan on Hong Kong island. Around the turn improved. Whether it be the long-proposed new airport,
of the century numerous infilling projects in south and a Containerport or essential transport links through the
east Kowloon created space for the track and facilities of Central District, none of these projects can be achieved
the Kowloon-Canton railway. After colony expansion without considerable land reclamation work. Although
with the acquisition on lease of the New Territories in the projects should strengthen Hong Kong's trading
1898, larger scale reclamation commenced more or less in situation, they may at the same time present a threat to
the same port area. Kowloon peninsula and the southern Hong Kong's harbour, the area of which is progressively
part of the New Territories (New Kowloon) lay now in diminished by each reclamation of land from the sea.
the centre of the territory. By 1945 the land surface area Indeed one study commissioned by the government (Port
of the territory had grown more or less continuously by and Airport Development Strategy Study) plans to secure
a total of 600 hectares. Most of the reclamation was, Hong Kong's harbour until the end of the century
however, still carried out in shallow water areas and the without a further decline in capacity.
largest project was the enclosure of the northern part of
Kowloon Bay (Fig 3). During this period the proportion Land Reclamation in Macau (Fig 5)
of land assigned for residential construction was
increased. The first land reclamation in Macau occurred also in
During the Japanese occupation the population ofthe mid-nineteenth century, though the colony dates back
Hong Kong dropped from 1.6 million in 1941 prior to the fifteenth century. Unlike in Singapore and Hong
occupation to just 650,000 in 1945. An economic upswing Kong, in which dynamic economic growth even in the
after the war and the defeat of the Chinese Nationalists earliest stages enabled or even caused land reclamation,
by the Communists in 1949 were accompanied by Macau was at this time in a state of economic stagnation.
increases in population through immigration (mainly from
The projects were correspondingly modest. Only at Porto
Kwangtung province, Shanghai and other commercial Interior were there small extensions into the shallow
centres) to 1.87 million by September 1949 and 2.36 water area (Haberzettl 1990).
million by the end of 1950 (Hong Kong Government Since the establishment of Hong Kong Colony in 1841
1964). The intense and unprecedented development that and the opening of a series of "Treaty Ports" on the
accompanied the growth of population led to an increase Chinese mainland, Macau's position as an international
in the pace of land reclamation. The changes in the commercial centre had greatly declined. Also the port
Kowloon district between 1945 and 1988 are clear from a suffered increasingly from siltation. When with the
comparison of air photos Fig 3 and 4. The economic recognition of Portuguese sovereignty in Macau by the
upswing promoted not only port extension but also Chinese empire in 1887 the legal position of the territory
increased land demand for other infrastructure, industry at least was improved, a revival of the port functions was
and housing. Particularly noticeable in Fig 4 is the site able to be tackled. In 1912 various protection,
created for the airport. During this period, the rate of maintenance and construction works in the port district
increase in land reclamation accelerated: between 1945-67were commenced. Accompanying this work were the first
around 450 ha, 1967-77 around 800 ha and from 1976-84 major land reclamation schemes, which were
around 1400 ha were reclaimed (Survey Division Lands concentrated in the original port district, and from 1915
Department 1985). also in the northwest (Patane Bay and Una Verde district)
Fig 2 shows the individual phases of land reclamation and northeast (Areia Prêta) of Macau. Infill material was
in Hong Kong including projected plans for the near derived from excavation of the approach channels of the
future. Increasing demand for land resulting fromport and stones from various faults of Macau (Lacerda
economic and population growth has been met in part by 1925). Between 1919 and 1925 the land surface area of

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370 GeoJournal 24.4/1991

Fig 3 Aerial photograph of Ho

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GeoJournal 24.4/1991 371

Fig 4 Aerial photograph of Hong Kong, Ko

1988, scale about 1:10,000

these districts of Macau

period was
up to WWincrII
(Abercassis 1925). Fig
the E 5
andshows
NW the
of ths
after completion areas
of thewas verywork
harbour exte

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372
GeoJournal 24.4/1991

through immigrants from the People's Republic, further

land reclamation measures had to be designed in order to
provide new land for expanding industry, settlements and
social infrastructure. In 1984 these measures were
embarked upon.
In addition to a 45 ha area of Porto Exterior, which
is very conducive to city extension in the long-term,
extensive areas NE of Taipa and NW of Coloane were
also reclaimed. By 1987 33 % of the total area of Macau
and 54% of the peninsula comprised reclaimed land
(SPECE 1988). Towards the end of the 1980s new
reclamation schemes were associated with large
infrastructure projects. The centrepiece of planning was
the international airport, which after considerable
controversy commenced construction in December 1989,
in spite of the crises of confidence which shook Macau
after the events of June 1989 in Peking. Land for the
airport can only be obtained through land construction E
of Taipa. In order to improve transport link to Macau
Town and the special Economic Zone of Zhuhai, a
second bridge will have to be built (Fig 5). Through this
bridge, Taipa island will be able to be much better
integrated into the urban area of Macau than hitherto
(Haberzettl 1990). Independent of the ambitious
infrastructure project (which apart from the airport
includes the construction of a deepwater harbour at Ka
Ho and a new ferry terminal) are further plans, notably
in the peninsula district, which could alter the present-
day appearance fundamentally (Governo de Macau
1986).

Fig 5 Land reclamation in Macau up to 1990

Summary and Conclusions

The paper has summarised the main phases of and

reasons for land reclamation in the three territories of
Singapore, Hong Kong and Macau. In all three
territories, four phases of rather different evolution are
identifiable. The first period, which lasted until around
the turn of the century, involved relatively unplanned and
they offered room for small agricultural holdings or for uncostly projects around the main focus of settlement.
refugees, the number of whom increased rapidly after theThey were accompanied by the drainage of swamplands
fall to the Japanese of Shanghai in 1938 and Hong Kongand were primarily instituted for port construction.
in 1941. By 1949, 14% of the total area comprised land In the second period, which lasted until WW II, the
reclaimed from the sea (Lobo 1949), while the proportion main motivating reasons for further land reclamation
on the peninsula was considerably higher at almost 40 % . were strategic and involved projects outside the
According to official statistics (Governo de Macau settlement core. New technology enabled hitherto
1949-1985), the area of the territory remained constantunrecoverable areas to be exploited and reclaimed. After
from 1949 to 1984. Reasons for this were the very tense WW II the most important driving forces was the demand
relationship with China (Civil War, founding of the for land for industrial growth and port expansion. In this
Peoples Republic and the Cultural Revolution), colonialthird phase natural spatial pre-conditions played
wars and (in 1974) political revolution in Portugal andpractically no further role. This phase was most
consequently little economic development. Also there important in Singapore and Hong Kong, where economic
was still unused land available for disposal from the growth was rapid, rather than in Macau, which for
previous land reclamation phase and this was used as political and economic reasons was in economic
slowly more building construction took place. With thestagnation at this time. In the final phase at the beginning
establishment of diplomatic relations between Portugalof the 1980s, projects were initiated to maintain and
and China in 1979, followed by large population increase extend the status of the territories as world economic and

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GeoJournal 24.4/1991 373

commercial centres and as a consequece co-operation what extent land changes and land reclamation measures
with the neighbouring industrial and commercial can be included as an indicator of economic growth in
hinterland assumed greater importance. economic geography studies. In the opinion of the
Land development and reclamation measures are a authors, inclusion of the indicator must in very great
very clear indication of the dynamic development of thesemeasure take into consideration a genetic and strategic
three small territories. This fact has surprisingly notmeaning. The smallness of territories cannot in every case
previously been given attention in "spatial and hence also be considered a development problem, in contrast to
land-orientated" geographical science. It remains open to what Buchholz (1987) has suggested.

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1992 - September 21-25

Paleoceanography - Global Change

4th International Conference on Paleoceanography.
Theme: Short and long term global changes.
In Kiel, Germany (I VP IV Organizing Committee c/o GEOMAR
Wischhofstraße 1-3/Bldg. 4, D-2300 Kiel 14, Germany).

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