Research Carriage Duke of Arenberg

Research Coupé de voyage, Ducs
d’Arenberg
Material technical research on the linoleum flooring
Florence Van Audenrode (s0192773)
University of Antwerp
Faculty of Design Science 2019FOWCOR The degradation of and research on complex
Conservation-Restoration composite objects
Academic Year 2022-2023 Prof. Andrea Marchetti and Prof. Natalie Ortega Saez
19/12/2022
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Registration Form ................................................................................................................................................ 4
3. Material technical (preliminary) research ........................................................................................................... 6
3.1. Description of the original techniques and materials of linoleum ........................................................... 6
3.1.1 Original technique of one-color linoleum...................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 Original technique of patterned linoleum ..................................................................................... 8
3.1.3 The linoleum of the carriage ......................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Analytical research techniques ............................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1 X-Ray Fluorescence...................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy ................................................................................... 13
3.3. Condition Report .................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3.1 Condition report of the different facets of the carriage.............................................................. 16
3.3.2 Damage images ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.4. Damage inventory and possible conservation-restoration interventions ............................................. 18
3.4.1 Damage inventory ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.4.2 Possible conservation-restoration interventions ........................................................................ 24
4. Decision-making and treatment proposal ......................................................................................................... 27
4.1. Value analysis and decision-making....................................................................................................... 27
4.2. Treatment proposal ............................................................................................................................... 28
5. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 30
6. Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 31
7. Glossary ............................................................................................................................................................. 33
2
1. Introduction
This research was conducted in context of the Belgium Carriage Interior Research Project (BELCAIRE); a scientific
analysis of historical materials, techniques and historical interiors of 17 carriages, which includes the travel coupé of
the Duke of Arenberg. All carriages researched in context of BELCAIRE are property of the Royal Museum of Art and
History (RMAH-KMKG) in Brussels (Belgium) and are in poor material condition. The conservation of hippomobile
heritage can be challenging considering its variety of materials and techniques. It is crucial to gain insight into these
sometimes unknown materials used for the manufacture of these carriages, before treatment is carried out. The
BELCAIRE research project aims to develop a long-term preservation methodology for all hippomobile heritage.1
This paper was written in context of the course The degradation of and research on complex composite objects given
in the master of the conservation-restoration program, University of Antwerp. It focuses on the material degradation
and materiality of the travel coupé of the Duke of Arenberg, a late 19th century travel carriage. The carriage was
comfortable yet luxurious. The coach has a rounded black body with roller blinds for sun protection, a semi-exterior
seating for the groom with a wool cap, suspension with clamp springs and a coat of arms on each door. On top of
the carriage, four leather luggage compartments are located. A seating was implemented on top of the luggage for
the coachman. The interior, made of silk and cotton, is equipped with a backrest and curtains. The flooring, in the
body and in the semi-exterior seating of the groom, is coated with linoleum. Few scientific analyses of linoleum are
available due to its forgotten character. This paper aims to find insight into the historical production, materiality,
and material degradation of linoleum through literature and material technical research. The damage of the linoleum
will be assessed and analyzed, followed by a treatment proposal. Multiple advanced research techniques are
implemented such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Fluorescence (FTIR) and optical
microscopy.
1
Projects - Antwerp Cultural Heritage Sciences | Antwerp Cultural Heritage Sciences | University of Antwerp.
(n.d.).
3
2. Registration Form
Registration form
Identification and content
Royal Museum for Art and History, RMAH (Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en
Name of the institution
Geschiedenis, KMKG)
Inventarisation number TR. 0076
Keyword Travel carriage, coupé
Title or short description Travel carriage of the duke of Arenberg, ca. 1850-1900.
Travel carriage of the duke of Arenberg, ca. 1850-1900. The carriage has a
Description rounded black body and a seat for the groom in the back which is protected by a
hood, suspension with clamp springs.
Manufactorer Binder
Place of production Paris, France
Date of production 1850-1900
Variety of materials such as wood, metal, multiple types of textiles, linoleum,
Materials
lacquer, etc.
Colors Black exterior with red details on the wheels, beige colored interior, blue cap…
Dimensions H x La x P: 285 cm, 210 cm, 460 cm
Number of parts 1
Inscriptions and marks Coat of arms on the two doors of the carriage.
Collection Carriages
Object history and associations Associated with the Arenberg family and famous coach builder house Binder.
Other examples of hippomobile heritage by the same manufacturer: 1) Sleigh
with a gilded lion, collection RMAH (1864-1905)2, 2) Milord, collection RMAH
Related objects (1864-1905)3, 3) Hansome cab, collection RMAH (1880-1890)4, 4) Hearse,
collection RMAH (1850-1958)5, 5) Hunting brig, private collector (1850-1950)6, 6)
Chariot, carriage collection of Long Island Museum in Stony Brook (NY) (1875)7
Iconography
Material condition
Full carriage: moderate
Condition
Linoleum flooring: bad
Distinguishing features Coat of arms
Acquisition
Sum Donation of the city of Brussels.
Bijkomende gegevens
Storage place Royal Museum for Art and History (RMAH), depot
2
Carmentis - Online museum catalogue of the RMAH - Collection | Highlight. (z.d.).
3
Carmentis – Online museum catalogue of the RMAH – Collection | Highlight. (n.d.).
4
Carmentis – Online museum catalogue of the RMAH – Collection | Highlight. (n.d.)
5
Carmentis – Online museum catalogue of the RMAH – Collection | Highlight. (n.d.).
6
Karrenmuseum. (2017). Database rijtuigen [Dataset]. In Database rijtuigen.
7
Steinhart, J. (n.d.). Long Island Museum, Stony Brook, NY Pictures by Travel Photo Base.
4
Pictures:
Figure 1: Front of the carriage, Figure 2: Side view of the carriage, quarter turn.
AB side.
Figure 3: Side view of the Figure 4: Side view of the carriage, DA side.
carriage, quarter turn.
Figure 5: detailed image of the

coat of arms on the door of the
coach.
5
3. Material technical (preliminary) research
3.1. Description of the original techniques and materials of linoleum
Linoleum is an ecological material originally made of raw materials such as drying oils (linseed or flaxseed oil),
synthetic resins, a filler material and powdered pigments. Usually, linoleum is backed with jute or linen.8 The fillers
are waste of other industries; cork and wood flour being the waste of the wood and cork industry.9 The material was
first patented in 1863 by Frederick Walton.10 Back then, the material was associated with luxury and was
implemented in many historical buildings all over the world because of its characteristics: linoleum has a high
mechanical resistance,11 is easy to maintain, durable and recyclable, provides acoustic insulation12, is anti-bacterial
and hypo allergic. Presently, linoleum can be found in the White House in Washington DC (US) and Buckingham
Palace, London (UK).13
Linoleum was widely used from the moment it was patented in the 1860’s up until the discovery of vinyl, a hundred
years later in 1960’s. In today’s timeframe, considering ecological sustainability, there has been an increased use of
linoleum because of its natural resources.14
3.1.1 Original technique of one-color linoleum
As mentioned above, linoleum essentially consists of oxidized linseed oil, often referred to as linoxyn15, mixed with
ground cork dust, rosin and with addition of pigments. The mixture is then pressed together between heavy rollers
against a canvas.16 Most frequently, jute or a burlap backing is used because of its good properties: hard to tear and
sturdy yet flexible.17 The original process can seem rather simple but is extremely complex in reality. This section of
the research describes the original technique of making linoleum, more specifically one-color linoleum fabricated by
the Walton system.
8
Guduri, D. G. (n.d.). Analysis of Linoleum, its Advances in the field of Building Materials and its Properties. In
Academia.
9
Bastos, & Silveira. (n.d.). Linoleum as floor covering: charactersistics, application and maintenance. In
Researchgate.
10
Linoleum. (2014). In Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation (pp. 183–190). Getty
Publications.
11
Researchgate.
12
Carvalho, Brito, de, Pereira, & Flores-Colen. (2018). Inspection, Diagnosis, and Rehabilitation System for Vinyl
and Linoleum Floorings in Health Infrastructures. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities.
13
Researchgate.
14
Researchgate.
15
Linoleum. (n.d.). Album Der Natuur.
16
Simpson, H. (1999). Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum’s Rise and Fall from Grace. APT Bulletin:
The Journal for Preservation Technology, 30(2/3), 17:24.
17
Linoleum: what is it, how is it made in the W. & J. Sloane Mfg. Co. : W. & J. Sloane Manufacturing Co. : Free
Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.). Internet Archive.
6
First, the linseed oil is boiled in large barrels in order to get rid of any impurities. After boiling, the oil is very thick
and has a similar consistency as molasses or syrup. It is later cooled and transported to a heated oxidizing shed.
Here, long cotton sheets hang down the ceiling. Boiled oil is then poured into perforated troughs enabling it to run
over the cotton sheets twice a day throughout six weeks. As a result of the reaction between the linseed oil and
oxygen, and the heat in the shed, many toxic byproducts, such as formic acid, carbonic acid and acetic acid are
released.18 This procedure results in an elastic skin of oxidized linseed oil of ca. 2,5 centimeter on top of the cotton.
The linseed oil must be oxidized to ensure its waterproof qualities. This method of oxidizing linseed oil can take up
to five months to complete. To accelerate the procedure, the Taylor-Pernacotte system was developed, on which
more later in section 3.1.3 The linoleum of the carriage.
The sheets are later machine ground, forming a pulp.19 This pulp is then thoroughly mixed and kneaded in heated
kettles with multiple ingredients such as rosin20 and kauri gum21. The addition of rosin and gum operates as a binding
agent and increases the flexibility and shine of the linoleum.22 The mixture is then poured into bins to cool. It now
has a consistency similar to a thick sponge and is often referred to as cement.23 As mentioned above, the linoleum
industry recycles the waste of the cork industry, both small and bigger pieces of cork can be utilized since the cork
is grounded to powder before use. The cork provides resilient properties to the linoleum.24 In newer recipes, the use
of wood flour as a substitute to cork flour is described. Some sources describe the addition of ‘whiting’ which is
identified as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as a filler material.25 Pigments, usually mineral, are often added to the cork
powder before mixing equal parts with the linoleum cement.26 The mixture is then ground multiple times. This
creates a consistency similar to oily sawdust or even dough, often referred to as the linoleummass. This mass is
spread out on a backing (Fig. 6 and 7) before it is pressed between heated rollers, which results in what is now
known as linoleum. To create varying thicknesses of flooring, multiple layers of the linoleummass are applied on top
of each other, each time passing the rollers.27 The rollers have a temperature of ca. 140-150°C. After, the linoleum
goes through two smaller cylinders to polish. Hereafter, the material is cooled between watercooled rollers where
the material is cut into pieces. Lastly, the backing is varnished with red varnish (Fig. 6 and 7).28 Before the linoleum
can be used, it needs to fully harden and oxidize; this happens in a heated room or stove, throughout two to eight
18
19
Simpson, H. (1999). Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum’s Rise and Fall from Grace. APT Bulletin: The
Journal for Preservation Technology, 30(2/3), 17:24.
20
Rosin or colophonium is a brittle type of resin that becomes sticky when heated, it is usually made of a variety of
pine trees. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). rosin | chemistry. Encyclopedia Britannica.
21
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998a, July 20). kauri pine | plant. Encyclopedia Britannica.
22
23
24
25
Historic Linoleum: Analysis, Cleaning Systems, Recommendation for Preservation. (1997b). APT Bulletin: The
Journal for Preservation Technology, 28(2/3), 37–43.
26
27
(2015, April 22). CONSERVATION OF WATERLOGGED LINOLEUM Pages 51-100 - Flip PDF | FlipHTML5.
28
7
weeks depending on its thickness.29 When the linoleum has completely oxidized, a thin coat of liquid wax is applied
by a machine and dried by electric dryers. Once the liquid wax has set, a coat of hard wax is applied and brushed to
ensure bright shine.30
1mm 1mm
Figure 6: Microscopic view of the exterior linoleum, Figure 7: Microscopic view of the exterior linoleum,
magnification 50X. The bottom red layer assumably being magnification 50X. Better view of the threat.
red varnish. The brown, circular masses are the threats of
the backing.
3.1.2 Original technique of patterned linoleum
The production of patterned linoleum starts with the procedure explained in 3.1.1 Original technique of one-color
linoleum with addition of the printing process of the pattern on the surface. Between 1860-1880, it was common to
use a wooden block to print patterns. However, this procedure was very lengthy and time consuming. To simplify
and automate the process, rotary devices and flat-bed printing machines were implemented. After printing, the
linoleum requires a second drying of six or seven days in the stoves.31 Both procedures are not very durable; the
print is susceptible to abrasion and wears off quickly, which can be confirmed by the condition of the pattern on
both linoleum floorings in the carriage (Fig. 8 and 9). Where the linoleum was laid vertically and is therefore not
stepped on, the pattern was more intact compared to the horizontal fragments. Different approaches are available
where the pattern is made into the linoleum: inlaid linoleum.32
29
30
31
32
8
Figure 8: Image of the outside linoleum, vertical fragment Figure 9: Image of the outside linoleum, horizontal part
where some parts of the pattern are still visible. where the pattern is completely worn off by abrasion.
3.1.3 The linoleum of the carriage
Scheme 1: Schematic overview of the linoleum flooring in the carriage.
The carriage consists of two linoleum floorings; in the seating in the body of the carriage (in this paper referred to
as the interior linoleum) and in the semi-exterior seating of the groom in the rear area of the carriage (in this paper
referred to as the exterior linoleum). Both linoleums show multiple degradation phenomena, on which more later
in 3.2 Condition Report.
9
The interior linoleum has a brown base with a black and white pattern consisting of dots and stripes. The exterior
linoleum consists of the same pattern in a different color scheme: bright green, dark green and black. The latter
pattern is barely noticeable on the linoleum since it has almost completely worn off. Where the patterns were still
intact, the paint created a subtle relief on the surface of the linoleum. The linoleum was hard and had completely
lost its flexibility and resilience which made it difficult to identify the material as linoleum. Microscopic analysis was
necessary. In the interior, a small sample with white paint was taken from an intact area on the linoleum, as well as
some fibers from the backing. The interior linoleum was brittle and hard to sample, therefore the cross-section is
not complete; the backing is missing. From the exterior linoleum, a detached piece was taken. The material was very
degraded, therefore it’s impossible to conclude where the material was taken, and which part of the pattern was
analyzed.
Fig. 10: Location of the sample of the interior linoleum. Fig.11: Location of the sample of the outside linoleum.
The sample were analyzed with an upright microscope (Leica DM 2700 M). Microscopic analyses of the samples
show the layer buildup of both linoleums. The paint layers are in both cases visible on the surface of the linoleum;
the pattern was printed (Fig. 12 and 13). The interior linoleum shows a white paint layer on the surface, followed by
an orange/brown layer which presumably is the top layer of the linoleum matrix. Underneath the brown layer,
multiple red/pink layers are located, followed by another brown layer with red, white and black particles. It is
assumed that the backing would be located underneath this last layer, considering the dark matter on the bottom
of the sample.
10
1 mm 1 mm
Fig.12: Microscopic view of interior linoleum, magnification Fig.13: Microscopic view of exterior linoleum, magnification
100X. The white paint later is clearly visible on the surface, on 50X. The green paint later is clearly visible just underneath
top of the matrix of the linoleum. the surface, presumably underneath a protective layer/layer
of wax.
The exterior linoleum shows a green paint layer on top of the sample, covered by a thin layer which is presumed to
be a protective waxing coat. The matrix of the linoleum is dark green with red and white particles, similar to the
matrix in the interior linoleum. The red particles can indicate the use of the Taylor-Pernacotte system that was
developed to fasten the lengthy oxidation process of the linseed oil. The oxidation process is shortened to merely 8
to 12 hours, however, the oxidized linseed oil is of lesser quality since the oil is thickened with oxidation promotors
e.g. lead(II,IV) oxide33 and manganese dioxide.34 The red particles in the matrix could be minium. The white particles
presumably are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or calcite, used as a filler material and as whiting. To confirm these
theories, FTIR (Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) and XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) analyses were performed on
both linoleum floorings, on which more later in 3.2.1 X-Ray Fluorescence and 3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy.
0,1 mm 0,1 mm
Fig. 14: Microscopic view of the interior linoleum, Fig. 15: Microscopic view of the exterior linoleum,
magnification 200X. Detail image of the matrix; red and magnification of 200X. Detail image of the matrix; red and
white particles, presumably minium and calcite, are visible white particles, presumably minium and calcite, are visible
in the pink toned matrix. in the dark green matrix.
33
Red lead, Pb3O4, Minium. (n.d.). mindat.org.
34
11
0,1 mm 0,1 mm
Figure 16: microscopic view of a sample of the interior Figure 17: microscopic view of a sample of the interior
linoleum, bamboo structure is visible. linoleum, bamboo structure is visible.
The above microscopic images show a fiber of the interior linoleum. The fiber can be identified as a vegetable fiber,
more specifically a bast fiber, considering the bamboo structure. The filament is similar to multiple bast fibers like
jute, hemp and flax. From various sources, jute appears to be the most common material used in linoleum. Jute has
many characteristics like an irregular diameter and bamboo structure, lumen should be visible.35 No conclusion can
be drawn based on these images. Further analysis is necessary, preferably optical microscopy with cross polarization,
to hopefully get a better view and determine lumen.
3.2 Analytical research techniques
3.2.1 X-Ray Fluorescence
X-Ray Fluorescence was performed on 11 spots on the linoleums, focusing on the interior linoleum. Data was
retrieved from; a lacuna, the white paint, the black paint, the brown matrix, a metal lath, corrosion around the lath
and a nail. On the exterior linoleum, only one spot on the green surface of the linoleum was analyzed. The XRF was
performed in hopes to determine the chemical elements in the pigments and to identify the metals used.
From this data, it was concluded that high levels of lead (Pb) were present in the linoleum, initially hinting to the
white pattern potentially being lead white since it was still courant at the end of the 19th century. However, no
strikingly higher values were registered on the white paint, which makes the presence of lead white unlikely but not
impossible. These results do support the hypothesis of minium (red lead) being added into the matrix of the linoleum
as an oxidation catalyst.
Other chemical elements of white paints available in the 19th century, such as zinc (Zn), were present, but in low
concentrations. To identify the white pigment, further research such as SEM-EDX (Scanning Electron Microscopy –
Energy Dispersive X-Rays analysis) on a sample is necessary to be able to precisely aim the beam on the paint layer
and identify chemical elements in the paint. The XRF data of the black paint and the brown matrix do not show any
interesting results, which indicates the use of organic pigments which cannot be identified through X-Ray
35
https://www.textileschool.com/330/microscopic-appearance-of-fibres/
12
Fluorescence because of the low Z-values of the organic compounds. Both the nails and the metal laths were
identified as iron (Fe) considering high Fe concentrations. The data from the exterior linoleum shows the presence
of iron (Fe) as well, presumably indicating the use of a green iron-containing pigment.
All measurements in the carriage were contaminated with arsenic (As). It is hard to estimate whether this is a
miscalculation of the software. It is widely known that arsenic and lead containing products, like lead arsenate, were
historically used as pesticides starting in the early 20th century.36 This could explain the presence of both arsenic (As)
and leas (Pb) in the results, but this cannot be verified.
3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy was performed on four spots on the linoleum; two spots on the interior
linoleum, a lacuna in the interior linoleum and the exterior linoleum. One measurement out of four, on the interior
linoleum, was contaminated with noise and did not provide a clean spectrum. Therefore, this spectrum will not be
discussed in this paper.
All FTIR spectra confirm the presence of a siccative oil, presumably linseed oil, and calcite (CaCO3). Calcite often
functions as a filler material in linoleum and paint, however, it is also the main compound in dust and can therefore
originate from that as well. The main calcite (CaCO3) peak could possibly be attributed to the presence of lead
carbonate (PbCO3), indicating the use of lead white. However, this hypothesis is unlikely considering the lack of other
lead carbonate indicating peaks and the low values of lead in the X-Ray Fluorescence data. Both spectra of the
interior linoleum and the lacuna in the interior linoleum indicate the presence of wood. The latter showing the
characteristic peaks of wood more prominently, probably since FTIR can only obtain spectral data from the surface
of the material. The wood was presumably used in powder form, as a substitute to cork powder; a filler material in
linoleum.
The data from the exterior linoleum shows a lead carboxylate group, presumably originating from lead soaps37. Lead
soaps are metallic salts38, often insoluble in water, that can be responsible for various degradation phenomena such
as darkening of paint, efflorescence, protrusions, etc.39 They are usually a result of the reaction between metal
containing pigments and fatty acids that result from the hydrolysis of glycerides in an oil binding medium like linseed
oil, or from protective coatings like beeswax.40 Lead soaps are common in combination with both minium (red lead)
and lead white, but are more likely to be originating from minium since the presence of lead white is implausible.
However, metal oxides such as minium can only be registered in the far infrared range (400-10cm-1), not in the mid
36
Hughes, M. F., Beck, B. D., Chen, Y., Lewis, A. S., & Thomas, D. J. (2011). Arsenic Exposure and Toxicology: A
Historical Perspective. Toxicological Sciences, 123(2), 305–332.
37
Keune. (2005). Binding Medium, Pigments and Metal Soaps Characterised and Localised in paint Cross-sections.
38
Lead soap - CAMEO. (n.d.).
39
Cotte, M., Checroun, E., De Nolf, W., Taniguchi, Y., De Viguerie, L., Burghammer, M., Walter, P., Rivard, C.,
Salomé, M., Janssens, K., & Susini, J. (2016). Lead soaps in paintings: Friends or foes? Studies in Conservation,
62(1), 2–23.
40
13
infrared range (4000-400cm-1) which was used in this research.41 To verify the presence of minium, further research,
such as SEM-EDX, FTIR in the far IR range or Raman spectroscopy is needed.
Wood
Linseed oil
Calcium carbonate
Graph 1: FTIR Spectrum of the interior linoleum showing the presence of wood (green), linseed oil (yellow) and calcium
carbonate (red).
Wood
Linseed oil
Calcium carbonate
Graph 1: FTIR Spectrum of a lacuna in the interior linoleum showing the presence of wood (green), linseed oil (yellow) and
calcium carbonate (red).
41
University of Antwerp. (2022) Vibrational spectroscopies: Introduction and FTIR. Marchetti, A. [Pdf].
14
Lead carboxylate
Linseed oil
Calcium carbonate
1722
Graph 2: FTIR Spectrum of the exterior linoleum showing the presence of linseed oil (yellow), lead soaps (purple) and calcium
carbonate (red).
Graph 5: FTIR Spectrum of wood. © FTIR spectroscopy of

Graph 4: ATR-FT-IR Spectrum of clarified linseed oil woods: A new approach to study the weathering of the
carving face of a sculpture.
(siccative oil). © Database of ATR-FT-IR Spectra of Various
Materials.
Graph 7: R-FTIR Spectra of leadsoaps, more specific a) spot

Graph 6: ATR-FT-IR Spectrum of calcite (CaCO3). © Database near the surface of the protrusion b) an unmounted fragment
of ATR-FT-IR spectra of various materials. of the protrusion and c) spot in the bulk of the protrusion.©
Infrared chemical mapping of degradation products in cross-
sections from paintings and painted objects.
15
3.3. Condition Report
3.3.1 Condition report of the different facets of the carriage
The overall material condition of the carriage is deemed moderate; the carriage is currently in stable condition with
no structural damage on the body or wheels, therefore static display of the carriage is low-risk. General ageing of
the various materials is present but not exceptionally problematic for a ca. 150 year old carriage which was used in
the past. The following table shows the condition of each facet analyzed in context of this research.
Facet Condition Description
Linoleum (interior) Moderate The linoleum shows some signs of degradation such as the fading of
the pattern, lacunae, craquelé and brittleness.
Linoleum (exterior) Bad The linoleum shows many signs of degradation such as fading of the
pattern, lacunae, craquelé, brittleness. Material loss being the most
prominent.
Luggage Bad The luggage shows many signs of degradation such as cracking,
lacunae, corrosion near the metal elements, perforations, old
restorations and brittleness.
Lacquer Moderate The lacquer shows some signs of degradation such as lacunae,
alligatoring, cracking, craquelé and old restorations.
Wool Bad The wool shows many signs of degradation such as tears, lacunae,
soiling, old repairs, discoloration and biological colonization.
Textile interior Bad The textile interior shows many signs of degradation such as tears
(sometimes due to old repairs), discoloration, corrosion of metal
elements, fraying, lacunae and missing parts such as the pillows of the
seating.
Table 1: The above table discusses the general condition of the various facets of the carriage.
16
3.3.2 Damage images
The following damage images (schadebeelden) are a visual representation of the degradation on both linoleum
floorings. The pictures were taken in situ (in the Royal Museum of Art and History RMAH-KMKG) and the images
were edited with Adobe Photoshop CC software. The damage was visualized by a color code: 1) red: lacuna down to
an intermediate layer, 2) orange: lacuna down to the wooden support, 3) purple: efflorescence and 4): corrosion.
Craquelé and the deposition of dust and grime were present all over both floorings, therefore these phenomena
were not marked on the damage pictures to maintain a clear view of the damage. The pattern on the exterior
linoleum has faded off completely presumably due to wear, this phenomenon was not visualized on the damage
picture either.
Lacuna down to an intermediate

layer
Lacuna down to wooden support
Efflorescence
Corrosion
Figure 17: damage picture of the interior linoleum. Figure 18: damage picture of the exterior linoleum.
Most prominent damage phenomena are lacunae Most prominent damage phenomenon is lacunae
down to an intermediate layer; fading of the down to the wooden support.
pattern and chipping of the paint on the metal
laths.
17
3.4. Damage inventory and possible conservation-restoration interventions
3.4.1 Damage inventory
Material Subtype Location Class of Damage Damage type Cause Urgence Pictures Additional
degradation phenomena information
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Detachment or Losing flexibility/ Oxidation Medium / Over-oxidation of the
material (Interior) material loss brittleness linseed oil can lead to
brittleness, especially
when the linoleum
has a high ratio of
wood/cork flour.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical (1) Deformation Craquelé Oxidation Medium Oxidation (1): over-
material (Interior) and and fractures (1) and oxidation of the
mechanical wear (2) linseed oil can lead to
(2) brittleness, especially
when the linoleum
has a high ratio of
wood/cork flour. This
can cause craquelé on
the paint/ surface
layer or even
throughout the entire
thickness of the
linoleum matrix.
Wear (2): pour

handling such as
stepping and dragging
your feet across the
already brittle
linoleum can cause
craquelé.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Mechanical Detachment or Lacunae down to Wear (1) High Material loss down to
material (Interior) (1) and material loss an intermediate and the backing material,
chemical (2) layer oxidation chipping of the paint
(2à layer both on
linoleum and metal
elements, fading of
the print.
Caused by a
combination of
factors: wear (1)
induced by brittleness
caused by oxidation
(2).
When the
intermediate layers
are exposed to water
or high relative
humidity, the wood
flour will degrade and
potentially even
swell.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Discoloration Efflorescence Water Medium White deposit on the
material (Interior) and deposits surface, presumably
efflorescence due to
water damage.
19
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Biological Discoloration Dust and grime Pollution Low Presence of a layer of
material (Interior) and deposits dust and grime,
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) was
registered in FTIR.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Discoloration Darkening Lack of UV Low / Linseed oil darkens to
material (interior) and deposits the absence of light.42
Metal Iron Floor Chemical Discoloration Corrosion Oxidation Medium The presence of
(interior) and deposits water/ high relative
humidity can fasten
the process.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Discoloration Efflorescence Lead High / The presence of lead
material (exterior) and deposits soaps soaps is indicated by
the lead carboxylates
discovered in the FTIR
results, not visible.
Can cause
protrusions.
42
Linoleum. (2014). In Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation (pp. 183–190). Getty Publications.
20
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical (1) Deformation Craquelé Oxidation Medium Oxidation (1):over-
material (exterior) and and fractures (1) and oxidation of the
mechanical wear (2) linseed oil can lead to
(2) brittleness, especially
when the linoleum
has a high ratio of
wood/cork flour. This
can cause craquelé on
the paint/ surface
layer or even
throughout the entire
thickness of the
linoleum matrix.
Wear (2): Pour

handling such as
stepping and dragging
your feet across the
already brittle
linoleum can cause
craquelé.
21
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Mechanical Degradation Lacunae down to Wear (1) High Material loss down to
material (exterior) (1) and induced by an intermediate and the backing material,
chemical (2) material loss layer oxidation chipping of the paint
(2) layer both on
linoleum and metal
elements, fading of
the print.
Caused by a
combination of
factors: wear (1)
induced by brittleness
caused by oxidation
(2).
When the
intermediate layers
are exposed to water
or high relative
humidity, the wood
flour will degrade and
potentially even
swell.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Biological Discoloration Dust and grime Pollution Low Presence of a layer of
material (exterior) and deposits dust and grime,
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) was
registered in FTIR.
22
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Discoloration Darkening Lack of UV Low / Linseed oil darkens to
material (exterior) and deposits the absence of light.
Synthetic Linoleum Floor Chemical Detachment or Losing flexibility/ Oxidation Medium / Over-oxidation of
material (exterior) material loss brittleness linseed oil can lead to
brittleness, especially
when the linoleum
has a high ratio of
cork/wood powder.
Table 2: Damage atlas of the linoleum.
23
3.4.2 Possible conservation-restoration interventions
Possible conservation-restoration interventions of linoleum
No lightening
Pro: pigments in the paint layers of the pattern are not exposed to UV and
will not degrade due to UV exposure.
Contra: the original colors will not be visible, less authentic.

Exposure to natural
Pro: the original colors will be visible and create an authentic view of the
light (daylight) linoleum.
Lightening of the
linoleum
Contra: the pigments in the paint layers can degrade and lighten/darken
due to UV exposure. Exposure to daylight cannot be done precisely.
Fluorescent
Pro: the original colors will be visible and create an authentic view of the
exposure linoleum. Fluorescent exposure can be done more precisely in comparison
to exposure to daylight.
Contra: the pigments in the paint layers can degrade and lighten/darken
due to UV exposure.
No consolidation
Pro: it is hard to estimate how the degraded linoleum will respond to
consolidants. Not much research has been done about the consolidation
of linoleum, the procedure is high-risk, the testing of consolidants is
necessary and time consuming. Limited fragile layers are present,
primarily lacunae.
Consolidation
Contra: the fragile surface of the linoleum will not be reinforced, resulting
in potential material loss.
Consolidation Pro: the fragile surface of the linoleum will be reinforced, further
degradation such as material loss will be minimized.
Contra: the original colors will not be visible, less authentic.
Contra: time consuming procedure, testing of consolidants is necessary

and time consuming. Hard to estimate how the degraded material will
respond to consolidants.
No treatment Pro: since corrosion partly consists of original material, removing

corrosion will take away a small percentage of original material.
Corrosion treatment
Contra: the destructive character of corrosion will result in material loss,

can induce discoloration around the metal and the metal elements will
lose its strength and thickness.
Removal of the Pro: the destructive character of corrosion will result in material loss, can
corrosion induce discoloration around the metal and the metal elements will lose its
strength and thickness. An archeological consolidation can close off the
corrosion from oxygen and stop the process.
Contra: since corrosion partly consists of original material, removing

corrosion will take away a small percentage of original material.
Dry cleaning Pro: a first dry cleaning will get rid of a high percentage of dust and
incrusted grime, depending on the used materials and techniques. The
potential pesticides present will partly be removed.
Cleaning
Contra: a small percentage of original material will be lost (dissociation).

Wet cleaning
Pro: wet cleaning will get rid of a high percentage of dust and incrusted
grime that the dry cleaning didn’t tackle.
Contra: a small percentage of original material will be lost (dissociation). It

is hard to estimate how the degraded linoleum will react to a wet
cleaning.
No repair
Pro: the history of the linoleum is preserved.
Contra: the linoleum remains very fragile and the detached fragments are
lost.
Filling in lacunae
Pro: the intermediate layers of the linoleum are sealed which minimizes
the risk of further degradation due to water, wear, etc. Retouching is
Repair of lacunae
possible to ensure and integral restoration.
Contra: the history of the linoleum and the detached fragments of the
linoleum are lost.
Adhesive bonding of
detached fragments Pro: the detached fragments of the linoleum are recuperated; material
loss is minimized. The intermediate layers of the linoleum are sealed
which minimizes the risk of further degradation due to water, wear, etc.
Retouching is possible to ensure an integral restoration.
Contra: hard to estimate how the degraded linoleum will react to the
adhesive, testing to find a compatible adhesive is necessary and time
consuming. The history of the linoleum is lost.
No application of a
coating Pro: it is hard to estimate how the linoleum will react to the application of
a coating, testing to find a compatible coating is necessary and time
consuming.
Contra: the linoleum will be susceptible to further decay.

Coating
25
Application of a Pro: a coating will function as a protective layer that will minimize further
coating decay due to light, water, wear, etc.
Contra: it is hard to estimate how the linoleum will react to the application
of a coating, testing to find a compatible coating is necessary and time
consuming.
Replacing the
Pro: the linoleum, primarily the exterior linoleum, is in very bad condition
linoleum floor and cannot be used in a context where the travel coupé is being re-used.
The original material can be kept in depot or used as research material.
Replacement of the linoleum flooring
Contra: the history of the linoleum is lost. Even when the original material
is preserved in a depot, dissociation is possible resulting in material loss.
Recreating a linoleum flooring with the same materials and the same
pattern is a lengthy process, which also raises ethical questions.
Not replacing the

Pro: the history of the linoleum is preserved. Recreating a linoleum
linoleum floor
flooring with the same materials and the same pattern is a lengthy
process, which also raises ethical questions.
Contra: the linoleum, primarily the exterior linoleum, is in very bad

condition and cannot be used in a context where the travel coupé is being
re-used.
Protective sheets
Pro: the sheets will provide protection of the linoleum and avoid damage
due to abrasion, less deposition of dirt and grime.
Contra: might provide an incorrect feeling of protection that will

Protective sheets
encourage people to step on the linoleum.
No protective sheets
Pro: the protective sheets may provide a false feeling of protection and
encourage people to step on the material.
Contra: no additional protection from dust and grime, more damage will
occur when the linoleum is stepped on.
Soaking the material in linseed oil
Soaking Pro: it might enhance and bring back the flexibility, get rid of brittleness.
Contra: few research is available, linoleum might darken.
No soaking
Pro: hard to estimate how the material will react to this procedure,
linoleum might darken.
Contra: might enhance the flexibility and minimize future degradation.
26
4. Decision-making and treatment proposal
4.1. Value analysis and decision-making
This segment of the research will describe the value analysis of the linoleum of the carriage in depth, according to
the principles of the valuation model Op de museale weegschaal (On the museum scale).43 The valuing of an object,
in essence explicating and determining the object, is necessary to make conscious decisions based on the priorities
of the object.44 This value analysis was established to prepare a conservation report and is constructed within a
national reference framework. The value analysis is divided into four themes: 1) characteristics, 2) cultural-historical
values, 3) artistic value and 4) utility value.
In terms of the entire travel coupé: it is a direct link to the Arenberg family, an aristocratic lineage45 (historical value).
Furthermore, the coupé was manufactured by the well-known coachbuilder house Binder, founded by the Binder
brothers46,47(art historical value).
Value analysis of the linoleum floorings in the travel coupé of the duke of Arenberg.
Condition
The interior linoleum is in moderate condition with
moderate damage, the exterior linoleum is in bad condition Low value
Characteristics
with many degradation phenomena.
Ensemble
Not a part of an ensemble. Low value
Origin Manufacturor is unknown.

Low value
Rareness
Linoleum is present in many 19th century coaches, however High value
the layer build up has been little researched in the past.
Historical Few known sources of the historical production process. Medium
Cultural-historical
value
Artistic
value
Pattern can be compared to other linoleum patterns. High value

Historic production can be considered a craft.
Educational Cross sections can bring insight to the historical production
High value
process of the material.
Museological No museological value.
Low value
43
Rijksdienst Voor Het Cultureel Erfgoed. (2013). Collectiewaardering in zes stappen. [Pdf].
44
Hoe beschrijft u de waarde van erfgoed? | FARO. Vlaams steunpunt voor cultureel erfgoed vzw. (z.d.). FARO.
45
House of Arenberg. (n.d.).
46
Bahuchet, A. (n.d.). A.BAHUCHET.
47
Tradition Fahrkunst - News - Artikel. (n.d)
27
Utility value
Economical No economical value.
Low value
Potential of No potential of development.

development Low value
Social Linoleum was considered an expensive and luxurious Medium

material in the 19th century, only for the aristocracy. value
Societal
Experience No experience value.

Low value
Table 3: Value analysis of the linoleum.
4.2. Treatment proposal
Based on the value analysis discussed in 4.1 Value analysis and the risks and advantages of each treatment discussed
in 3.4.2 Possible conservation-restoration interventions, a treatment proposal was made to enhance and preserve
the material’s history. The following treatments and the materials needed to complete these treatments will be
discussed in the table below: dry cleaning, wet cleaning, application of a coating and application of protective sheets.
This process is based on the conservation of two similar cases48,49 The treatment will be thoroughly documented
with images showing each step and a written conservation report.
Step Description of the treatment Materials

1 Dry cleaning; the linoleum is cleaned with a museum vacuum - Museum vacuum with
equipped with a HEPA filter. Next, a mechanic cleaning with HEPA filter
sponges and brushes is tested on a discrete spot and possibly - Smoke sponge
carried out when favorable results occur. - Aka pad (hard and soft)
- Aka wipes
Note: linoleum is susceptible to alkali; the linoleum will - Soft brushes with
soften and the cork powder will degrade. synthetic and natural hairs
2 Aqueous cleaning; the linoleum is cleaned with - Cotton swaps

demineralized water. The addition of detergents/solvent - Demineralized water
emulsions is tested on a discrete spot and possibly carried - Palmitic acid soap with
out when favorable results occur. chelating agent,
diammonium citrate, a
Note: linoleum is susceptible to alkali; the linoleum will buffer and
soften and the cork powder will degrade. methylcellulose50
48
49
Publications.
50
This soap was selected based on the chemical similarities between palmitic acid and lineolic acid, which is
present in linseed oil. The chelating agent and diammonium citrate are added to enhance the removal efficiency of
metal-based materials. A buffer is added to control the pH during cleaning, methylcellulose is added to thicken the
mixture and to ensure a controlled use. Historic Linoleum: Analysis, Cleaning Systems, Recommendation for
Preservation. (1997b). APT Bulletin: The Journal for Preservation Technology, 28(2/3), 37–43.
28
- pH neutral, non-ionic
soap51
3 Application of a coating; three protective coatings are tested - Household acrylic floor
on a discrete spot. The coating with the most favorable result finish52
is applied all over the surface. - Proprietary paste wax
with a neutral pH53
- Aliphatic acrylic54
polyurethane coating
4 Application of protective sheets; a protective layer such as - Protective mats/floor
protective mats or floor runners are placed on top of the runners55
linoleum to avoid more damage due to wear when the
carriage is entered.
Table 4: Treatment proposal of thelinoleum.
As for preventive conservation, routine sweeping is necessary to get rid of dirt and grime to avoid further damage
due to abrasion.56 It is advised to prohibit standing on the linoleum or entering the carriage, with the exception of
researchers if necessary. Any protective coatings must be routinely evaluated and reapplied. Linoleum ideally
requires a temperature between 18-21°C and a relative humidity between 45-55%.57 These values may not be
attainable in the context of a large depot, or even damaging to the other materials present in the carriage. Primarily,
extreme fluctuations are fatal and must be avoided at all costs; a stable climate is the starting point.58
51
Publications.
52
53
54
Publications.
55
Publications. + & Historic Linoleum: Analysis, Cleaning Systems, Recommendation for Preservation. (1997b). APT
Bulletin: The Journal for Preservation Technology, 28(2/3), 37–43.
56
Publications.
57
58
29
5. Conclusion
This paper analyzed the linoleum floorings in the travel coupé of the Duke of Arenberg, collection of the Royal
Museum of Art and History (RMAH-KMKG), Brussels (Belgium). Insight was gained into the historical production
process of the material, the materiality and damage phenomena. The data of the advanced research techniques
largely support the historical production process of linoleum described in literature. However, some facets could not
be confirmed or denied; the presence of minium in the matrix is only a hypothesis. Further analysis such as Scanning
Electron Microscopy – Energy Dispersed X-Ray analysis (SEM-EDX), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in the
far IR range, and Raman spectroscopy are necessary before any conclusions can be drawn.
Currently, few scientific research of linoleum is available. The lack of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy/X-Ray
Fluorescence interpretations, cross-sections, and conservation-restoration treatments complicates gaining
understanding in this material. In context of the BELCAIRE research project, a database can be created to share
information and results regarding the material and its degradation phenomena.
As for the condition of the linoleum flooring; the exterior linoleum is in much worse condition than the interior
linoleum. A large percentage of original material is already lost, due to water, wear and chemical changes in the
linoleum itself. The most prominent damage phenomena are: 1) brittleness due to over-oxidation of the linseed oil,
2) material loss due to abrasion and wear and 3) the fading of the pattern. Conservation is necessary to avoid future
decay and to preserve what is left. The complex nature and the large scale of the object complicates its storage and
conservation treatment because not all needs of the materials in the carriage can be met. A multi-disciplinary
approach is required to obtain a well-considered treatment proposal.
30
6. Bibliography
ATR-FT-IR spectrum of fresh clarified linseed oil (4000-225 cm–1). (n.d.). Database of ATR-FT-IR Spectra of Various
Materials. https://spectra.chem.ut.ee/paint/binders/linseed-oil/
Bahuchet, A. (n.d.). A.BAHUCHET. http://www.abahuchet.fr/mesvoitures/index.html
Researchgate.
Calcite – Database of ATR-FT-IR spectra of various materials. (n.d.).
https://spectra.chem.ut.ee/paint/fillers/calcite/
Carmentis - Online museum catalogue of the RMAH - Collection | Highlight. (n.d.).
https://www.carmentis.be/eMP/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface
Carvalho, Brito, de, Pereira, & Flores-Colen. (2018). Inspection, Diagnosis, and Rehabilitation System for Vinyl and
Linoleum Floorings in Health Infrastructures. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities.
https://10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001229
Cotte, M., Checroun, E., De Nolf, W., Taniguchi, Y., De Viguerie, L., Burghammer, M., Walter, P., Rivard, C., Salomé,
M., Janssens, K., & Susini, J. (2016). Lead soaps in paintings: Friends or foes? Studies in Conservation,
62(1), 2–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2016.1232529
Emmanuel, V., Odile, B., & Céline, R. (2015). FTIR spectroscopy of woods: A new approach to study the weathering
of the carving face of a sculpture. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy,
136, 1255–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.10.011
fliphtml5.com. (2015, April 22). CONSERVATION OF WATERLOGGED LINOLEUM Pages 51-100 - Flip| FlipHTML5.
https://fliphtml5.com/ncli/yzdp/basic/51-100
Guduri, D. G. (n.d.). Analysis of Linoleum, its Advances in the field of Building Materials and its Properties. In
Academia.
Henderson, E. J. (2019, September 13). Infrared chemical mapping of degradation products in cross-sections from
paintings and painted objects - Heritage Science. SpringerOpen.
https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-019-0313-7
Historic Linoleum: Analysis, Cleaning Systems, Recommendation for Preservation. (1997a). APT Bulletin: The journal
of Preservation Technology. Vol 28, No 2/3.
31
Hoe beschrijft u de waarde van erfgoed? | FARO. Vlaams steunpunt voor cultureel erfgoed vzw. (n.d.). FARO.
House of Arenberg. (n.d.). http://www.almanachdegotha.org/id65.htmlHughes, M. F., Beck, B. D., Chen, Y., Lewis,
A. S., & Thomas, D. J. (2011). Arsenic Exposure and Toxicology: A Historical Perspective. Toxicological
Sciences, 123(2), 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfr184
Karrenmuseum. (2017). Database rijtuigen [Dataset]. In Database rijtuigen.
ResearchGate.
Lead soap - CAMEO. (n.d.). https://cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Lead_soap
Publications.
Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-a). Internet Archive.
https://archive.org/details/LinoleumWhatIsItHowIsItMadeInTheW.J.SloaneMfg.Co/page/n11/mode/2up?
q=linoleum
Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-b). Internet Archive.
https://archive.org/details/LinoleumWhatIsItHowIsItMadeInTheW.J.SloaneMfg.Co/page/n11/mode/2up?
q=linoleum
Minium. (n.d.). mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-2721.html
Projects - Antwerp Cultural Heritage Sciences | Antwerp Cultural Heritage Sciences | University of Antwerp. (n.d.).
https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/research-groups/arches/research-projects/projects/
Rijksdienst Voor Het Cultureel Erfgoed. (2013). Collectiewaardering in zes stappen. [Pdf].
Journal for Preservation Technology, 30(2/3), 17:24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1504636
Steinhart, J. (n.d.). Long Island Museum, Stony Brook, NY Pictures by Travel Photo Base.
http://travelphotobase.com/u/NY/NYXM.HTM
32
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998a, July 20). kauri pine | plant. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/plant/kauri-pine
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998b, July 20). rosin | chemistry. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/rosin
Tradition Fahrkunst - News - Artikel. (n.d.). http://www.tradition-fahrkunst.de/news/news.php?action=fullnews
University of Antwerp. (2022) Vibrational spectroscopies: Introduction and FTIR. Marchetti, A. [Pdf].
7. Glossary
Clarifying glossary of all technical terms used in the preliminary study.
33
34
8. Annex
8.1 X-Ray Fluorescence spectra
Graph 8: XRF spectra of the metal element with corrosion, interior linoleum.
Graph 9: XRF spectra of the metal element, interior linoleum.
Graph 10: XRF spectra of white paint (1), interior linoleum.
36
Graph 11: XRF spectra of white paint (2), interior linoleum.
37
Graph 12: XRF spectra of a nail, interior linoleum.
Graph 13: XRF spectra of black paint, interior linoleum.
38
Graph 14: XRF spectra of the brown matrix, interior linoleum.
39
Graph 15: XRF spectra of a lacuna, interior linoleum.
Graph 16: XRF spectra of the green paint, exterior linoleum.
40
8.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
Graph 17: FTIR spectrum of the interior linoleum, spot 1.
Graph 18: FTIR spectrum of the interior linoleum, spot 2.
41
Graph 18: FTIR spectrum of the interior linoleum, lacuna.
Graph 19: FTIR spectrum of the exterior linoleum.
42

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Research Coupé de voyage, Ducs

Florence Van Audenrode (s0192773)

Figure 5: detailed image of the

3.1. Description of the original techniques and materials of linoleum

3.1.1 Original technique of one-color linoleum

3.1.2 Original technique of patterned linoleum

3.1.3 The linoleum of the carriage

Scheme 1: Schematic overview of the linoleum flooring in the carriage.

3.2 Analytical research techniques

3.2.1 X-Ray Fluorescence

3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Graph 5: FTIR Spectrum of wood. © FTIR spectroscopy of

Graph 7: R-FTIR Spectra of leadsoaps, more specific a) spot

3.3.1 Condition report of the different facets of the carriage

Facet Condition Description

Lacuna down to an intermediate

Lacuna down to wooden support

3.4.1 Damage inventory

Wear (2): pour

Wear (2): Pour

Table 2: Damage atlas of the linoleum.

Possible conservation-restoration interventions of linoleum

Contra: the original colors will not be visible, less authentic.

Contra: time consuming procedure, testing of consolidants is necessary

No treatment Pro: since corrosion partly consists of original material, removing

Contra: the destructive character of corrosion will result in material loss,

Contra: since corrosion partly consists of original material, removing

Contra: a small percentage of original material will be lost (dissociation).

Contra: a small percentage of original material will be lost (dissociation). It

possible to ensure and integral restoration.

Contra: the linoleum will be susceptible to further decay.

Not replacing the

Contra: the linoleum, primarily the exterior linoleum, is in very bad

Contra: might provide an incorrect feeling of protection that will

encourage people to step on the linoleum.

Contra: few research is available, linoleum might darken.

Contra: might enhance the flexibility and minimize future degradation.

4.1. Value analysis and decision-making

with many degradation phenomena.

Origin Manufacturor is unknown.

Pattern can be compared to other linoleum patterns. High value

Potential of No potential of development.

Social Linoleum was considered an expensive and luxurious Medium

Experience No experience value.

Table 3: Value analysis of the linoleum.

4.2. Treatment proposal

Step Description of the treatment Materials

2 Aqueous cleaning; the linoleum is cleaned with - Cotton swaps

Bahuchet, A. (n.d.). A.BAHUCHET. http://www.abahuchet.fr/mesvoitures/index.html

Calcite – Database of ATR-FT-IR spectra of various materials. (n.d.).

Carmentis - Online museum catalogue of the RMAH - Collection | Highlight. (n.d.).

Linoleum Floorings in Health Infrastructures. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities.

62(1), 2–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2016.1232529

136, 1255–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.10.011

paintings and painted objects - Heritage Science. SpringerOpen.

of Preservation Technology. Vol 28, No 2/3.

Journal for Preservation Technology, 28(2/3), 37–43.

Sciences, 123(2), 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfr184

Karrenmuseum. (2017). Database rijtuigen [Dataset]. In Database rijtuigen.

Lead soap - CAMEO. (n.d.). https://cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Lead_soap

Linoleum. (n.d.). Album Der Natuur.

Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-a). Internet Archive.

Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-b). Internet Archive.

Minium. (n.d.). mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-2721.html

Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-a). Internet Archive.

Download, Borrow, and Streaming : (n.d.-b). Internet Archive.