Notes I FAD 2021

12-10-2021
ME6225
Failure Analysis and Design
Session 1
FAILURE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ME6225
Material failure modes and their identification.

Static loading combined stress, theories of failure.
Fatigue loading, high cycle fatigue, fatigue testing,
SNP curves, endurance diagrams, influence factors,
stress concentration factors and notch sensitivity,
fatigue design for combined stress, cumulative damage and life
prediction, loading regimes for testing and statistical
interpretation, low cycle fatigue, fretting, welded constructions
and screw fastenings
Fracture mechanics principles in design practice,
Choose any one
Contact fatigue, high temperature, wear, corrosion. Topic for Student
Impact loading. … Seminars
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References
• Collins J A, Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design , 1993
• R I Stephens, Ali Fatemi, Robert R Stephens, Henry O Fuchs,
Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley Interscience Pub 2000
• Dieter G, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill Education, 2017
• ASM Handbook, Vol. 11 Failure Analysis & Prevention, 2002
F Slot
Tue 4.45pm to 5.45pm

Wed 11.00am to 11.50am
Thu 9.00am to 9.50am
Report Submission
By Nov 13
Marks Distribution
Project 25 Marks
Interactive Seminar 25 Marks
During the Course
Presentation by Students
End Sem 50 Marks Aug to Nov – 15 min each
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Failure Analysis Project

(25%):
Carryout the Root Cause Analysis / Failure
Analysis for a product you have witnessed
and submit the report
Choose any failed product near you

… chair, kitchen ware, bicycle parts, car parts
etc.,
 The Report, in the form of PPT Slides, must be submitted

before last attendance date.
 The Report must include: all possible reasons for failure,

dominant cause failure, design / material / process issues
associated / remedy suggested
 You may use your mobile camera to take images and report
Your Own Observation & Analysis
5
Student Seminar: (25%): Concepts / Case Studies

Choose a topic and give a lecture (on the basics of the failure) for about 15 minutes ….
Topics for Lecture (Case Studies related to..): -
Identify a ‘reported failure’ of a part dominantly in any of the following
❖ Adhesive Wear ❖ Corrosion

❖ Abrasive Wear ❖ Erosion ….Any type of
❖ Contact Fatigue Wear ❖ Electrical Corrosion
❖ Fretting Wear ❖ High Temperature Wear
surface failure
❖ Impact Loading, fasteners failure, welding failures, etc.,
 The slot for presentation and timetable will be finalized by Aug 15

 Fill the google form that will be sent shortly
 To avoid duplication of the topics, allotment based on first come basis
You need to present a Published Information,

……… …but after complete understanding!!
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Introduction to Failure Analysis

Analyzing Failure is a critical process in determining the physical
root causes of problems.
Process is complex and involves many different technical disciplines
For internal circulation and academic purpose only. Google Images are for Demonstration purpose only!
Downloading and sharing to others are strictly prohibited!
Gears in Mesh & Stresses induced
Design to minimize
gear surface damage
Design to avoid
gear tooth breakage
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Gear Design Methodology
 Assembly issues
 Service Misuse
 Unidentified causes
(Solid mechanics, Geometry, Materials, Manufacturing, Mechanical behaviour,

Heat transfer, Surface Engineering, Chemistry of lubricants, Environment, …..)
Predicting an expected failure or understanding the failure will help the
…….designers to follow the right DESIGN policy!!
Why Products Fail?

 Selection of wrong design principle
 Poor understanding of the functioning
 Faulty assumption - load, speed, etc.,
 Design errors
…..
 Poor understanding of the demand  Selection of wrong material

 Wrong marketing strategy  Materials with defects
 Launching time, cost, etc  Defects originated during production
….. …..
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Product Failure – Quality Issues
High quality refers to products and systems manufactured to

higher standards in response to higher expectations of
consumers and users.
‘Quality’ leading to :
Failure to meet
• Greater safety customer expectations
• Improved reliability is a ‘failure’!
• Higher performance
• Greater efficiency
• Easier maintenance
• Lower life cycle cost
• Reduced impact on the environment
…. is more important
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Managerial Systems - Failure Analysis and Prevention
Some of the management systems developed are

aiming at the improving quality and customer satisfaction
Total Quality Management Represent organization

commitment to a system focused
(TQM)
on doing right thing right at the
first time and not merely
Continuous Improvement meeting
(CI) but exceeding customer
requirements.
Focuses on process improvement generally in a production environment.
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Quality & Failure Prevention

Making it ‘perfect’ is too expensive!!
What is ‘Good’ - 98% or 99 % or 99.9%?
99.9% ‘Good’ Means….
➢ 4000 + wrong medical prescriptions each ➢ 13
year ➢ 10
➢ 3000 + newborns accidentally falling from
the hands of nurses or doctors each year ➢ 2/year
➢ 2+ poor landings at airports each day ➢1
➢ 400+ letters per hour which never arrive at
their destination A Metric that
demonstrates quality
levels at 99.9997%
performance for products
and processes
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Failure Analysis & Root Cause Analysis
Failure Analysis involves observing the failed parts and identifying the
type(s) of failure.
Root Cause Analysis techniques help to pinpoint the root cause of the
failure
One key factor in performing failure analysis is

keeping an open mind while examining and analyzing the evidence to
faster a clean, unbiased perspective of failure.
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The Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Engineering Strain
Stress hardening Necking
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Fracture Strength
Yield Strength
Uniform Non Uniform

Plastic Plastic
Defor- Deformation
Elastic mation
Strain to
Elastic
fracture Engineering
Strain Plastic Strain
Strain
Necking
For internal circulation and academic purpose only. Google Images are for demonstration purpose only!
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Measure of Yielding
• True Elastic limit based on micro strain 2x10-6
a low value associated with motion of few
hundred dislocations
• Elastic limit 10-4 strain (normal engg measurement)
• Proportional limit deviation from straight line portion
• Yield strength 0.002 strain

Engineering Stress
Engineering Strain
0.002
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Measure of Ductility
A. Strain to fracture (elongation) (f)
(lf - lo)
f = lf final length
lo lo initial length
lo
• Depends on the gage length

• Less the gage length, necking leads to more
‘elongation values’
B. Reduction in area of cross section (q)
(Ao - Af)
q=
Ao
Effects of l0 is less
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Modulus of Elasticity
 Depends less on alloying, heat
treatment, forming etc.,.
 Depends more on temperature
Young’s Modulus of low

strength plain carbon
mild steel and
high strength high alloy
maraging steel
are nearly same.
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Resilience
Structural
The ability of a material to absorb energy
Steel
Stress
when deformed elastically and to return it
when unloaded is called resilience.
Usually measured by the modulus of

resilience (MOR)
(which is strain energy per unit volume required
to stress material from zero stress to yield stress)
MoR Values of Engineering Materials

Medium Carbon Steel 232 kPa
High Carbon steel 2250 kPa
Strain
Copper 107 kPa 1 1 so so2
UR  soeo  so 
2 2 E 2E
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Modulus of Resilience for Two Different Steels
High Carbon Spring Steel

(Material with High MOR)
Structural
Steel
Stress
Strain
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Toughness
The ability of the material to absorb energy in plastic range.
High Carbon Spring Steel
Structural
Steel
Stress
(Material with
Toughness)
Strain
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True Stress Strain Curve

(Flow Curve)
(σ – stress; ε – strain)
Engineering Stress Strain Curve
(s – stress; e – strain)
Load – Displacement Data
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True Stress Strain Curve (Flow Curve)

The engineering stress (s) engineering strain (e)curve doesn't
give the true indication of deformation characteristics of metal
True Stress Strain Curve

Corrected for
necking
Engineering
Stress strain Curve
Stress
Maximum Load
Fracture
Strain
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True stress () - based on actual cross sectional area

P
Ao
(e  1)  s (e  1)  ln(e1)
Beyond the maximum load, the true stress and strain are based on the
actual dimensions
P Ao D
   ln  2 ln o
A A D
2
A ( pi / 4 ) D o D
 are
For internal circulation and academic purpose only. Google Images ln for
o
 ln
demonstration  2 lnonly!
purpose o
A ( pi / 4 ) D 2 D
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Plastic deformation
Microscopically…it involves breaking atomic bonds, moving atoms, then

restoration of bonds.
Crystalline solids deform by processes–slip and twinning in particular
directions.
Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism without any
directionality.
Polymer chain
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Plastic deformation
 Because of the complexity involved, theory of plasticity neglects

the following effects:
-Anelastic strain, which is time dependent recover able strain.

-Hysteresis behaviour resulting from loading and un-loading of
material.
-Bauschinger effect –dependence of yield stress on loading path
and direction.
Equations relating stress and strain are called constitutive

equations.
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Variables in plastic deformation  ,  , , T

K → strength coefficient
n → strain / work hardening coefficient
‘n’ and ‘K’ for selected materials

Material n K (MPa)
Annealed Cu 0.54 320
Annealed Brass (70/30) 0.49 900
Annealed 0.5% C steel 0.26 530

0.6% carbon steel
0.10 1570
Quenched and Tempered (540C)
Cu and brass (n ~ 0.5) can be given large plastic strain more easily as compared
to steels with n ~ 0.10
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Plastic deformation
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ME6225
Session 3
 For internal circulation and academic purpose only.

 Google Images are for Demonstration purpose only!
 Downloading and sharing to others are strictly prohibited!
29
Problem Solving Methods
When problems occur, responsible organization will

analyze the problem to determine the cause and attempt
solve it.
However, many organizations, for various reasons,
• Do nothing and perhaps hope that the problem will go

away
• Deny that the problem exists, minimize importance
• Troubleshoot in a haphazard manner
• Chase false leads
A Systematic Approach to problem solving based on analysis,
to achieve the levels of quality and customer satisfaction is
needed
For internal circulation and academic purpose only. Google Images are for demonstration
purpose only!
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Problem Solving Models
Implementation Six Step

Identify & Define Model
Validate and
Determine
verify corrective actions
the root cause
Choose the best plan

Develop corrective
Action(s) /plan
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From the course perspective

Failure - Definitions
 Failure is defined as an undesirable event or condition.
 Loss of intended function of the part itself is a failure.
Failure can be defined on several different levels.
Mild Severe No Function
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Failure Frequency - Life Cycle Management Concepts

Failures cannot be totally avoided:
but must be best understood, anticipated, and controlled.
Decreasing Constant Increasing
Failure Failure Failure
Rate Rate Rate
Design & Useful Life Bath tub curve
Manufacturing
Errors Operational
Failure Rate
Errors
Failure Rate
Infant Wear out
Mortality Random failures
Rate failures
Time
Standard Extended
Warranty Warranty
Coverage Coverage
Typical Time - Distribution of failures
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Failure analysis
Clear Understanding
Distinction between an
indicator - cause - failure mechanism
Indicators -- Monitor these as precursors and symptoms

of failures
Causes -- Focus mitigating actions on these
Failure Mechanisms -- These describe how the material failed

according to the engineering text book definitions.
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Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

The scope of failure analysis can, but doest not
necessarily, lead to a root cause of a failure. Systems &
Indicators
(Symptoms)
Many times failure analysis
incorrectly ends at the identification
of failure mechanism and perhaps Evident
causal influences. Causes
The principles of root cause

analysis may be applied to ensure Hidden Root
that the root cause is understood Causes
and appropriate corrective actions
may be identified.
Root Cause Analogy
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Examples of causes of failure

Root Type Pressure Vessel Bolt
Physical Roots Corrosion damage Fatigue crack FAILURE

ANALYSIS
wall thinning equipment vibration
ROOT CAUSE
Human Roots Inadequate inspection Installation / ANALYSIS
inspection
Latent Roots Inadequate inspector design error / ROOT CAUSE
ANALYSIS
problem understanding
Physical roots or roots of equipment problems are where many failure analyses stop.
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RIVETED JOINTS
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Primary Physical Root Causes of Failures
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Design deficiency Physical Root Causes
Root causes of failure that stem from design deficiencies refer

to unacceptable features of a product or system that are a result
of the design process.
This process encompasses

– original concept development
– general configuration definition
– and detail design – including material, manufacturing etc
Some examples: - unintended stress raisers due to sharp notches

like keyways or insufficient radii.
- unanticipated residual stresses associated with
heat treatment, grinding etc.,.
- in appropriate geometries, joint preparation, etc.,.
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Effect of Designs on Service Life (Application Life Diagram for Design Deficiency)
Increasing severity of
Design 4
Service condition
Design 3
Design 2
Increasing service life Design 1

Intended
life
Increasing severity of
Large Bend
Radius
stresses
Anticipated Severity
Moderate Bend Radius
Premature
Failure Small bend radius
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Material Defects Physical Root Causes
Metal product form Types of Discontinuities
Forgings laps, bursts, flakes, segregation,

cavity shrinkage, center line pipe,
parting line grain flow, inclusions
Castings porosity, gas and micro shrinkage,

cavity shrinkage, segregation,
cold shuts, inclusions
Plate sheet edge cracking, laminations, flakes
Extrusions edge cracking seams, steps, central bursts

and drawn
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Some Examples of Material Defects
Forging laps on
ski chair grip
Lap region
Presence of the heavy oxide

on the broken lap region
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Manufacturing / Installation Defects Physical Root Causes
Metal Removing Process Metal Working Process

• Cracks due to abusive machining • Cracking or necking due to forming
• Chatter due to speeds / feeds • laps due to thread rolling
• Microstructural damage due to dull tool • tool marks / scratches from forming
• Grinding burn • surface tears due to poor surface
• EDM recast layer cracking • residual stress cracking
• ECM intergranular attack • overheating damage
• Residual stress cracking due to heating • SCC due to lubricant
Heat Treatment Assembly / installation

• grain growth • misalignment
• incomplete phase transformation • missing / wrong parts
• Quench cracks • improper fit up
• decarburisation • improper tools
• Untempered martensite • inappropriate modification
• inadequate precipitation • inadequate surface preparation
• imhomogeneties in microstructure • improper fastening system
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Failure of Ice Cream Mixer Blade
Excessive Assembly stresses and inappropriate detail design

caused the premature failure of ice cream mixer blade
shortly in service
Multiple fatigue cracks initiated at the inside radii of the bends

at the bottom shoulder.
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Charting Methods for RCA
Many tools exist to assist in performing RCA.
The most important element is the preservation of an

open mind by the investigator or investigating team.
A visual representation of RCA is preferred than

long narrations.
Few charting methods widely are:

• A fault tree analysis
• Event and causal factor analysis charting
• Cause and effect analysis
• Five whys
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Fault Tree Analysis

 This is a deductive analysis that evaluates all credible ways in which the failure could have
occurred by identifying the interrelationships of basic events or conditions that lead to the
failure.
 The tree is organized by identifying all event strings that lead to the failure and connecting
them with a gate that depicts the logical relationships.
Broken bolt
Improper Bolt Bolt Overload

Specification In service
Fabrication flaw Inadequate flaw

Detection method
Gate depicting OR logic
requiring one input to be present
Simplified
Gate depicting AND logic
requiring all inputs to be present Fault Tree
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Event and Causal Factor Chart

This is a very flexible tool that is very useful for performing a logical analysis of the
chronological sequence of events and casual factors.
The construction starts with a basic timeline with the addition of related conditions,
secondary event, and presumptions.
Root Cause
Causal Factor
Causal Factor
Contributing Contributing
factor factor
Terminal
Event A Event B event
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Cause and Effect Analysis

Failures are always caused to happen. A cause and effect analysis is
a way to relate causes to a failure in an attempt to find the root
cause.
Cause can be design problems, human performance, poor fabrication
and so forth.
Operation Design
Overload Material Selection
Incorrect Usage Configuration

Failure
Mode
Loose Connection Wrong Heat
treatment
Lack of Lubrication Weld Defects
Others Maintenance Fabrication

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Five Whys?
Is a simple technique that is intended to lead the user into deeper
levels of cause identification, thus leading one further into root cause,
the overall objective is to ask “why”, after each cause has been
identified until true root causes are identified.
There may be more or less than five whys to reach the root cause
level.
Event – Highway bridge failure FAILURE
ANALYSIS
Why - corrosion damage on structural steel
Why – water collection
Why – debris clogging drainage pipes ROOT CAUSE
ANALYSIS
Why – no maintenance performed to clean pipes

Why - maintenance funding reductions
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Other Failure Analysis Tools

• Review of all sources of input and information –
physical evidence, samples, pressure,
temperature, position, design data, specification
• People interviews – witnesses, participants, historical

experience related events, situational insights
• Laboratory investigations – photo, NDE, Material

verification mechanical property, etc.,.
• Stress analysis – hand calculations, FEA, etc.,.
• Fracture Mechanics Analysis – cracks, stresses, tolerance etc,.
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Categories of Failure
 There are many ways to categorize failures and
material damage in terms of causes, forms or
mechanisms.
 No one system is necessarily complete and consistent

with the multitude of possibilities.
 Categories can help to prioritize or identify avenues of

investigation.
To determine the cause of material failure, one must

consider the active stressors.
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Six Stressors
Mechanical : applied static & dynamic loads, pressure, impact,

residual, applied movements ….
Chemical : inadvertent acute or chronic exposure to an
aggressive environment, material compatibility,…
Electrochemical : a susceptible metal in a corrosive environment
Thermal : exposure to elevated temperatures & degradation
Radiation : UV lighting, sunlight, radiation etc
Electrical : applied electrical stress due to the presence of an

electric field
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Major Categories of Failures

The physical failure of materials can be placed in one of many categories
depending on the classification system.
The following four categories are a convenient way to descriptively

categorize the failures.
• Distortion or Undesired Deformation

Bulk
• Fracture
• Corrosion
Surface
• Wear
The failure categories integrate with the
fundamental root causes of failure.
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Distortion: Shape changes due to material / stresses

Design Deficiency Insufficient section thickness results in buckling under
normal load
Material Defect Cavity shrinkage in a highly stressed area of a

casting
Manufacturing Defect Abusive thread rolling causes heavy slip banding in

fastener, resulting in localized stretching of the fastener
Service Life anomaly Exposure of an Al aircraft structure to high temperature

results in creep and subsequent buckling
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Fracture: Complete separation of a component

Design deficiency Not enough bend radius in pipes leading to fracture
Material defect Lap in forging, loaded cyclically in service, grows

in a fatigue crack and subsequence failure
Manufacturing defect Welding of steel with moisture contaminated filler metal

results in hydrogen embrittlement and cracking in service
Service life anomaly Inappropriate hole drilling bicycle frame by owner results
in fatigue cracks initiation and propagating in service
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Corrosion
Design Deficiency Gray CI underground pipes used to transport hazardous
materials sustain rupture due to dealloying / graphitization
Material Defect Iron impurities in Al alloy suspension component for

rail car creating pitting susceptibility resulting in loss
of structural integrity
Manufacturing defect stress relief treatment of a 304SS for pulp processing
sustained intergranular corrosion cracking.
Service life anomaly increased usage of road salt in wintertime in cold countries
results in vehicle electrical problems, traced to corroded
electrical contacts
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Wear Failures
Design Deficiency incompatible wear couple is specified in the design of an
injection mold ejector pin assembly resting in galling
Material Defects improper melting and hot working processes lead to poor
distribution of carbides in tool steel, resulting in wear
Manufacturing defect poorly machined surface of a sliding machine element

leads to accelerated wear.
Service life anomaly insufficient lubricant during maintenance results in

premature wear out of bearing
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‘Theory’ of
Static Failure Theories
What causes a failure under

static loading situations?
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Combined theories of failure and their use in Design

 Failure prediction and design is simple for components subjected
to static uni axial state of stress
 For parts subjected to biaxial or tri axial stress state prediction of failure
is more difficult
 Needs complex multi axial tests and complex product testing
 No simple experiment can predict failures other than actual part testing
Basic assumption for all combined theories of failure is
Failure is predicted to occur when the maximum value of the

selected mechanical parameter in the multi axial state of stress becomes
equal to or exceeds the value of the same parameter that produces failure
in a simple uni axial stress test using same material
For internal circulation and academic purpose only. Google images are for demonstration purpose only!
59
Typical Situation Requiring a Failure Theory
 max=60 
max=50
2=40 3= 0 1=80 2=3=0 1=100

 
Proposed application Standard Tensile test
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Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine 1802-1872)

2
1 t 1  c Sut
2  t 2  c
3  t 3  c 1
Sut
1 , 2 , & 3 are principal stresses Suc
1 , 2 must be within this Suc 3=0

area to avoid failure
• Based solely on the maximum normal stresses

• Recommended for brittle materials and not suitable for ductile materials
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Maximum Normal Strain Theory (St Venants Theory, 1870s)
 1,  2 ,  3   f  - is the principal normal strain
 Less acceptable for brittle materials
 Not preferred by the designers as better theories are available
Total Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami 1885)
Total strain energy Total strain energy /

/ unit volume unit volume at the time of failure
 Not preferred by the designers
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Maximum Shear Stress Theory

(Columb 1806; Tresca 1865; Guest 1900) 2
Syt
1 ,2 , 3  f
(1- 2)  t 1
Syt
1 , 2 , & 3 are principal stresses
 1 ,  2 , & 3 are shear stresses
3=0
1 , 2 , must be within this
area to avoid failure
• Best suited for ductile materials
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Distortion Energy Theory

(Maxwell 1856; Heuber 1904; Von mises 1913; Hencky 1925)
The contention of the maximum distortion energy theory is

that any elastically stressed material undergoes a slight
change in shape, volume, or both.
Material can withstand enormous hydrostatic pressure

(i.e., 1= 2 = 3 = large compression) without damage.
e 
2
2

 2   1 2   3   1 2   3   2 2
1/ 2

 e  S yt
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Maximum Shear Stress Theory vs Distortion Energy Theory
2
Distortion
Energy
Shear Stress Theory
Theory
1
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Modified Mohr Theory (Coulomb Mohr Theory)

Suggested for brittle materials for which compressive
strength is more than the tensile strength Sut
2
Sut
1
Suc Suc Sut
Suc
Mohr Theory
Sut 2
1
Suc Sut
Modified Mohr Theory
Correlates well with the experimental data Shear
than Mohr or maximum normal stress theories Suc Diagonal
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2
3=0 Syt Sut 2
1 1
Syt Suc Sut
Suc
Maximum Shear Mohr Theory
Stress Theory (Ductile Materials) Sut 2
1
Modified Mohr Theory Suc Sut
(Brittle Materials)
Suc Shear
Diagonal
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C
A
COMPARISION OF FAILURE THEORIES

FOR A BIAXIAL STATE OF STRESS
Maximum Normal Stress Theory

Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Maximum Normal Strain Theory
Total Strain Energy Theory
Distortion Energy Theory

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Comparison of biaxial strength data with theories of failure
DUCTILE BRITTLE
MATERIALS MATERIALS
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Isotropic Materials
Brittle fracture Maximum normal stress theory
Brittle fracture Mohr's theory

 c  t
Ductile fracture Maximum shear stress theory

Distortion energy theory
Ductile fracture Mohr's theory

 c  t
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ME6225
Deformation and Fracture

due to
Static Overload
(Micromechanisms)

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Ductile vs Brittle Failure
Ductile
(cup-and-cone) Brittle (flat)
σ Fracture
σ fracture
ε ε
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Types of Fracture
• Ductile Significant gross deformation

Fracture
classification
• Brittle Rapid crack propagation
Brittle Fracture of Shearing Fracture Ductile Fracture Ductile Fracture in

Single and Poly In Ductile Single in Poly Crystals Many Engineering
Crystals Crystals Materials
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Elastic Deformation
• Slight displacement of atoms from their

equilibrium position
• As long as the forces and resulting displacements

are small atoms return to the original position
• The majority of engineering design

problems lie within the elastic range
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Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation in crystalline materials generally
occurs by one or more of four processes
• Slip
• Twinning
• Grain boundary sliding Mostly at high

temperatures
and low strain
• Diffusional creep
rates
The principal mode of plastic deformation is slip.

If slip is constrained, twinning occurs.
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Slip
• Gliding of one plane of atoms over another
• Certain crystallographic planes are more susceptible for slip than others.
• Slip planes are usually planes of more densely packed atoms

Slip plane

 Slip line
Before slip After slip Re polished Surface
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Slip lines
Slip lines
Approximately Slip lines approx

1000 atomic 100 atomic
diameters diameters
Slip Band


Un deformed Cu 20μm
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Fundamental Crystal Structure

BCC
(W, Ti, Mo)
FCC
(Al, Cu, Ag)
HCP
(Mg, Zn, Pb)
78
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Predominant Slip Systems
BCC FCC HCP

Upto 48 Slip Systems 12 Slip Systems 3 Slip Systems
High Possibility Medium Possibility Low Possibility
of plastic deformation Of plastic deformation Of plastic deformation
The ductility of the material depends on the ability
to withstand a general homogeneous strain
involving an arbitrary shape change of the crystal
which is possible only when the five independent
slip systems are activated.
79
Twinning
Undistorted cube Slipped cube
• If the crystal possess insufficient number of

independent slip systems, twin modes may
be activated in some metals
• Twinning is common in HCP metals.

Twinned cube
80
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Slip and Twinning
Sliplines
81
Behavior described Terms Used
Strain to fracture Ductile Brittle

Appearance of fracture Fibrous Granular
Crystallographic mode Shear Cleavage
82
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Brittle Fracture
 Catastrophic Fast Fracture due to breaking

of atomic bonds along specific planes
 Negligible plastic deformation
 Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to

the direction of the applied stress
Brittle Ductile
83
Brittle Fracture
• Decreasing Temperature
Associated with • Increasing Strain Rate
• Tri Axial Stress Conditions
Observed in BCC & HCP metals, and rarely in FCC metals.

Major Fracture Surface Characterization
• Transgranular
• Intergranular
84
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Crack Initiation Site
Transgranular Fracture
85
Transgranular Brittle Fracture

• This is characterized by a separation process known as cleavage
• River patterns are useful in locating the crack initiation sites
• Usually flat in nature
• The process of cleavage involves trancrystalline

fracture along specific crystallographic planes and
is usually associated with low energy fracture.
86
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Intergranular Fracture
87
Intergranular Fracture
Crack prefers to follow the grain surface / boundary
This fracture can occur due to

1. Microvoid nucleation and coalescence at
inclusions or second phase particles located
along grain boundaries;
2. Grain boundary crack and cavity formations
associated with elevated temperatures
3. Decohesion between grains due to impurities
and due to aggressive gaseous environment
4. Stress corrosion cracking
And if there are insufficient number of slip systems for slip to

occur intergranular fracture along grain boundaries can
occur.
88
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Where the Designers Miss?
 Service Temperature (& DBTT)
DBTT
Movement of dislocations/slip systems are less active

at low temperatures
89
 Rate of loading


y larger
e
• Increased loading rate...
smaller
-- increases strength
y -- decreases ductility
  An increased rate of
loading allows less time for
dislocations to move.
90
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12-10-2021

 Stress Triaxiality
Supresses the plastic deformation

2 2
1 1 1
3
Tendency for brittle fracture

91
ME6225
Overload Failures – Ductile Fracture

92
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Ductile Fracture
Slow fracture process / forgiving in nature
Single Crystals – Mostly of Slip on successive basal planes
Poly Crystals – Cup & Cone type fracture

(void nucleation, growth and coalescence)
93
Ductile Rupture
B
94
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Ductile Rupture
95
Crack initiation
Debonding at inclusion along the Debonding at inclusion due to

loading direction bending stress. Crack propagation
from bottom to top in the
photograph.
96
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Dimple Shape for Loading Modes I, II, and III
Mode I Axial loading creates

equiaxed dimples
Mode I Bending loading creates elongated

dimples that face in the same direction on
both halves of the fracture surface.
Mode II (in-plane shear) loading creates

dimples that point in opposite directions
on the two halves of the fracture surface.
.. Mode III (out-of-plane shear) loading

creates dimples that are rotated with respect
to the macroscale direction of crack growth
97
1 23
(a) Tensile stresses produce equiaxed microvoid

1 3
(b) Pure shear stresses generate voids elongated in shearing direction

1
23
For(c) Tearing
internal associated
circulation with purpose
and academic non uniform stress images
only. Google produces
are forelongated dimples
demonstration purpose only!
98
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Characteristics of brittle vs ductile behavior
Scale of Brittle Ductile

observation
Engineer Applied stress at failure is Applied stress at failure is greater
less than the yield stress than the yield stress
Naked Eye (1×) No necking, shiny facets, Necked, fibrous,

crystalline, granular woody
OM “Low” RA or Medium to high RA

Macroscale (<50×) ductility
SEM Transgranular cleavage Ductile microprocess,

Microscale (100–10,000×) or intergranular microvoid coalescence
TEM Limited local plasticity High amount of plasticity

Submicron globally
(>10000X)
99
Notch Effects
Fracture Surface Regions in Cylindrical Tension-test Specimens
Fibrous Radial
Fibrous
Zone Zone
Zone
Radial
Zone Fast
Fracture
Zone
Smooth (Un Notched) Notched

No shear lips as fracture
initiates at stress
concentrated notch root
region
100
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Fracture surfaces of notched round specimens (4340 Steel) Notch Effects
Specimen with a mild notch produced a

Specimen with a sharper notch, caused the
fracture similar to an unnotched bar (i.e.,
fracture to initiate near the root of the notch
central fibrous zone with shear lips).
Notch root radius = 2.5 mm Notch root radius = 0.25 mm
101
Typical fracture appearances in edge / side notched
Fibrous
Zone Radial Zone
Notch
Fibrous Zone
Radial Zone
Indent/
Defect
Shear lips can be seen on the edge of the specimen

102
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Typical Fracture Appearances in Smooth Tension Specimen Thickness Effects
Increasing thickness
103
Typical Fracture Appearances in Smooth Tension Specimen
Thicker
Specimen
Dominant Shear region
104
52
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Failure Modes Observed in Practice

Unilateral - Corrosion, fatigue,…
Failure Mechanism
Combined – corrosion fatigue etc.,.
‘Force induced’ and / or ‘temperature’
• Yielding
• Brinelling
• Ductile Rupture
• Brittle Fracture
• Fatigue – HCF, LCF, Corrosion, Contact,

Thermal, Impact,….
105
• Corrosion - Direct Attack, Galvanic, Pitting, Cavitation

Erosion, Hydrogen, Biological, Stress, Intergranular,…
• Wear – Adhesive, Abrasive, Corrosive, Surface Fatigue, Impact,…
• Impact – Impact Fracture, Impact Wear, Impact Fatigue,….
• Creep • Radiation Damage
• Buckling • Thermal Relaxation
• Stress Corrosion • Galling Seizure
•Thermal Shock • Buckling
106
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ME6225
Session 11
Failure Mode & Material Selection

107
Guide for Selection of Materials for a Part
UTS, YS, E, RA, KIC, Static, dynamic

Corrosion resistance environmental,
etc., HCF, LCF etc.,
Material Nature of
Selection Loading
Manufactu- Failure
rability Mechanism Ductile rupture,
Forming,
machining, etc., brittle fracture,
etc,
108
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Properties that decide the Performance

• Stiffness
• Static Strength
• Dynamic Strength
• Bulk Modulus
• Shear Modulus • Conductivity (electrical and thermal)
• Poison's ratio • Magnetic permeability
• Ductility • Shock resistance
• Thermal coefficient of expansion • Notch sensitivity to fracture
• Density • Specific Heat Capacity
• Transparency • Creep
• Hardness • Melting point
• DBTT
• Strength vs Temperature Characteristics
• UV / Radiation Resistance
• Corrosion resistance
109
Design Methodology for Critical Parts

www.matweb.com
With about 135,000 materials data
Or from Material Supplier or Lab Tests
For eg. P/T Shaft
Broad Selection: More than Material Expected

Medium strength 100 variations Property Failures
4340 Steel
Based on YS Overload
Size, shape, process, FS Fatigue
Heat treatment CR Corrosion
etc., E or YS vs T Temperature
etc., etc.,
P/T Shaft for Marine Applications YS Overload

FS Fatigue
Broad Selection: CR Corrosion
E or YS vs T Temperature
SS 304/431/316/17-7/ etc., etc.,
110
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Guide for Selection of Materials

Nature of loading/stresses
Failure Mechanism Stat- Rep- Imp Ten Comp Shear Criteria/ property
tic eat act sion ress
Brittle fracture X X X X ... ... DBTT, Toughness
Ductile rupture X … … X ... X UTS, YS, Shear Strength
High cycle fatigue … X … X ... X Fatigue strength
Low cycle fatigue … X … X ... X Static ductility
SCC X … … X … X Stress, Corrosion resistance
111
Thermal Exp
Corrosion Res
Creep rate
Property
Toughness
Imp energy
Comp YS
Hardness
Modulus
Ductility
Shear St
Fatigue
DBTT
Failure Mode
SCC
UTS
YS
Gross Yield
Buckling
Creep
Brittle Fracture
LCF
HCF
Fretting
SCC
Wear
Thermal Fatigue
112
56

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12-10-2021

FAILURE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ME6225

Material failure modes and their identification.

Tue 4.45pm to 5.45pm

Failure Analysis Project

Choose any failed product near you

 The Report, in the form of PPT Slides, must be submitted

 The Report must include: all possible reasons for failure,

Student Seminar: (25%): Concepts / Case Studies

❖ Adhesive Wear ❖ Corrosion

 The slot for presentation and timetable will be finalized by Aug 15

You need to present a Published Information,

Introduction to Failure Analysis

Process is complex and involves many different technical disciplines

Gears in Mesh & Stresses induced

Gear Design Methodology

(Solid mechanics, Geometry, Materials, Manufacturing, Mechanical behaviour,

Why Products Fail?

 Poor understanding of the demand  Selection of wrong material

Product Failure – Quality Issues

High quality refers to products and systems manufactured to

Managerial Systems - Failure Analysis and Prevention

Some of the management systems developed are

Total Quality Management Represent organization

Focuses on process improvement generally in a production environment.

Quality & Failure Prevention

Failure Analysis & Root Cause Analysis

One key factor in performing failure analysis is

The Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Uniform Non Uniform

• Proportional limit deviation from straight line portion

• Yield strength 0.002 strain

• Depends on the gage length

B. Reduction in area of cross section (q)

Young’s Modulus of low

Usually measured by the modulus of

MoR Values of Engineering Materials

Modulus of Resilience for Two Different Steels

High Carbon Spring Steel

High Carbon Spring Steel

True Stress Strain Curve

Engineering Stress Strain Curve

Load – Displacement Data

True Stress Strain Curve (Flow Curve)

True Stress Strain Curve

True stress () - based on actual cross sectional area

Microscopically…it involves breaking atomic bonds, moving atoms, then

 Because of the complexity involved, theory of plasticity neglects

-Anelastic strain, which is time dependent recover able strain.

Equations relating stress and strain are called constitutive

Variables in plastic deformation  ,  , , T

‘n’ and ‘K’ for selected materials

Annealed Brass (70/30) 0.49 900

Annealed 0.5% C steel 0.26 530

 For internal circulation and academic purpose only.

Problem Solving Methods

When problems occur, responsible organization will

• Do nothing and perhaps hope that the problem will go

Problem Solving Models

Implementation Six Step

Choose the best plan

From the course perspective

 Failure is defined as an undesirable event or condition.

 Loss of intended function of the part itself is a failure.