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The formation of the traditional mud architecture and sustainability in the

twenty-first century

Conference Paper · February 2016

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Ayman Alsuliman
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 The formation of the traditional mud architecture and sustainability
in the twenty-first century
Dr Ayman Al Suliman

Al Zaytoonah University, Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Architecture -11733 Amman – Jordan

Corresponding author (Phone: + 962 779257425; a.suliman57@gmail.com

Abstract:
It is universally agreed upon that architecture is considered to be the most significant
attribute of the humans’ material culture. Habitation, as such, indicates the human life
patterns and the level of the communities’ urbanization. Humans have always carried along
thoughts related to stability and place attachment, stemming from their vital needs, in
specific, and contributing to the cultural and humanitarian development process in general.
As a result, humans constantly rearranged their surrounding spatial and living spaces, and
then worked on adding frames and structures to these spaces; which embodied throughout
the different eras in the form of housing and monumental architecture.
This architecture was always a direct result of the humanitarian efforts and an
expression of the natural environment in which it arose; this environment that was the
main source of the materials that were used in architecture and urbanism in different
climatic zones in the world. The nature in Europe and tropical regions, for example,
provided humans with wood, which they were able to utilize in building homes, sewing
clothes, and using raw materials needed in living and surviving. Various types of soft ground
and alluvial soil used to provide humans in the Orient (Eastern) civilizations in general, and
in the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa in specific, with housing, pots and
writing boards. Mud was the most widespread material and the closer to Neanderthals. It
grabbed those early humans’ attention, leading them to use it as a raw material in building
up their homes. There is no doubt that earth-soil is the natural environment and the
material that has embraced the first man. It provided humans with all the essentials of food
and shelter. It was also the source of strength and confidence, giving those early humans
the feeling of great relief and comfort.
Today, we are in need of modern architecture that is suitable for our time, reality,
civilization, modernism, and climate. Hence is the return to studying and recording all
styles and technologies, most important and famous of which being the earth architecture
on which our construction methods were established since the dawn of history, and whose
technologies continue to be used until this day, although they are restricted to very poor
areas. It is possible to say that returning to mud and reviving its historical style, making it
the prevailing method of building where appropriate, is a matter of absolute importance.
Keywords: Environment, Habitation, Mud Architecture, Material, Formation.
 I. Introduction:
As a result, humans throughout history tended to take a shelter in this natural
environment’s cavities through hard times. From this presence, attachment and
interaction, the idea of using mud soil material as a building material had emerged. It was
when the first humans stretched their hands to the soil and started using mud, that they
registered a significant milestone in the history of mankind in the handling, composition,
manufacturing and the creation of this material in the early human societies; it was
practically the first human step towards creativity, innovation and industrialization.
All historical sources indicate that mud was the first material man used in construction, in
addition to other raw materials like stone, wood, reeds, papyrus and palm leaves (Figure 1).
Architecture was the most important tool for the organization of society, as it arranged the
interaction process of place-space between human, animal and plant. As a result, the
primitive urbanism and the first residential communities were formed in the plains
bordering the banks of major rivers like Euphrates, Tigris and the Nile, as well as in the
foothills of the warm mountains (Zagros, Sin jar), and in all warm humid plains in different
parts of the world. This strong spatial interaction resulted in the fast advancement and
development of societies.
There also seems to be a spiritual dimension linking human to mud, being the main
component of his creation. This mostly contributed to the adoption of this material as a key
component in human architecture. It was the big and vital role that the mud plays in
creating compatibility and harmony between man and his environment, which resulted in
the continuity of mud architecture across different eras.
The human connection with the soil and earth and his long attachment to it, created a
strong spiritual equation, and pushed him to use mud in construction, building comfortable
and safe shelters Throughout the historical eras. He began growing a feeling of belonging to
the place and to earth; where it later translated from the concept of housing to the concept
of habitat and homeland.

Figure 1: Models on natural resources exploitation in building from different regions of the world.

Mud-building emerged from the ground when the human society was at its outset. Mud
buildings emanated from fields and oases, much like trees, with forms and forests forming.
Mud villages emerged and sprawled into towns and cities, all built with this free material
granted to mankind throughout the globe.
The development of construction extended over thousands of years, from the stone-age, in
the form of wooden shacks stuck into river and lake sides. This system was called PA
Lafitte, and its structures were connected to land by a portable wooden bridge.
In areas where rocks were available, stone structures, called Megalith were erected,
looking like huge burial sites referred to as Dolmens, in the form of obelisks, sometimes
called Menhir, or in the form of stretches of land surrounded by stone monuments, called
Cromlech. The remains of these structures can still be seen in Western Europe. The only
structural features of these stone structures are their solidness and permanence.
The structures discovered in Al-Muraibet or in Wadi Al-Nutuf in Palestine, dating to the
modern stone-age represented the beginning of the art of construction, which became
evident later on in Egyptian architecture, established since the dawn of history on
engineering foundations that took into consideration the ratios of openings and
dimensions, the standard style, in addition to solidness and permanence, rendering Egypt's
structural archaeological sites among the oldest organized construction and most solid.
This is evident in the construction of the pyramids and temples, like Amun's grand temple
in Al-Karnack and Abu Simbel, and others.
The lack of stones in Mesopotamia compelled construction to use roasted or sun-dried silt,
using rocks extracted from the northern highlands to construct the foundations.
Mesopotamia also lacks forests, and wood was not always available for construction work.
Hence, construction resorted to the discovery of mud arches and domes instead of
horizontal wooden roofs. Due to flooding, it was imperative to construct buildings in
Mesopotamia on manmade elevations, and high-rise structures, such as the Tower of
Babylon were built from bamboo and reed-reinforced silt. This way, mud structures
managed to resist the elements until this day, as seen in Ur and Babylon.
In eastern Syria, structures relied on mud as well. This can be seen clearly in Tall Al -Hariri,
where a small mud-model was found (Figure 2) explaining the shape of houses in the third
millennium BC.
In Persia, structures were built from mud and rocks. Buildings were covered with wood,
and the main hall was the outstanding architectural feature. It was square, with a roof
carried by slim columns with carved crowns in the shape of two oxen. The column's body
was carved with channels, and stood on a foundation. The whole formation resembled
Greek columns.

Figure 2: Model of a house in the third millennium BC. Middle Euphrates Basin.

Studying the history of human architecture over the ages, it is possible to emphasize that
mud-building was the prevalent form of building throughout history and in all continents. It
appeared for the first time, and its early features were developed in the civilizations of the
east, according to scientific evidence, including archaeological excavations, historical
anecdotes and scenes, and anthropological studies. It prevailed throughout the old world,
and continues to form the most widespread environmental form of building and the least
costly, as well as the easiest in the world. It forms the backbone of human heritage. In this
context, United Nations' statistics indicate that one third of the world population contin ue
to live in houses built with mud, or in which mud is a major component (bricks, for
example).
I I. Mud-Building in Arab Countries:
The Arab countries still maintain evidence of the first historical cities which were totally
built from natural earth. From this part of the world, the basic and vital idea behind the
concept of cities which are still blended, since its birth, with the mud-building technology
and art emanated. Over the ages, generations carried this skill, which developed to build
different models of buildings, including civil, religious, and military structures, modest and
luxurious alike.
Perhaps among the well-known examples in this respect is the spectacular Arab cities
built with mud, such as Shibam and Sa'dah in Yemen, Marakesh in Morocco, Adrar in
Algeria, Ghadames in Libya, and Aleppo in Syria, as well as others (Figures 3 and 4).
Perhaps some Saudi cities such as Ha'il, Najran Region, Al -Huffuf, Al-Dir'iyah, and Al-Riyadh
represent another indication of that. Until two or three decades ago, building in these
cities was mud-based.
In spite of the large development in mud-building and its steady prosperity in Arab
countries as a result of experience gained over generations in dealing with this material,
and its optimum use which responds to all cultural, social, economic, and political needs of
nations, and takes into account the environmental and climatic conditions of each region or
country. However, since the 1950s, mud-building in the Arab countries started to
disappear at various levels, as was the case in the developed world, as a natural result of
many and numerous changes the world witnessed over the past few decades in the
political, economic, social, and cultural aspects. The sweeping global revolution in the fields
of communication and transportation contributed to the rapid movement and continued
intertwining of cultures and technologies among different peoples. As is known in
sociology, the vanquished imitates and admires the victor. (Figure 5).
As was mentioned by Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah (Introduction), this led to the
adoption of numerous modern building materials and their different technologies in many
Arab countries, although they did not enjoy sufficient time or study to find out how suitable
they are for the economic and social conditions of the region's peoples, and their
effectiveness in the Arab countries' environmental conditions. The introduction of many
modern building materials and systems manufactured in the international market led to an
imbalance in the old traditional system, bringing it to an end in the construction sector.

Figure 3: Mud Buildings in the Peripheral Figure 4: Renovation of Traditional Houses

Of Aleppo in Al-Ain City in the United Arab Emirates
In this research, we shall address two models of mud-building in two different areas of
the Arab world, in addition to numerous recent experiments in various areas of the world,
comparing them and identifying negative and positive points and implementation methods,
and optimum benefits from the global experience and enriching it in order to revive this
architectural system.

Figure 5: Mud Houses in Various Arab Countries (Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, and Algeria).

Architect Hassan Fathy (Egypt) was afforded a rare opportunity when the Department
of Archaeology requested him in 1946 to build a whole village west of the city of Al -Uqsur,
to house the residents of the village of Al-Qurnah in the western mountain of the richest
region in Egyptian archaeological sites, and which contains the burial sites of Egyptian kings,
queens, and notables, as well as the treasures of ancient Egyptian civilizations. The people
of Al-Qurnah had become experts in looting, smuggling, and selling archaeological artifacts,
sometimes melting gold pieces for easy trading. Officials resorted to transferring the
population of Al-Qurnah to protect the archeological sites, and decided that the most
suitable and least expensive solution was Hassan Fathy's mud architecture. Fathy decided
to promote his ideas and architectural concepts in this project, and took his builders to Al -
Qurna, where he met with the residents, studied their needs, and convinced them to
discard their dreams of looting treasures. (Figure 6).

Figure 6: The eastern façade of Al-Qurnah village in Egypt

Soon, public buildings started to appear: the mosque, theater, market, product exhibitions,
schools, a communal livestock barn, and other facilities. Residential units also started to
appear, but obstacles started to appear as well. The architect declared that he was unable
to complete his project. Residents of the village refused to move to the new village away
from their livestock, and down to a humid location compared to their village on the
mountain. The political situation changed in 1952 and the new authorities in power were
reluctant to force them to move.
The new Al-Qurnah remained an unfinished symphony and a deserted village for over
30 years, until the population explosion forced many people to move in, though many of its
features changed. In 1983, the theater was renovated.
Architectural mistakes, unlike medical errors, are forever evident to the beholder. Al -
Qurnah remained empty for dozens of years and more of a destination for tourists and
students of architecture, packaged with trips to the archaeological sites. Hassan Fathy
ended up defending his concept in his book: Al -Qurnah: A Tale of Two Villages. (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Ceilings, Mosque Dome, Residential Facades, and the Domes System.
A quick overview shows that these architectural models in Arab countries depended to a
large extent on local materials available in local markets. Many Arab countries, however,
were abruptly transferred from a regional economy based on the exchange of benefits,
with complete economic and administrative independence, to an industrial global economy
based on an extensive distribution of public products by the multinational industrial
corporations, which put an end to helpless local craftsmen.

The Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy1 confronted this vicious attack, taking these
problems into consideration, presenting a middle path based on vernacular technology, for
which he dreamed to establish an international institute. He took practical steps in this
field and wrote a memorandum on the objectives of this institute and its educational
programs. He presented his idea to Umm Al-Qura University in Mecca, suggesting that the
main center of the institute be there, where educational and scientific means are available,
while the Cairo branch of the institute contributes to providing experts, trainers, and
artisans. He proposed the organizational structures for the two sites in Mecca and Cairo,
and used his extensive contacts to establish relations between the institute and a number
of institutes and scientific institutions in England, USA, Pakistan, and Iran. These efforts,
however, were not to succeed.
In this context, Dr. Abed Al-Baqi Ibrahim2 says: Hassan Fathy believes that developing or
poor societies have no choice but to use vernacular technologies in construction, which
depend on local materials and skills, while fulfilling all the human living requirements,
functionally and climatically, using self means, without being western technology
dependent. Thus, Hassan Fathy has his futuristic outlook, realized by very few people who
see the future of the world in the light of severe shortage in traditional energy sources.
This led to allocating a lot of funds to searching for alternative sources of energy, such as

[1 ] Architect Hassan Fathy was born in Alexandria in 1900, and died in 1989.
[2 ] Ibrahim, Abed Al-Baqi, Arab Architects: Hassan Fathy, Center for Planning and Architectural
Studies, Manshiat Al-Bakry, Heliopolis (undated).
solar energy, or the environmental compliance with the characteristics of the location and
local building materials. He sees the need for reliance on the technology that is compliant
with the structure. If we look deeper in our contemporary Arab building styles, we see that
it is western technology-compliant, because western technology is considered
contemporary. Fathy sees a great danger in this trend, since this implies reliance on the
west economically and culturally, which deprives the Arab society of its identity, and
deprives the Arab architecture of its identity by extension.
Six general principles influenced Hassan Fathy as an architect:
- His belief in the supremacy of human principles of architecture.
- The importance of the systems that can be implemented globall y.
- The use of suitable technologies.
- The need for cooperative ways in building, with social approaches.
- The main role of traditions and habits.
- Re-instilling the national heritage through building. 3
In any case, Fathy undertook a number of practical attempts since the 1940s to modernize
mud building, and participated in a number of specialized scientific research committees in
the field of rural housing. He had special interests in research and studies on local
materials, traditional construction methods, and the potential for using them at present,
after subjecting them to engineering standards and observing environmental conditions.
He was also interested in climatic research in architecture and planning, and authored a
famous book titled: "Natural Energy and Traditional Architecture." 4 However, his book
"Architecture for the Poor")5 ( was more famous and enjoyed more extensive distribution,
and represented a manual of his thoughts and theories regarding mud architecture, as well
as his experience in the village of Al-Qurnah.

Some of his ideas were implemented through Dar Al-Islam project in the north of the state
of New Mexico in the US, which was designed on top of a hill on 42 hectares overlooking
the village of Abiquiu. Fathy's master plan, which was to be implemented over 10 years,
was composed of a village for about 150 families, with a mosque, a school, a hostel, and a
clinic. Fathy visited the site in 1980 with two Nubian builders to teach local artisans
methods of constructing arches and domes from sun-dried mud bricks without the need for

[3 ] Reidan, Dana: Mud Houses. Environment and Development Magazine (Beirut), Vol. III, Issue 12
(May/June 1998) page 30.
[4 ] Fathy, H. Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture. University of Tokyo and the University of
Chicago Press. Chicago 1985
[5 ] Fathy, H. Architecture for the Poor. An Experiment in Rural Egypt. University of Chicago Press. Chicago
1973
Wooden molds. Parts of the project, including the mosque and the school, were actually
6
built. (Figure 8). Hassan Fathy was awarded a number of international architectural
awards, having written about principles and trends that appeared more than 30 years after
his time. More importantly, he implemented this in design and construction.

Figure 8: Mosque at the Dar Al-Islam project in Abiquiu, New Mexico, USA, designed by the late
architect Hassan Fathy. He appears in the picture explaining the design to some American
architects in 1981.

When prominent architects discovered that Fathy had advocated these principles and
trends before them in the 1930s and 1940s, they delved into his writings 7 . A number of
international schools were established recognizing his pioneering and leadership role. His
works were quoted by politicians and leaders as works that honor the continuity of
traditions, habits, and heritage. 8

Most international architectural magazines published about Fathy, and his name became a
household phenomenon among architects for a period of time in all countries, except in the
Arab countries where he was born, and for which he dedicated his architectural thought. In
spite of the appreciation Fathy enjoyed in international circles and the honors and awards
of appreciation he received, making him a prominent figure in the contemporary history of
Arabic architecture, his name, nevertheless, is rarely mentioned in architectural curriculum
and classrooms of Arab universities and institutes of higher education. Most Arab
architects hardly know his name, due to the very little that was written about him in Arabic.

Like other building materials, mud has its pros and cons. In many areas, it has been
completely discarded and its future use remains dubious. On the other hand, there are
those who believe that earth-architecture has a large potential in certain areas and under
specific climatic and environmental conditions. The more realistic group calls for utilizing

[6 ] Dillon, D. A mosque for Abiquiu. Progressive Architecture. James J. Hoverman Publisher. June 1983. (pp 90-
92.).
[7 ] Al-Ghafri, Ahmad. Hassan Fatfy: The Pioneering Architect and Harsh Critic. Arab Engineer
Journal (Damascus), Issue 97 (1990), page 6.
[8 ] Ra'fat, Ali. The Role of Hassan Fathy in Developing Global Architecture, Cairo, Undated.
its potentially positive features and work on developing its negative sides, since it is not fair
to compare it with modern building materials such as concrete, which enjoyed heavy
research and development, and to develop its use in rural and low-income housing under
suitable climatic conditions.

III. Conclusion & Recommendations:

A) In the Scientific and legal Axis:

1. The need to coordinate rather than duplicate efforts by benefiting from existing research and
application centers which give great importance to this material. It is possible, in this context, to
benefit from the internet.
2. Assessment of the practical field experiments where mud was used in a modern way in building,
for the purpose of deriving lessons and avoiding defects.
3. Exert efforts towards developing the durability of mud, and to search for effective and economic
methods for surface protection to resist the effects of water and sand-saturated wind.
4. Benefit from the available information at present in addressing the healthy elements in mud
buildings and study their effects.

5. Study the relations between mud and other building materials, including wood, water insulation
materials, tiles, whitening materials, paints, and others, whereby connection points represent an
area that requires research and study in order to guara ntee good and integrated performance of
mud buildings.
6. Take into consideration the requirements of necessary engineering systems, including electro -
mechanical fittings, and study means of installing and maintaining them in mud -buildings in a
manner that guarantees preserving these buildings and extending its virtual life.
7. Financing specialized studies in developing this material by official parties and the private sector
in order to encourage researchers to highlight some of the mud's characteristics in an accurate
scientific manner, such as resistance to fire and sound insulation, and addressing some of the
negative aspects, such as poor resistance to earthquakes and others which vary from one
country to another.
8. Official encouragement and protection of modern mud-building methods which proved their
merit, quality, and suitability for the environment on one hand and the requirements of users on
the other, adopting them in appropriate government projects.
9. Serious work in developing standards for mud-building, and serious efforts to spread them by all
means, as well as convincing decision-makers of the need to include them in standards and
specifications documents of all countries.
B) Related to the Publicity Cultural Axis:
1. Promote awareness among people in general of the numerous characteristics of this material,
spreading information about it and holding exhibits, lectures, seminars, and discussions, as well
as other methods which contribute to the acceptance by people of the use of this material in
building and encouraging its use.
2. Highlight modern architectural projects built with mud in advanced countries in order to
alleviate misconceptions in the minds of many people in developing countries, such as
connecting this material with poverty, sickness, and underdevelopment.
3. Good design of mud buildings, which benefits from the capabilities of this material and senses
the environmental and climatic limitations surrounding it, and the proper implementation in
order to produce buildings which represent a tangible model that can be publicized through
available media outlets, in order to convince the skeptics and undecided.
4. Include mud-construction courses in engineering and architecture faculties in Arab universities
to provide students with some technical information about this material and its characteristics,
and some simple and possible methods for developing it.
5. Attend to renovating mud-structures that have an architectural value according to the original
materials used in them, benefiting from previous renovation work of similar buildings, in order
to avoid mistakes and preserve the independent architectural identity of each region.
C) Related to the Economic and Environmental Axis:
1. Highlight the economic aspects of mud-building at all levels thorough specialized studies,
including the initial cost of construction, operating costs including energy consumption,
maintenance, and others, comparing these with structures constructed using other materials, in
addition to other methods that contribute to adopting this material as a solution to the housing
problem from which many developing countries suffer.
2. Focus on the environmental dimension of mud-building, especially industrial countries,
highlighting the environmental sides of this material, whether r egarding matters of production and
the use of suitable technology which reduces pollution, or regarding non -hazardous or
environmentally detrimental waste resulting from using this material in building, and taking the
necessary means to highlight this side.
3. Mud is considered among the oldest materials used and developed by man through a
number of different building technologies, according to information available and in compatibility
with the surrounding environmental conditions. This material is charac terized by many features,
though it also has a few defects, which requires a comprehensive scientific and impartial study, far
from emotions and skepticism, in order to develop it through recommendations provided by this and
other studies.
The opportunity is currently considered favorable to draw attention to this material in many Arab
countries in which many architects and engineers realized, before others, that through the
haphazard use of modern technology, they have lost a large part of their connection to their culture
and environment, and henceforth their identity which distinguishes them from others. This made
these designers long for the past and try to recapture it through often some unstudied and
improvised attempts of reverting to the use of mud. Such attempts may prove detrimental though
meant to improve.
Nevertheless, these attempts require rationalization in order to attend to the core of the issue rather
than its face value, particularly in the Arab region which lacks the ability to keep pace with
developments in this material, especially that most of what was written on it is in English and French.
From the above, we can identify the characteristics of mud-building according to the following:
Using mud in building once again allows the achievement of the following positive sides:
1. Being a natural material available in most areas, mud made people rely on its use through
simple technologies, knowing fully well the physical benefits of their habitat. Mud structures are
healthy in that they are cool in summer and warm in winter.
2. The need to search for natural materials increases every day, at a time when we notice how
expensive new manufactured materials are. Mud is cheap as an alternative construction material.
3. Mud is among the best materials environmentally. It does not pollute the environment in
processing, implementation, or renovation, or in case or demolishing the structure or rebuilding it,
or even in cases of discarding it and leaving it to disintegrate.
4. Mud retains heat, cool ness, and humidity, which contributes to improving the climate. It is
possible, through the addition of cohesive materials in studied ratios, to achieve the necessary
durability and insulation in building.
5. Mud saves the energy necessary in processing. It requires 1% only of the energy needed for
concrete which, when produced, requires oxygen and energy and produces hazardous materials.
6. It was noticed through experience that opaque external thick walls achieve the highest
levels of delay in heat conductivity, and that 40 centimeters thick mud walls delay heat by 15 hours.
In return, we see that cement block walls which are 20 centimeters thick delay heat by only 5 hours
and 6 minutes only.
7. Compacted mud with no fibrous materials has a specific wei ght of 1800 kilograms (keg’s)
per cubic meter. By adding 40 kegs of straw to each cubic meters, its specific weight becomes 1400
kg/m3, and by adding 60 kegs’ of straw, it becomes 1000 kg/m3, and by adding 80 keg’s of straw, it
becomes 600 kg/m3 only. For comparison purposes, the specific weight of concrete 33 is 2500
kg/m3.
8. The stress tolerance of a wind-dried mud unit which includes 24% fine clay, 34% soil
molecules, and 33% sand, is 35 kg/cm3.
9. From experience in the countryside of Damascus and from comparing a mud building with a
concrete one, an economic saving of 36% over the concrete building was achieved.
10. This cheap and readily available material is capable of providing a direct and rapid result.
11. This type of construction can be a liberator from the confines of centralization, bureaucracy,
and monopoly.
12. Adopting the mud construction system rebuilds the close relationship between man and
building, represented in volumes, shapes, and heritage emanating from man and his human
dimension which is mostly ignored by followers of what is called the global style.

Level of Significance for Countries

Arab and Developing Western and Industrial
Countries Countries
Main Features of Earth-Building
Significant
High
e
Significanc
Medium
e
Significanc
Low

Significant
Very
e
Significanc
Medium

Low cost and availability of Mud
Reduce pollution and
environmental depletion
Ease of construction using mud
Reduce unemployment among
unskilled labor
Numerous ways of mud
construction
Saving in transportation
Saving in energy consumption
Engineering characteristics of mud
Ease of recycling mud products
e
Significanc
Low
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Table No. 1
Main Characteristics of Building with Mud, and the Relative Importance for Arab and Developing
Countries on One Side, and Western and Industrialized Countries on the Other
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