Close loop : .

Pid controller : P- Controller

a system that has a feedback loop (or) a control system that uses a feedback  An open loop control system is the one in which the output signal is The term PID stands for proportional integral derivative and it is one kind of
signal to generate the output. The stability of this system can be controlled not fed back to the input of the system. Therefore, an open loop control device used to control different process variables like pressure, flow, Proportional or P- controller gives an output that is proportional to current
by a feedback system. So by providing a feedback system, any open-loop system is also referred to as a non-feedback control system. temperature, and speed in industrial applications. In this controller, a control error e (t). It compares the desired or set point with the actual value or
control system can be changed into a closed loop.The desired output can loop feedback device is used to regulate all the process variables.This type of feedback process value. The resulting error is multiplied with a proportional
be achieved and maintained by evaluating the actual condition & control is used to drive a system in the direction of an objective location constant to get the output. If the error value is zero, then this controller output
generated output. If the generated output is moved away from the actual otherwise level. It is almost everywhere for temperature control and used in is zero.
output, then this control system produces a faulty signal which is fed to the scientific processes, automation & myriad chemical. In this controller, closed-
i/p of the signal. Once the error signal is added to the input signal, then the loop feedback is used to maintain the real output from a method like close to
next loop output can be corrected which is known as automatic control the objective otherwise output at the fixe point if possible. In this article, the
systems . PID controller design with control modes used in them like P, I & D are
S.No. Open-Loop Control System Closed-Loop Control System
discussed.
1. It easier to build. It is difficult to build.
PID Controller Block Diagram
It can perform better if the It can perform better because A closed-loop system like a PID controller includes a feedback control
2.
calibration is properly done. of the feedback. system. This system evaluates the feedback variable using a fixed point to I-Controller
generate an error signal. Based on that, it alters the system output. This
3. It is more stable. It is comparatively less stable. procedure will continue till the error reaches Zero otherwise the value of the Due to the limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset
feedback variable becomes equivalent to a fixed point.This controller provides between the process variable and setpoint, I-controller is needed, which
Optimization for desired Optimization can be done good results as compared with the ON/OFF type controller. In the ON/OFF provides necessary action to eliminate the steady-state error. It integrates the
4. type controller, simply two conditions are obtainable to manage the system. error over a period of time until the error value reaches zero. It holds the value
When the control system includes a feedback loop, then the systems are output can not be performed. very easily. Once the process value is lower than the fixed point, then it will turn ON. to the final control device at which error becomes zero.
known as feedback control systems. So the output can be controlled Similarly, it will turn OFF once the value is higher than a fixed value. The
accurately by providing feedback to the input. This type of control system It does not consists of Feedback mechanism is output is not stable in this kind of controller and it will swing frequently in the
can include more than one feedback.In the above diagram, the
5.
feedback mechanism. present. region of the fixed point. However, this controller is more steady & accurate
error detector generates an error signal, so this is the variation of the input as as compared to the ON/OFF type controller.
well as the feedback signal these systems are also named as automatic 6. It requires less maintenance. Maintenance is difficult.
control systems.
7. It is less reliable. It is more reliable.
Advantages : These systems are very precise & less error-prone.
 Errors can be corrected through the feedback signal 8. It is comparatively slower. It is faster.
 High bandwidth D-Controller
 It supports automation It can be easily installed and Complicated installation is
High noise margin
9. I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behavior of error.
 is economical. required and is expensive. So it reacts normally once the setpoint is changed. D-controller overcomes
 They cannot affect by means of noise.
this problem by anticipating the future behavior of the error. Its output
Disadvantages : depends on the rate of change of error with respect to time, multiplied by
Working of PID Controller
 The designing of this system is complicated derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby increasing
 They are very complex With the use of a low cost simple ON-OFF controller, only two control states system response.
 Expensive are possible, like fully ON or fully OFF. It is used for a limited control
 Huge maintenance is needed application where these two control states are enough for the control
 The control system oscillates sometimes due to feedback signals. objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits its usage and hence
it is being replaced by PID controllers.

The Root Locus Rules
To assist in the construction of root locus plots, the `` Root Locus Rules'' for
plotting the loci are summarized here. These rules are not universal, and
every author has his own favorite set and ordering of the rules. In his
landmark textbook, Walter Evans lists approximately ten rules, but does not
order or number them [1, Appendix B], while Roberge enumerates eight
rules [9, pages 121-126].
All root locus rules can be directly traced to the characteristic equation,
1+L(s)=0. If we assume that the loop transfer function can be written
as L(s)=KL0(s), where K is a positive gain, then we can write the magnitude
condition and the angle condition as
|L(s)|=|KL0(s)|=1
We assume that the loop transfer function has P open loop poles
and Z open loop zeros, and that there are at least as many poles as zeros (
).
Rule 1
The number of branches, which are the paths of the closed-loop poles,
is equal to the number of open-loop poles, P.
Rule 2
The branches start at the open-loop poles and end at the open-loop
zeros. In addition to the Z explicit open-loop zeros in the transfer
function, there are P-Z open-loop zeros at infinity.
Rule 3
Branches of the root locus lie on the real axis to the left of an odd
number of poles and zeros. Complex-conjugate pairs of poles and
zeros are not counted, since they contribute no net angle to the real
axis.
Rule 4 : If a branch on the real axis lies between a pair of poles, the root
locus must break away from the real axis somewhere between the poles.
Similarly, if a branch on the real axis lies between a pair of zeros, there
must be an entry point between that pair of zeros.
Rule 5
As K gets very large, P-Z branches go to infinity. These branches
approach asymptotes at angles to the real axis of
where and the centroid of these asymptotes is on the
real axis at
Rule 6
The departure angles of the branches from an mth-order pole on the
real axis are
if the mth-order pole is to the left of a even number of poles and
zeros. If the mth-order pole is to the left of a odd number of poles and
zeros, then the departure angles are
Rule 7
If there are two or more excess poles than zeros ( ), then for
any gain K, the sum of the real parts of the closed-loop poles (or the
average distance from the -axis) is constant3.
Rule 8
Ignore remote poles and zeros when considering the root locus near
the origin of the s-plane, and combine the poles and zeros near the
origin when considering the root locus for remote poles and zeros.
Rule 9
The departure angle from a complex-conjugate pole can be found by
considering the angle condition on a small circle around the pole. The
result is found by summing all the angles from open-loop zeros and
subtracting all the angles from all other poles
The approach angle to a complex-conjugate zero follows similarly
This sum only needs to be calculated once for each complex pair, since
the root-locus diagram is symmetric above and below the real axis.
Rule 10
The break-away (entry) points from (to) the real axis between a pair of
poles (zeros) can be found either by geometric construction4 or by
finding the local maxima (minima) of the gain function , solving
TRANSFER FUNCTION :
The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to Laplace transform of the input variable assuming all initial conditions
to be zero.
Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control system are as
follows:
1. We form the equations for the system.
2. Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming
initial conditions as zero.
3. Specify system output and input.
4. Lastly we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the
Laplace transform of the input which is the required transfer function.
Advantages of Transfer function
1. If transfer function of a system is known, the response of the system to any
input can be determined very easily.
2. A transfer function is a mathematical model and it gives the gain of the
system.
3. Since it involves the Laplace transform, the terms are simple algebraic
expressions and no differential terms are present.
4. Poles and zeroes of a system can be determined from the knowledge of
the transfer function of the system.
Disadvantages of Transfer function
1. Transfer function does not take into account the initial conditions.
2. The transfer function can be defined for linear systems only.
3. No inferences can be drawn about the physical structure of the system.

Unit Ramp Signal
A ramp function or ramp signal is a type of standard signal which starts at 𝑡 = 0 and increases
linearly with time. The unit ramp function has unit slop.
Parabolic signals:
When a signal gives the constant acceleration distinction of actual input signal, such a
signal is known as parabolic signal or parabolic function. It is also known as
unit acceleration signal. The unit parabolic signal starts at t = 0.
p(t)={t22fort≥0 0fort<0
sinusoidal wave signal
A sinusoidal wave signal is a type of periodic signal that oscillates (moves
up and down), periodically. The geometrical waveform of a sinusoidal signal
forms an S-shape wave in one complete cycle. A sinusoidal can be a sine
functioned signal or cosine functioned signal. Thus, a sinusoidal signal can
be defined as,
y=sinxy=sinx
y=cosx
1. Delay time (td) – It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final
value in the first instance.
2. Rise time (tr) – It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%
of the final value for underdamped systems and from 0 to 100% of the final value in
the case of underdamped systems, in the first instance.
3. Peak time (tp) – It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value
of the time response.
4. Peak overshoot (Mp) – It is the normalised difference between the peak value of
the time response and the steady state value.
5. Settling time (ts) – Time required for the response to reach and stay within a
specified tolerance band of its final value or steady state value. This tolerance
band is usually 2% to 5%.
Nyquist Stability Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states
that if there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path,
then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z times. So,
we can write the number of encirclements N as,
N=P− Z
 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the
direction of the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the
direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the
direction of the encirclement in the G(s) H(s) plane will be in the same
direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’
plane by selecting it as a closed path. This selected path is called
the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the
closed loop transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles
of the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of the
characteristic equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases,
it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the
characteristic equation as follows.
 The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of
the open loop transfer function.
 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of
the closed loop transfer function.
We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop
pole in the the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,P=0⇒N=−Z=0⇒=−
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed
loop pole in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,Z=0⇒N=P=0⇒
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the
critical point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation,
which is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the right
half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (1+j0) gives the characteristic
equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.
 Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer
function G(s)H(s)�(�)�(�) in ‘s’ plane.
 Draw the polar plot by varying ω� from zero to infinity. If pole or zero
present at s = 0, then varying ω� from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar
plot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω� ranging from
−∞ to zero (0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).
 The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of
poles or zeros at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point
where the mirror image of the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half
circle will end at the point where the polar plot starts.
.
Explain the requirements of an ideal control system.:
a) Accuracy: Accuracy must be very high as error arising should be corrected.
Accuracy can be improved by the use of feedback element.
b) Sensitivity: A good control system senses quick changes in the output due to an
environment, parametric changes, internal and external disturbances.
c) Noise: Noise is a unwanted signal and a good control system should be sensitive to
these type of disturbances. d) Stability: The stable systems has bounded input and
bounded output. A good control system should response to the undesirable changes in
the stability.
e) Bandwidth: To obtain a good frequency response, bandwidth of a system should
be large.
f) Speed: A good control system should have heigh speed that is the output of the
system should be fast as possible.
g) Oscillation: For a good control system oscillation in the output should be constant
and must follow Barkhausein's Criteria.
Gain Margin
The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system. The
gain margin refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in
dB.
Phase Margin
The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the
system. The phase margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually
expressed as a phase in degrees.
Gain Crossover frequency
The gain crossover is the frequency at which the open-loop gain first
reaches the value 1 and so is 0.005 Hz. Thus, the phase margin is
180° − 120°=60°.
Phase Crossover frequency
The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase angle
first reaches −180° and thus is the point where the Nyquist plot crosses the
real axis

What is a Bode Plot?

A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system engineering to

determine the stability of a control system. A Bode plot maps the frequency
response of the system through two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot
(expressing the magnitude in decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing
the phase shift in degrees).
Bode Plot Stability
Below is a list of criterion relevant to drawing Bode plots (and calculating
their stability):

1. Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be
increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is
usually expressed in dB.
2. Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the
stability of the system. It refers to the phase which can be increased
or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually
expressed as phase.
3. Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the
magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.
4. Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the
phase curve cuts the negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
5. Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts
or meet each other is known as break frequency or corner frequency.
6. Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus
of G (jω) has a peak value is known as the resonant frequency.
7. Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of
various factors like constant term K, Integral factors (jω), first-order
factors ( 1 + jωT)(± n) where n is an integer, second-order or
quadratic factors.
8. Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and the slope for
each factor is expressed in the dB per decade.
9. Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and the angle
for each factor is expressed in the degrees.