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    Flexural Analysis and Design of Beams BENDING OF HOMOGENEOUS BEAMS Reinforced concrete beams are nonhomogeneous in that they afe made of two entirely different materials. The methods used in the analysis of reinforced concrete beams are therefore different from those used in the design or investigation of beams composed entirely of steel, wood, or any other structural material. The fundamental principles involved are, however, essentially the same. Briefly, these principles are as follows. 1. A cross section that was plane before loading remains plane under load. This means that the unit strains in a beam above and below the neutral axis are proportional to the distance from that axis. Elastic and inelastic stress. es et distributions in homogeneous ra = beams. ft é ( 1 % » 4 « «b) €max> Sp Irnax™ by 2 6 ta wo 2. The bending stress f at any point depends on the strain at that point in a manner given by the: stress-strain diagram of the material, If the beam is made of a homogeneous material whose stress-strain diagram in tension and compression is that of Fig. 3.1a, the following holds. If the maximum strain at the outer fibers is smaller than the strain €, up to which stress and strain are proportional for the given material, then the compression and tension stresses on either side of the axis are proportional to the distance from the axis, as shown in Fig. 3.1b. However, if the maximum strain at the outer fibers is larger than €,» this is no longer true. The situation that then occurs is shown in Fig. 3.1c; i.e., ‘in the outer portions of the beam, where € > ¢,, stresses and strains are no longer propor- tional. In these regions, the magni tude of stress at any level, such asf, in Fig. 3.1¢, depends on the strain €, at that level in the manner given by the stress-strain dia- gram of the material, In other words, for a given strain in the beam, the stress. at @ point is the same as that given by the stress-strain diagram for the same strain. 3. The distribution of the shear stresses » over the depth of the section depends on the shape of the cross section and of the stress-strain diagram. These shear stresses are largest at the neutral axis and equal to zero at the outer fibers. The shear stresses on horizontal and vertical planes through any point are equal. 4. Owing to the combined action of shear stresses (horizontal and vertical) and flex- ure stresses, at any point in a beam there are inclined stresses of tension and com- pression, the largest of which form an angle of 90° with each other. The intensity of the inclined maximum or principal stress at any point is given by isfe Caw GB.) where f= intensity of normal fiber stress v = intensity of tangential shearing stress The inclined stress makes an angle « with the horizontal such that tan 2a = 2»/f. 5. Since the horizontal and vertical shearing stresses are equal and the flexural Stresses are zero at the neutral plane, the inclined tensile and compressive stresses at any point in that plane form an angle of 45° with the horizontal, the intensity of each being equal to the unit shear at the point. 6. When the stresses in the outer fibers are smaller than the proportional limit f,, the beam behaves elastically, as shown in Fig. 3.1b. In this case the following pertains: (a) The neutral axis passes through the center of gravity of the cross section. (b) The intensity of the bending stress normal to the section increases directly with the distance from the neutral axis and is a maximum at the extreme fibers. The stress at any given point in the cross section is represented by the equation f-= (3.2) where / = bending stress at a distance y from neutral axis M = external bending moment at section 7 = moment of inertia of cross section about neutral axis The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer fibers and is equal to Me _M == 3. 1s (3.3) distance from neutral axis to outer fiber = I/c = section modulus of cross section Serax. = where ¢ (©) The shear stress (horizontal equals vertical) v at any point in the cross section is given by = va lb (3.4) where V = total shear at section Q = statical moment about neutral axis of that portion of cross section lying between a line through point in question parallel to neutral axis and near est face (upper or lower) of beam 4 = moment of inertia of cross section about neutral axis = width of beam at a given point (d) The intensity of shear along a vertical cross section in a rectangular beam varies as the ordinates of a parabola, the intensity being zero at the outer fibers of the beam and a maximum at the neutral axis, For a total depth /, the maximum is 3V/bh, since at the neutral axis Q = bh?/8 and I = bh} /12 in Eq. (3.4). REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM BEHAVIOR Plain concrete beams are inefficient as flexural members because the tensile strength in bending (modulus of rupture, see Section 2.9) is a small fraction of the compressive strength. As a consequence, such beams fail on the tension side at low loads long before the strength of the concrete on the compression side has been fully utilized. For this reason, steel reinforcing bars are placed on the tension side as close to the extreme tension fiber as is compatible with proper fire and corrosion protection of the steel, In such a reinforced concrete beam, the tension caused by the bending moments is chiefly resisted by the steel reinforcement, while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two materials is ensured if relative slip is prevented. This is achieved by using deformed bars with their high bond strength at the steel-concrete interface (see Section 2.14) and, if necessary, by special anchorage of the ends of the bars. A simple example of such a beam, with the customary designations for the cross-sectional dimensions, is shown in Fig. 3.2. For simplicity, the discussion that follows will deal with beams of rec- tangular cross section, even though members of other shapes are very common in most concrete structures, 5 (2) & a. Stresses Elastic and Section Uncracked FIGURE 3.3 ‘Uncracked transformed beam section, (@) As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than the modulus of rupture, so that no tension cracks develop, the strain and stress distribution as shown in Fig. 3.2¢ is essentially the same as in an elastic, homogeneous beam (Fig. 3.16). The only difference is the presence of another material, the steel reinforcement. As shown in Section 1.9a, in the elastic range, for any given value of strain, the stress inthe steel is m times that of the concrete [Eq. (1.6)]. In the same section, it was shown that one can take account of this fact in calculations by replacing the actual steel-and-concrete. cross section with a fictitious section thought of as consisting of concrete only. In this “transformed section,” the actual area of the reinforcement is replaced with an equiv- alent concrete area equal to nA, located at the level of the steel. The transformed, uncracked section pertaining to the beam of Fig. 3.25 is shown in Fig. 3.3. Once the transformed section has been obtained, the usual methods of analysis of elastic homogeneous beams apply. That is, the section properties (location of neu- tal axis, moment of inertia, section modulus, etc.) are calculated in the usual manner, and, in particular, stresses are computed with Eqs. (3.2) to (3.4). M; fa 62) Mc _M fo = = (3.3) =e lb G4) 8.5.1 — Modulus of elasticity, E,, for concrete shall be permitted to be taken as w,'°0.043,/fz (in Ma) for | values of We between 1440 and 2560 kg/m®. For normalweight concrete, E, shall be permitted to be t= 0.624 jf taken as 4700 /f¢ . 8.5.2 — Modulus of elasticity, E,, for nonprestressed reinforcement shall be permitted to be taken as 200,000 MPa. f, = modulus of rupture of conerete, MPa, Example 3.1 — UNCRACKED SECTION ‘A rectangular beam has the dimensions shawn. f'c=27.6 Mpa, fy=414 Mpa and modulus of rupture=3.50 Mpa. Determine the stresses caused by a moment M=61 KN-m. po2somm=4 625 575 mm. mm. [ OO F835 mm, Solution : E, = 4700 sqrt(fi.) = Es =200,000 Mpa. n=Ee/Ee= (dy Ae = 10311 a= 166561 ‘| t 24691.8 Mpa. 328.75 mm. twa 5752772160 mm’. The concrete compression stress at the top fibers : My 3.49 Mpa. p= The concrete tension stress at the bottom fiber: ta® 3.14 Mpa. below the tensile bending strength of concrete, no tension creck will form The stress in the steel is: My a. n= nt 20.89 Mp: By comparing f, and f, with the concrete cylinder strength and the yield point, respectively, it is seen that at this stage the actual stresses are quite small compared with the available strengths of the two materials. b, Stresses Elastic and Section Cracked When the tensile stress f-, exceeds the modulus of rupture, cracks form, as shown in Fig. 3.2d. If the concrete compressive stress is less than approximately 4 /! and the steel stress has not reached the yield point, both materials continue to behave elasti- cally, or very nearly so. This situation generally occurs in structures under normal service conditions and loads, since at these loads the stresses are generally of the order of magnitude just discussed. At this stage, for simplicity and with little if any error, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way to the neutral axis and that sections plane before bending are plane in the deformed member. The situation with regard to strain and stress distribution is that shown in Fig. 3.22, f To compute stresses, and strains if desired, the device of the transformed section can still be used. One need only take account of the fact that all of the concrete that is stressed in tension is assumed cracked, and therefore effectively absent. As shown in Fig. 3.5a, the transformed section then consists of the concrete in compression on. one side of the axis and n times the steel area on the other. The distance to the neutral axis, in this stage, is conventionally expressed as a fraction kd of the effective depth d. (Once the concrete is cracked, any material located below the steel is ineffective, which is why d is the effective depth of the beam.) To determine the location of the neutral axis, the moment of the tension area about the axis is set equal to the moment 4g cof the compression area, which gives 3 (kd)? ia — Ae 0 — malate) = 0 ke 78 fila, | | C=Fbkd and T= ALS, | fama M= Tid = A,fid CE ater M catapameenipanall ( = ql head a fa b) m= cid = bkdja = © iba? 2 2 A, k Tare So Ting k= V (pn)? + 2pn — pn “3 Example 3.2- CRACKED SECTION A rectangular beam has the dimensions shown. f'c=27.6 Mpa, fy=414 Mpa and modulus of rupture=3.50 Mpa. Determine the stresses caused by a moment =| 125 KN-m. f—250 mm} i q 625 575 mm. mm, [ OO F835 mm, Solution : E, = 4700 sqrt(fi.) = Es =200,000 Mpa. n=Es/Ee= (DA = 10311 A= 166561 ‘| t 625mm 24691.8 Mpa. 328.75 mm. Naa S752772160 rom’ Wlsee cativeantie detrbnpoilines beta ait Chase Reape Flo ne 7.44 Mee. fs 7 Qana-Qana ka 190.41 mm. ke 0.3311478 = ossoe174 165.9 Mpa. = 10.27 Mpa. Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown; n=10. and M=160 kN-m. TI ce 4 = —_- }— »—4 (2) Actual section (0) Transformed section 25800 mm? 24510 mm* SOLUTION Locating Nuetral Axis ‘Qana = 175 x42+ 24510 ( x- 65) ‘Qaya = 25800 ( 435 -X) Qua = Qu, x= 162.68 mm. Moment of inertia t= 265EH9mm* —_ tx? 4 (2n= 1), * (xe)? nA, * (hcg x)? = 350.00" 162.68" = +24510 * (162.68-65.00)"+25800 * (500.00-65.00-162.68)" Bending Stresses = 9.82 Mpa. ~ M*1000"*x ax 160,00* 1000" * 167.68 2.65609 — 117.98 Mpa. « M* 10007 * [x-c] =2*n 160.00 * 10007 * [162.68-65.00] 2.656+09 =2*10* t= 164.45 Mpa. M* 1000" * [h-<,- x] = 19+ 180.00 * 1000* * [500.00-65.00-162.68] 2.656409 {a) If the T-beam shown is uncracked, calculate the stress in the concrete at the top and battom extreme fibers under a positive bending moment of 108.5 KN-m. (b) If c= 20.7 Mpa and normal-weight concrete is used, what is the maximum uniformly distributed load the| beam can carry if it is used as a simple beam with 7.32 -m span without exceeding the modulus of rupture of the concrete? (c) Repeat part (b) if the beam is inverted. M=108.5kN-m, — ( bohf) =685 mm, bow=300mm. mpute the bending stresses in the beam shown by using the transformed-area method: n=8 and M=150 kN-m. a=150 mm. 6 =450 mm. e=150mm. g=150mm. co=75 mm. h=650mm. 7575 mm. ‘As =3500 mm? Ultimate or Nominal Flexural Moments I or theoretical moment strength of a beam, the simple steps to follow are illustrated in Figure 2.11 and Example 2.8. 1, Compute total tensile force T = A, f, 2, Equate total compression force C = O.85fab to A,f, and solve for a. In this expression, ab is the assumed area stressed in compression at 0.85f;. The compression force C and the tensile force T must be equal to maintain equilibrium at the section, 3. Calculate the distance between the centers of gravity of T and C (For a re cross section, it equals d —a/2.) 4. Determine M,, which equals T or C times the distance between their centers of gravity. | mpeg I pene] sons a gular beam O85: — (@) Beam (b) Actual compression (c) Assumed compression stress variation sliess variation FIGURE 2.11 Compression and tension couple at nominal moment. c. Flexural Strength C= atbe z=d-Be Lo. FIGURE 3.6 Stress distribution at ultimate load. Determine the nominal moment strength of the beam shown in Figure 2.15 if f, = 28 MPa and f, = 420 MPa. SOLUTION = Ash, = 0.85f.ab Ady (1530. mm?}(420 MPa) TBSeD ~ 10.85) 28 MPa) GOOmm) Om (A, = 1530 mm? from Appendix B, Table B.4) My=1(a-2)= c(a-2)= Aty(a-2) 90 mm 7) = (1530 mm?) (420 MPa) (290 mm — = 2.474 x 10° Nemm 7A (Calculate the nominal or theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown, if fy = 414 mPa, and fc = 20.7 mPa. The 150 mm ledges on top are needed for the support of the precast concrete slabs. sss tice fie b1=150mm 4 b2=150mm Ww b=450 mm T => hi = 150mm » ) h2=375mm As co=75mm oot? [Te h=600 mm J— » —| Ay: 4 pes. 28 mm rebars Fc = 20.7 mPa, fy =414 mPa. SOLUTION T= 1020.1 KN =A,*f,/ 1000 = 2464 * 414 / 1000 C = (0.85f,) (area of concrete A, stressed to 0.85f.) = 0.8564, Equating T and C and Solving for A, ca. of ‘sompeession Equating T and € and Solving for A, r A= ear, = 5797647 mm? eg. of compression ana, a= 22884mm A, -b, hh + bh, b = 57976.5-150 * 150+450 * 150. aso Yoor= 145,01 mm —| AYpa= 379.99mM = h= c= Your = 600-75-145.01 M,= 387.62 kN-m. = 1020.1 * 379.99 / 1000 Strength Analysis of Beams According to ACI Code 3.1 Design Methods From the early 1900s until the early 1960s, nearly all reinforced concrete design in the United States was performed by the working-stress design method (also called allowable-stress design or straight-line design). In this method, frequently referred to as WSD, the dead and live loads to be supported, called working loads or service loads. were first estimated. Then the members of the structure were proportioned so that stresses caleulated by a transformed area did not exceed certain permissible or allowable values. After 1963, the uliimate-strength design method rapidly gained popularity because (1) it makes use of a more rational approach than does WSD, (2) it uses a more realistic consideration of safety, and (3) it provides more economical designs. With this method (now called strength design), the working dead and live loads are multiplied by certain load factors (equivalent to safety factors), and the resulting values are called factored loads. The members are then selected so they will theoretically just fail under the factored loads Even though almost all of the reinforced concrete structures the re: will be designed by the strength design method, it is still useful to be fam several reasons: ler will encounter iw with WSD for 1, Some designers use WSD for proportioning fluid-containing structures (such as water tanks and various sanitary structures). When these structures are designed by WSD, stresses are kept at fairly low levels, with the result that there is appreciably less cracking and less consequent leakage. (If the designer uses sirength design and makes use of proper crack control methods. as described in Chapter 6. there should be few leakage problems.) 2. The ACI method for calculating the moments of inertia to be used for deflection caleu- lations reqttires some knowledge of the working-stress procedure. 3. The design of prestressed concrete members is based not only on the strength method but also on clastic stress calculations at service load conditions. ‘The reader should realize that working-stress design has several disadvantages. When using the method, the designer has little knowledge about the magnitudes of safety factors against collapse: no consideration is given to the fact thal different safety factors are desirable for dead and live loads; the method does not account for variations in resistances and loads, nor does it account for the possibility that as loads are increased, some increase: at different rates than others, In 1956, the ACI Code for the first time included ultimate-strength design, as an appendi: although the concrete codes of several other countries had been based on such considera- tions for several decades. In 1963, the code gave ultimate-strength design equal status with working-stress design: the 197] code made the method the predominant method and only briefly mentioned the working-stress method, From 1971 until 1999, each issue of the code permit- ted designers to use working-stress design and set out certain provisions for its application. Beginning with the 2002 code, however, permission is not included for using the method. ‘Today's design method was called ultimate-strength design for several decades, bul, as mentioned, the code now uses the term strength design. The strength for a particular reinforced concrete member is a value given by the code and is not necessarily the true ultimate strength of the member. Therefore, the more general term strength design is used whether beam strength, column strength, shear strength, or others are being considered. 3.2 Advantages of Strength Design Among the several advantages of the strength design method as compared to the no-longer- permitted working-stress design method are the following: 1. The derivation of the strength design expressions takes into account the nonlinear shape of the stress-strain diagram. When the resulting equations are applied, decidedly better estimates of load-carrying ability are obtained. 2. With strength design, a more consistent theory is used throughout the designs of rein- forced concrete structures. For instance, with working-stress design the transformed-area or straight-line method was used for beam design, and a strength design procedure was used for columns, 3. A more realistic factor of safely is used in strength design, The designer can certainly estimate the magnitudes of the dead loads that a structure will have to support more accurately than he or she can estimate the live and environmental loads. With working- stiess design, the same safety factor was used for dead, live. and environmental loads This is not the case for strength design. For this reason, use of different loud or safety factors in strength design for the different types of loads is a definite improvement. 4. A structure designed by the strength method will have a more uniform safety factor against collapse throughout. The strength method takes considerable advantage of higher- strength steels, whereas working-stress design did so only partly. The result is better economy for strength design. 5. The strength method permits more flexible designs than did the working-stress method. For instance. the percentage of steel may be varied quite a bit. As a result, large sections may be used with small percentages of steel, or small sections may be used with large percentages of steel. Such variations were not the case in the relatively fixed working- stress method, If the same amount of steel is used in strength design for a parti beam as would have been used with WSD, a smaller section will result. If the same size section is used as required by WSD, a smaller amount of steel will be required, DESIGN OF TENSION-REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS M, = 6M, Py S OP, V, 5 oY, a. Equivalent Rectangular Stress Distribution re Be C= yiab T= Asfy Equivalent 7.7 — Concrete protection for reinforcement 7.7.1 — Cast-in-place concrete (nonpresiressed) Unless a greater concrete cover is required by 7.7.6 or 7.7.8, specified cover for reinforcement shall not be {ess than the following: | Concrete cover, men (a) Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth . () Concrete exposed to earth or weather: ‘No. 19 through No. 57 bars No. 16 bar, MW200 or MD200 wire, and smaller. (c} Concrete not exposed to weather ‘or in contact with ground: Siabs, walls, joists: No. 43 and No. &7 bars No. 36 bar and smaler.. Beams, colurins: Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals. Shells, folded plate members: ‘No. 18 bar and larger ‘No. 16 bar, MW200 or MO200 R7.7 — Concrete protection for reinforcement Concrete cover as protection of reinforcement against weather and other effects is measured from the concrete surface to the outermost surface of the steel to which the ‘cover requirement applies. Where concrete cover is prescribed for a class of structural members, it is measured to the outer edge of stirrups, ties, or spirals if transverse reinforcement encloses main bars: to the outermost layer of bars if more than one layer is used without stimnips oF ties; or to the metal end fitting or duct on post-tensioned prestressing stcel; or to the nutermost part of the bead on headed bars. ‘The condition “concrete surfaces exposed to earth of weather” refers to ditect exposure to moisture changes and not just to temperature changes. Slab or thin shell saffits are not usually considered directly exposed unless subject to alternate wetting and drying, including that due to condon- sation conditions or direct leakage from exposed top surface, run off, or similar effects 7.7.4 — Bundled bars | For bundled bars, minimum specified concrete cover ‘shail not be less than the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater than 50 mm; except for conerete cast against and permanently exposed to | earth, where specified concrete cover shall not be less ‘than 75 mm. R7.7.6 — Corrosive environments: Where conerete will be exposed to external sources of chlorides in service, such as deicing salts, brackish water, seawater, or spray from these sources, concrete should be proportioned to satisfy the requirements for the applicable ‘exposure class in Chapter 4. These include minimum air content, maximum w/e, minimum strength for normal weight and lightweight concrete, maximum chloride ion in ‘concrete, and cement type. Additionally. for corrosion ion, a specified concrete cover for reinforcement not less than 50 mm for walls and slabs and not less than 65 mm for other members is tecommended. For precast concrete members manufactured under plant control conditions, a specified concrete cover not less than 40 mm for walls and slabs and not less than SO mm for other members is recommended. For reasons that were explained in Chapter |, the present design of reinforced concrete structures is based on the concept of providing sufficient strength to resist hypotheti- cal overloads. The nominal strength of a proposed member is calculated based on the best current knowledge of member and material behavior. That nominal strength is modified by a strength reduction factor &, less than unity, to obtain the design strength. The required strength, should the hypothetical overload stage actually be realized, is found by applying /oad factors y, greater than unity, to the loads actually expected, These expected service loads include the calculated dead load, the calcu- lated or legally specified live load, and environmental loads such as those due to wind, seismic action, or temperature. Thus reinforced concrete members are proportioned so that, as shown in Eq. (1.5), M, = $M, Py = OP, VY, = OV, where the subscripts n denote the nominal strengths in flexure, thrust, and shear, respec- tively, and the subscripts u denote the factored load moment, thrust, and shear. The strength reduction factors @ normally differ, depending upon the type of strength to be calculated, the importance of the member in the structure, and other considerations ‘Actual Equivalent (a) (6) C= aficb = yftab — fromwhich y= a= Concrete stress block parameters fe psi =4000 5000 6000 7000 28000 @ 0.72 0.68 0.64 0,60 0.56 B 0.425 0.400 0.375 0.350 0.325 B= 28 085 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 y= a/B 0.85 0.85 8s 0.86 0.86 a=B¢, y= a/B,. C = 0.85f!ab 0.65 = B, = 0.85 10.2.7.1 — Concrete stress of 0.857; shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a = fy¢ from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. 10.2.7.2 — Distance from the fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis, c, shall be measured in a direction perpendicular to the neutral axis. 10.2.7.3 — For fg between 17 and 28 MPa, fy shall be taken as 0.85. For fZ above 28 MPa, fy shall be reduced linearly at a rate of 0.05 for each 7 MPa of strength in excess of 28 MPa, but #1 shall not be taken less than 0.65. 10.3.1 — Design of cross sections subject to flexure or axial loads, or to combined flexure and axial loads, shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using assumptions in 10.2. As @—e— e+ Balanced Strain Condition 10.3.2 — Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross c= section when tension reinforcement reaches the strain corresponding to fy just as concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003. c=r Prof, bd = 0.85 flab = 0.858, fibe _ fe % Pe = O85BI ee Underreinforced Beams A compression failure in flexure, should it occur, gives little if any warning of distress, while a tension failure, initiated by yielding of the steel, typically is gradual. Distress is obvious from observing the large deflections and widening of concrete cracks asso- ciated with yielding of the steel reinforcement, and measures can be taken to avoid total collapse. In addition, most beams for which failure initiates by yielding possess substantial strength based on strain-hardening of the reinforcing steel, which is not accounted for in the calculations of M,. Because of these differences in behavior, it is prudent to require that beams be designed such that failure, if it occurs, will be by yielding of the steel, not by crushing of the concrete. This can be done, theoretically, by requiring that the reinforcement ratio p be less than the balance ratio p, given by Eq. (3.28). In actual practice, the upper limit on p should be below p, for the following reasons: (1) for a beam with p exactly equal to p,, the compressive strain limit of the concrete would be reached, theoretically, at precisely the same moment that the steel reaches its yield stress, without significant yielding before failure; (2) material prop- erties are never known precisely; (3) strain-hardening of the reinforcing steel, not accounted for in design, may lead to a brittle concrete compression failure even though pmay be somewhat less than p,; (4) the actual steel area provided, considering standard reinforcing bar sizes, will always be equal to or larger than required, based on selected reinforcement ratio p, tending toward overreinforcement; and (3) the extra ductility provided by beams with lower values of p increases the deflection capability substantially and thus provides warning prior to failure. ACI Code Provisions for Underreinforced Beams Using €, = 0.004 in Eq. (3.30b) provides the maximum reinforcement ratio allowed by the ACI Code for beams = 0858, —Z# = ft Po = 0.858 Ete Prax 0.858175 ©, + 0.004 (3.30e) 10.3.4 — Sections are tension-controlled if the net tensile strain in the extreme tension steel, ¢, is equal tO or greater than 0.005 when the concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003. Sections with «, between the compression-controlled strain limit and 0.005 constitute a transition region between compression-controlled and tension-controlled ‘sections. Po.oos = 0.858, ¢ $= 0,75 + (e,-0,002)(50) 0.65 Compression controlled: €,= 0.002 0.005 c c —= 0.600 —=0.375 a Interpolation on e/d,: Spiral @ = 0.75 + 0.15[(1/e/d,) - (5/3) Other ¢ = 0.65 + 0.25{(1/e/d,) -(5/3)] Fig. R9.3.2—Variation of $ with net tensile strain in extreme tension steel, &, and c/d, for Grade 420 reinforcement and Sor prestressing steel. FIGURE 3.10 & = 0.003 Net tensile strain and c/d, ratios. €, = 0.005, 9.003 __. + 0.005 0.375 @ ® Tension-controlled Minimum net tensile Compression-controlled member strain for flexural member member 10.3.5 — For nonprestressed flexural members and nonprestressed members with factored axial compres- sive load less than 0.10%; Ag, q at nominal strength shall not be less than 0.004. O.85f, F, = ff, at failure, reo pees ri we 7 7 ne o* UBSb J ik. FI A, = pbd, L _ oa epee ae o* 085f ne! a =darld- 4) m,=As(4-$) $M, = bA5( 4-5 phy M, = ofpe( 1 — 0.59 #) OM, = dot pa'( = 0.59 #) M, = Rbd? OM, = ¢Rbd? oy r= a1 - 059%) 10.5 — Minimum reinforcement of flexural members 10.5.1 — At every section of a flexural member where tensile reinforcement is required by analysis, except as, provided in 10.52, 10.5.9, and 10.5.4, Ag provided shall not be less than that given by 0.25 7 Aa min putt (10-3) and not lees than 1.4 Dydiffy. TABLE 9.5(a) — MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NONPRESTRESSED BEAMS OR ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE CALCULATED 8.5.1 — Modulus of elasticity, E,, for concrete shall be permitted to be taken as w,'-50.043,/f2 (in MPa) for values of We between 1440 and 2560 kg/m®. For normalweight concrete, E, shall be permitted to be taken as 4700,/f2 . 8.5.2 — Modulus of elasticity, E,, for nonprestressed reinforcement shall be permitted to be taken as 200,000 MPa. Because the reinforcing steel is limited to an amount such that it will yield well before the conerete reaches its ultimate strength, the value of the nominal moment, M,, can be written as a a M, =1 (d-$) =Ay, (4-5) and the usable flexural strength is a oM, = OA,f, (a = If we substitute into this expression the value previously obtained for a (it was pf,d/0.85f)), replace A, with phd, and equate #M,, to M,, we obtain the following expression: fy @M, =M, = bd"f,p (: - ot) (Eq. 3-2) (Eq, 3-1) Because the reinforcing steel is limited to an amount such that it will yield well before the concrete reaches its ultimate strength, the value of the nominal moment, M,, can be written as @ M, =T(¢-5) =A, (4-5) and the usable flexural strength is OM, = OAS, (d= 5) (Eq. 3-1) If we substitute into this expression the value previously obtained for a (it was pf,d/O.85f), replace A, with pbd, and equate @M, to M,. we obtain the following expression: oM, =M;, = ¢bPhp (: = a (Eq. 3-2) Replacing A, with phd and letting R, = M,/bd?, we can solve this expression for p (the percentage of steel required for a particular beam) with the following results: 8.6 — Lightweight concrete 8.6.1 — To account for the use of lightweight concrete, unless specifically noted otherwise, a modification factor 4 appears as a multiplier of ,/f; in all applicable equations and sections of this Code, where 2 = 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete and 0.75 for all-light- weight concrete. Linear interpolation between 0.75 and 0.85 shall be permitted, on the basis of volumetric fractions, when a portion of the lightweight fine aggregate is replaced with normalweight fine aggregate. Linear interpolation between 0.85 and 1.0 shall be permitted, on the basis of volumetric fractions, for concrete containing normalweight fine aggregate and a blend of lightweight and normalweight coarse aggregates. For normalweight concrete, 2 = 1.0. If average splitting tensile strength of lightweight concrete, fer, is specified, 2 = fep/(0.56 ,/FZ ) < 1.0. Calculate the nominal or theoretical ultimate moment strength of the beam section shown, if fy = 414 mPa. and f'c = 20.7 mPa. The 150 mm ledges an top are needed for the support of the precast concrete slabs. b1=150mm, b2= 150mm. he b=450 mm h1=150mm h h2= 375mm co= 75mm, h=600mm 2 Ac: 4 pes, 28mm rebars — b = fe=20.7 mPa. = 41a mPa, SOLUTION T= 1020.1 KN =a," f,/1000 = 2468" 414 / 1000 C = (0.85/;)(area of conorete A. stressed to 0.85/,) = 085A, Equating T and C and Solving for A, T A: Fase = 57,976.47 mm? [Determine the ACI moment capacity, of the beam shown if fe=20.7 Mpa and fy=414 Mpa. fc = 20.7 mPa. fy=414 mPa. b=375 mm / | BN sows d= 600mm ft | L co=75 mm 4.pcs.28 mm dia. Rebars PIQUE 34° Neutral anistocalion for Bxample 32 0.01095 A, bed 2064 * 375.00 * 600.00 nor Pain® 0.00275 _ 0.25 * ViFa f, Pmox™ 0.01548 = 0.85" B, * (f/f) * (e,/ Tee el) = 0.85 * 0.85 * (20.70 /.414.00) * (0.003 / (0.003+0.004)) * 0.85 * 20,70 375.00 c= 181.89 mm 154.60 0.85 [Drawing Strain Diagram &= 0.00690 _ FE (6 o93) 600.00-181.89 = BOOMS + (0.003) Tas (0.003) TENS! ONTROLS Therefore, 0.90 M,= 533.20kN-m = =A, *f, * (d-a/2)/ 1000" = 2464 * 414.00 * (600.00-154.60 / 2) / 10007 ©M,= 479.88 kN-m =o*M, = 0.90 * 533.20 Determine the ACI moment capacity, of the beam shawn if Fc = 20.7 Mpa and fy = 414 Mpa. [ b= 300 mm oh d=375mm 4 ull co=75mm eid fie h=450 mm / b _| As=pcs.3 36 mm rebars SOLUTION Checking Stee! Percentage p= 0.02717 A bd —— 300.00 * 375.00 Prin = 0.00338 , 14 ‘nor Pmin= 0.00275 _ 0.25.* Vif] § ——— = 414.00 Use, Ppin= 0.00338 OK,

    SOséD= 300mm. Ty d=425mm & co=75mm oe: te. esp min ‘As = 3 pes. 28 mm dia. rebars As = 1848 mm? SOLUTION Checking Stee! Percentage p= 0.01449 _ A, bra . 1848 300.00 * 425.00 Pon = 0.00333 nor Pmin= 0.00273 _ 0.25* VIFd 4 = 0.25 * Vi21.00) 420.00 Use, Pain = 0.00333 Pmax™ 0.01355 = 0.85*f, “(F./f) * le, / fe, +e) = 0.85 * 0,85 * (21.00 / 420.00) * (0,003 / [0,003+0,005]) Computing values of Steel Strain «= 0.003 a= 14494mm a, oss* Feb _ 1848 * 420.00 : 0.85 * 21100 * 300.00 { c= 170.52 mm a = d-c= By as | 85 f= 0.00448 x ae Compressiorcontled ‘Transitonzone «== Tension conto ~ Se * 0.003 ‘ ca = 075 + O18 M(oH) ~ 5) THEBEAM ISINTRANSITIONZONE 95. smh 3 ‘Therefore, 80 a = 0.856 075}-—--——" M,= 273.62 kN-m = (d= a /2) / 10007 = 1848 * 420.00 * (425.00-144.94 / 2) / 1000" | = 0065 + (¢;~ 0.002250) $= 085 + 029Me%) - 59) = 002 Nettonslestain «= 0.008 th = 0600 atl = 0575 Problem 3.9 (Ans. €, = 0.00408, 6 = 0.797, $M, = 1320.7 fi-k) 7 #11 bars ecececeoe| i Min Design of Rectangular Beams and One-Way Slabs Load factors are numbers, almost always larger than 1.0, that are used to increase the estimated loads applied to structures. They are used for loads applied to all types of members, not just beams and slabs. The loads are increased to attempt to account for the uncertainties involved in estimating their magnitudes. How close can you estimate the largest wind or seismic loads that will ever be applied to the building that you are now occupying? How much uncertainty is present in your answer? ‘You should note that the load factors for dead loads are much smaller than the ones used for live and environmental loads. Obviously, the reason is that we can estimate the magnitudes ‘of dead loads much more accurately than we can the magnitudes of those other loads. In this regard, you will notice that the magnitudes of loads that remain in place for long periods of time are much less variable than are those loads applied for brief periods, such as wind and snow. U=14D (ACI Equation 9-1) U=12D + 16L + OSL, of S o Ry (ACI Equation 9-2) U =1.2D + 1.6(L, or S or R) + (Lor 0.5W) (ACI Equation 9-3) 2D + LOW +L + OS(L, or S or R) (ACI Equation 9-4) 12D + LOE +b + 0.25 (ACI Equation 9-5) 09D + LOW (ACI Equation 9-6) U =09D + 10E (ACT Equation 9-7) U = the design or ultimate load the structure needs to be able to resist D = dead load L = live load L, = roof live load 5. = snow load R = rain load W-= wind load E = seismic or earthquake load effects When impact effects need to be considered, they should be included with the live loads as per ACI Section 9.2.2. Such situations occur when those loads are quickly applied, as they are for parking garages, elevators, loading docks, cranes, and others. ees re The compression gravity axial loads for a building column have been estimated with the following results: D — 150 k; live load from roof, L, = 60k; and live loads from floors, L — 300k. Compression wind, W = 112k; tensile wind, W = 96 k; seismic compression load = 50k; and tensile seismic load = 40 k. Determine the critical design load using the ACI load combinations. SOLUTION 1) U=1.40 =(1.4)(150 = 210k @-2) 2D $1.8 + 0.5(L, or S oF A) = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.6) (300 k) +(0.5)(60 K) = 690k (@-Bia) U = 1.20 + 1.8, oF Sor F) + (L or 0.5) = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.6) (60k) + (900K) = (b) U=1.20 + 1.6(L, or Sor A) + (Lor 0.5) = (1.2}(150 K) + (1.6) (60) + (0.5)(70 (€) U=12D + 1.6(L, oF S or Fi) + (Lor 0.50) = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.6) (60 k) + (0.5)(-60 k) (@-4)(a) U = 1.20 +1.0W +L +050, oF S oF R) = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.0)(70 k) + (200 k) + 0.5(60 k) = 580 k (0) U=1.2D + 1.0W +L +0.5(t, oF $ or) = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.0}(—60k) + (300 k) + 0.5(60 k) = 450 k @-5Na) U = 1.20 + 1.0E + 1+ 0.28 = (1.2)(150 k) + (1.0) (50 k) + (800 k) + (0.2)(0 Kj = 580 ke (o) U=1.2D + 1.0F +L + 0.25 =(1,2)(150 k) + (1.0) (—40:k) + (300 k) +(0.2)(0 ky = 440 k (8-6jq) U=0.8D + 1.0W =(0.8)(150 k} + (1.0)(70k) = 205 k (©) U=0.90 + 1.0W =(0.9)(150 kj + (1.0)(-80K) = 75k (9-7)(e) U = 0.90 + 1.0F = (0.8) (150) + (1.0)(50 k) = 185k (b) U= 0.80 + 1.0 = (0.9) (150) +(1.0)(—40 k) = 95 k Answer: Largest value = 690 k from load case 9.2, u uv 8.3 — Methods of analysis 8.3.1 — All members of frames or continuous construc- tion shail be designed for the maximum effects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modified according to 8.4. It shall be permitted to simplify design by using the assumptions specified in 8.7 through 8.11. 8.3.2 — Except for prestressed concrete, approximate methods of frame analysis shall be permitted for buildings of usual types of construction, spans, and story heights. 14(D + F) 1.2 (D+ F4+T) + 1.6 (L+H) + O.5CL, oF RY L.2 D+ 1.6(L, or R) + COL or 0,80 W) 12D+1.6W+ LOL #05 (L, or R) 12.D+1.0E+ 1.02 09D + LOW + 16H 090D + LOE + 16H (409-1) (409-2) (409-3) (409-4) (409-5) (409-6) (409-7) 8.3.3 — As an alternate to frame analysis, the following approximate moments and shears shall be permitted for design of continuous beams and one-way slabs (slabs reinforced to resist flexural stresses in only one direction), provided (a) through (e) are satisfied: (a) There are two or more spans; (b) Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans not greater than the shorter by more than 20 percent; (c) Loads are uniformly distributed; {d) Untactored live load, L, does not exceed three times unfactored dead load, D; and (e) Members are prismatic. For calculating negative moments, f, is taken as the average of the adjacent clear span lengths. R8.3.3 — The approximate moments and shears give reasonably conservative values for the stated conditions if the flexural members are part of a frame or continuous construction. Because the load patterns that produce critical values for moments in columns of frames differ from those for maximum negative moments in beams, column moments should be evaluated separately. Positive moment End spans. Discontinuous end unrestrained Discontinuous end integral with support .. Interior spans ... ‘supports ... Negative moment at face of all supports for Slabs with spans not exceeding 10 ft: and beams where ratio of sum of column Wy at? Negative moment at interior face of exterior support for members built integrally with supports Where support is spandrel beam - Mae 22 Where support is a column ... 2 Wye@/6 Shear in end members at face of first interior support .. AAS Wy by /2 Shear at face of all other supports Wy ly l2 8.9 — Span length 8.8.1 — Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered as the clear span plus the depth of the member, but need not exceed distance between centers of supports. 8.9.2 — In analysis of frames or continuous construction for determination of moments, span length shall be taken as the distance center-to-center of supports. 8.9.3 — For beams built integrally with supports, design on the basis of moments at faces of support shall be permitted. ‘8.9.4 — It shall be permitted to analyze solid or ribbed ‘slabs built integrally with supports, with clear spans ‘ot more than 3 m, as continuous slabs on knife edge ‘supports with spans equal to the clear spans of the slab and width of beams otherwise neglected. 8.11 — Arrangement of live load 8.11.1 — It shall be permitted to assume that: (a) The live load is applied only to the floor or roof under consideration; and (b) The far ends of columns built integrally with the ‘structure are considered to be fixed. 8.11.2 — It shall be permitted to assume that the arrangement of live load is limited to combinations of: (a) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two adjacent spans; and (b) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternate spans, 4.2 Design of Rectangular Beams Before the design of an actual beam is attempted, several miscellaneous topics need to be discussed. These include the following: 1, Beam proportions. Unless architectural or other requirements dictate the proportions of reinforced concrete beams. the most economical beam sections are usually obtained for shorter beams (up to 20 ft or 25 11 in length). when the ratio of d to b is in the range of 1} to 2. For longer spans, better economy is usually obtained if deep, narrow sections are used. The depths may be as large as three or four times the widths. However. today’s reinforced concrete designer is often confronted with the need to keep members rather shallow to reduce floor heights. As a result, wider and shallower beams are used more frequently than in the past. You will notice that the overall beam dimensions are selected to whole inches. This is done for simplicity in constructing forms or for the rental of forms, which are ustially available in I-in. or 2-in. increments. Furthermore, beam widths are often selected in multiples of 2 in. or 3 in. 2. Deflections, Considerable space is devoted in Chapter 6 t the topic of deflections in reinforced concrete members subjected to bending. However, the ACI Code in its Table 9.5(a) provides minimum thicknesses of beams and one-way slabs for which such deflection calculations are not required. These values are shown in Table 4.1, The purpose of such limitations is to prevent deflections of such magnitudes as would interfere with the use of or ‘cause injury to the structure. If deflections are computed for members of lesser thicknesses than those listed in the table and are found to be satisfactory, it is not necessary to abide by the thickness rules. For simply supported slabs, normal-weight concrete, and Grade 60 steel. the minimum depth given when deflections are not computed equals £/20, where £ is the span length of the slab. For concrete of other weights and for steel of different yield strengths, the mininuun depths required by the ACI Code are somewhat revised, as indicated in the foototes to Table 4.1. The ACI does not specify changes in the table for concretes weighing between 120 Ib/ftand 145 Ib/ft because substitution into the correction expression given yields correction factors almost equal to 1.0. ‘The minimum thicknesses provided apply only to members that are not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged by large deflections. 9.5.2.2 — Where deflections are to be computed, deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic deflections, considering effects of cracking and reinforcement on member stiffness. TABLE 9.5(a) — MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NONPRESTRESSED BEAMS OR ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE CALCULATED Minimum thickness, h Simply One end Both ends sieve continuous | continuous | Cantilever not supporting or attached to pain or other Member eee ratrnaieas Won be oe cameron on bee deflections Solid one- way slabs 20 u24 u28 a0 Beams or ribbed one- wie 18.5 “21 UB ‘way slabs INotes: Values given, shall be used directly for members with nor it conerete| land Grade 420 reinforcement. For other conditions, the values shail be modified las follows: la) For | rete having equilibrium density, the. off i Lor Bae tho values shall bo multiplied by (1.68 -0.0003w,) but lnot less than 1 b) For 4, other than 420 MPa, the values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + f,/700). 3. Estimated beam weight. The weight of the beam to be selected must be included in the calculation of the bending moment to be resisted, because the beam must support itself as well as the external loads. The weight estimates for the beams. selected in this text are generally very close because the authors were able to perform a litte preliminary paperwork before making their estimates. You are not expected to be able to glance at a problem and give an exact estimate of the weight of the beam required. Following the same procedures as did the authors, however, you can do a little figuring on the side and make a very reasonable estimate. For instance, you could calculate the moment due to the external loads only, select a beam ize, and calculate its weight, From this beam size, you should be able to make a very good estimate of the weight of the final beam section. es Practical method for estimating beam sizes is to assume a minimum overall depth, 4, equal to the minimum depth specified by Table 4.1 [ACI-318-11, Table 9.5(a)] if deflections are not to be calculated, The ACI minimum for the beam in question may be determined by referring to Table 4.1. Then the beam width can be roughly estimated equal to about one-half of the assumed value of / and the weight of this estimated beam calculated = bh/144 times the concrete weight per cubic foot, Because concrete weighs approximately 150 pef (if the weight of steel is included), a quick-and-dirty calculation of self-weight is simply b h because the concrete weight approximately cancels the 144 conversion factor. 4. Selection of bars. After the required reinforcing area is calculated, Appendix A, Table A.4 is used to select bars that provide the necessary area. For the usual situations, bars of sizes #11 and smaller are practical. It is usually convenient to use bars of one size only in a beam, although occasionally two sizes will be used. Bars for compression steel and stirrups are usually a different size, however. Otherwise the ironworkers may become confused. 5. Cover. The reinforcing for concrete members must be protected from the surround- ing environment: that is, fire and corrosion protection need to be provided. To do this, the reinforcing is located at certain minimum distances from the surface of the concrete so that a protective layer of concrete, called cover, is provided. In addition, the cover improves the bond between the concrete and the steel. In Section 7.7 of the ACI Code, specified cover is given for reinforcing bars under different conditions. Values are given for reinforced concrete beams, columns, and slabs: for cast-in-place members: for precast members; for prestressed members; for members exposed to earth and weather; for members not so exposed; and so on. The concrete for members that are to be exposed to ing salts, brackish water, seawater, or d, I, 1t-in. ¢ minimum edge distance = cover + d, + 2d, = 150424) Gy=2$ #4 hangers 4, #10 bars | details for hooks given in Chapter 7 | #3 stirrups oP “714 -in. clear cover mort] 4 +-2d,= Sin, 24 in. minimum FIGURE 4.1 Determining minimum edge distance. 6. Minimum spacing of bars. The code (7.6) states that the clear distance between parallel bars cannot be less than 1 in.!*! of less than the nominal bar diameter. If the bars are placed in more than one layer, those in the upper layers are required to be placed directly over the ones in the lower layers, and the clear distance between the layers must be not less than 1 in. A major purpose of these requirements is to enable the concrete to pass between the bars. The ACI Code further relates the spacing of the bars to the maximum aggregate sizes for the same purpose. In the code Section 3.3.2. maximum permissible aggregate sizes are limited to the smallest of (a) one-fifth of the narrowest distance between side forms, (b) one-third of slab depths, and (c) three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing between bars. A reinforcing bar must extend an appreciable length in both directions from its point of highest stress in order to develop its stress by bonding to the concrete. The shortest length in which a bar's stress can be increased from 0 to f, is called its development length. Reinforcing bars. Note the supporting metal chairs, 7.6 — Spacing limits for reinforcement 7.6.1 — The minimum clear spacing between parailel bars in a layer shall be d,, but not less than 25 mm. See also 3.3.2. 7.6.2 — Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two ‘of more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly above bars in the bottom layer with clear distance between layers not less than 25 mm. 7.6.3 — In spirally reinforced or tied rainforced compression members, clear distance between langi- tudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5d), nor less than 40 mm. See also 3.3.2, 7.6.4 — Clear distance limitation between bars shall apply also to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars. 7.6.5 — In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, primary flexural reinforcement shall not ibe spaced farther apart than three times the wall or ‘slab thickness, nor farther apart than 450 mm. 7.6.6 — Bundled bars 7.6.6.1 — Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundied in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. 7.6.6.2 — Bundled bars shall be enclosed within ‘stirrups or ties. 7.6.6.3 — Bars larger than No. 36 shall not be bundied in beams. 7.6.6.4 — Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall terminate at different points with at least 40d, stagger. 7.6.6.5 — Where spacing limitations or concrete cover requirements are based on bar diameter, d,, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area. oe % S ? 8 FIGURE 4.6 Bundled-bar arrangements. 4.4 Miscellaneous Beam Considerations This section introduces two general limitations relating to beam design: lateral bracing and deep beams, Lateral Support is unlikely that laterally unbraced reinforced concrete beams of any normal proportions will buckle laterally, even if they are deep and narrow, unless they are subject to appreciable lateral torsion. As a result, the ACI Code (10.4.1) states that lateral bracing for a beam is not required closer than 50 times the least width, b, of the compression flange or face. Should appreciable torsion be present, however, it must be considered in determining the maximum spacing for lateral support. Skin Reinforcement for Deep Beams Beams with web depths that exceed 3 ft have a tendency to develop excessively wide cracks in the upper parts of their tension zones. To reduce these cracks, it is necessary to add some additional longitudinal reinforcing in the zone of flexural tension near the vertical side faces of their webs, as shown in Figure 4.4. The code (10.6.7) states that additional skin reinforcement must be uniformly distributed along both side faces of members with h> 36 in. for distances equal to /i/2 nearest the flexural reinforcing. The spacing, s, between this skin reinforcement shall be as provided in ACI 10.6.4. These additional bars may be used in computing the bending strengths of members only if appropriate strains for their positions relative to neutral axes are used to determine bar stresses. The total area of the skin reinforcement in both side faces of the beam does not have to exceed one-half of the required bending tensile reinforcement in the beam. The ACI does not specity the actual area of skin reinforcing: it merely states that some additional reinforcement should be placed near the vertical faces of the tension zone to prevent cracking in the beam webs. Some special requirements must be considered relating to shear in deep beams, as described in the ACI Code (11-7) and in Section 8.14 of this text. Should these latter pro- nS Fequire more reinforcing than required by ACI Section 10.6.7, the larger values will govern, Reinforcement in tension, negative bending hia Reinforcement in tension, positive bending Fig. R10.6,7—Skin reinforcement for beams and joists with h > 900 mm, EXAMPLE 2. (CONCRETE DIMENSIONS AND STEEL AREA TO RESIST A GIVEN MOMENT). Find the concrete cross section and the steel area required for a simply supported beam with a span of 4.4 m. that is to carry a computed dead load of 18 KN/m and a service load of 31 KN/m. Material strengths are fc = 27.6 Mpa. and fy = 414 MPa. Solution : Load factors are first applied to the given service loads to obtain the factored load for which the beam is to be designed, and the corresponding moment : Wy= 7120 KN/m, = 1L2*DL+1.6xLL = 1.2% 18+1.6% 31 My= 172.30KNm. 9 =WyxU/8 =71.20x4.4°/8 The concrete dimensions will depend on the designer's choice: of reinforcement ratio. To minimize the concrete section, it is desirable to select the maximum permissible reinforcement ratio, To maintain ¢ = 0.9, the maximum reinforcement ratio corresponding to a net tensile strain of 0,005 will be selected (see Fig. 3.9). Then, fram Eq. (3.30d) Pows = 0.858, (3.30d) K€, + 0.005 By= 0.85 — =iflf'-<= 28, 0.85, if[0.85 - 0.05 /7 x (1',~ 28}<0.65,, 0.65, 0.85 - 0.05 /7* {f'.- 28}]) Pooos= 0.0181 =0.85%B, xf", /f, Mu, (SAFE) ANSWER : Adapt, 250 mm x 500 mm. (total depth) with 3 pcs. 25 mm. @ rebars. EXAMPLE 3. (DETERMINATION OF STEEL AREA). Find the steet area required for the beam with Concrete dimensions b=250 mm. and d= 409.55 mm. known to be adequate to carry the factored load moment of 172.3 KN-m. Material strengths are f'c = 27.6 Mpa. and fy = 414 Mpa. Solution : R= 4.56551 Pa, =M,* 1000" /(@ «bx d") = 172.3. 1000 / (0.9 x 250 « 409.55") P= 0.01239 =(F./10S9F,)- Vifc/(0.59f)"-4* Rf. / (0.59F, 11) /2 = (0.11299435-V[0.11299435"-4 « 0.00124608)) / 2 A.= 1,268.11 mm, =pxbxd 01239 250 «409.55 B= 0.85 3 pcs. 25 mm. ~p bars are sufficient, providing an area of 1473 mmé2. Prox= 0.0206 =0:85 xB, xf',/ F, x 0.003 / {0.003 +0.004) = 0.85 « 0.85 x 27.6 / 414 x 0.008 / (0.00340.004) >p, (O.K), steel yield as ossumed Prin= 0.0032 = Vif) / (44) nor 0.0034 =1.4/1, = (27.6) / (4% 414) =14/ aia USE, Prin = 0.0034 < p (0.K.), satisfies Cade provision for minimum reinforcements ANSWER : Adopt, 250 mm x 409.55 mm (bxd) beam with 3 pcs. 25 mm. @ rebars. Overreinforced Beams According to the ACI Code, all beams are to be designed for yielding of the tension steel with €, not less than 0.004 and thus. p = p,,,. Occasionally, however, such as when analyzing the capacity of existing construction, it may be necessary to calculate the flexural strength of an overreinforced compression-controlled member, for which J, is less than f, at flexural failure. In this case, the stecl strain, in Fig. 3.11, will be less than the yield strain, but can be expressed in terms of the concrete strain €, and the still-unknown distance c to the neutral axis: (3.42) From the equilibrium requirement that C = T, one can write OSS fi be = pak bd Substituting the steel strain from Eq. (3.42) in the last equation, and defining k, = c/d, one obtains a quadratic equation in k, as follows: ki + mpk, — mp = 0 Here, p = A,/bd as usual, and m is a material parameter given by Ek, me 085Bf am Solving the quadratic equation for k,, 3 ka = y/mp + (%#) - (3.44) The neutral axis depth for the overreinforced beam can then easily be found from c= k,d, after which the stress-block depth a = ,c. With steel strain e, then computed from Eg, (3.42), and with f, = E,e,, the nominal flexural strength is M, = asa - s) (3.45) ‘The strength reduction factor # will equal 0.65 for beams in this range. EXAMPLE 4. (FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF OVERREINFORCED BEAM) ‘A rectangular beam has width 250 mm. arid effective depth 350 mm. It is reinforced with 12 pcs. 20 mm. ¢ rebars in one row. If fy = 414 Mpa and fc = 30.5 (Mpa., what is the nominal flexural strength, and what is the maximum moment that can be utilized in design, accading ta the ACI Code? ae A= 376mm, = 12314 Ppronies= 0.0831 =A,/ (bx A) = 3768 / (250% 350) B,= 0.83 f|<= 28, 0.85, if[0.85 -0.05 /7 {f',- 28}<0.65, 0.65, 0.85- 0.05 / 7{f",- 281) Pmax= 0.0223 =0.85~B, xf'./f, x6, / (€, + 0.004) = 0.85 x 0.83 x 30.5 / 414 x 0.003 / (0.003+0:004) < — Prowies —(N.G.), fo« fy at failure m= 27.8122 =Es*e,/(0.85%P.*f) ‘= 200000 0.003 / (0.85 * 0.83 = 30.5) K,= 0.64867 = Vm x Ppouded +1 * Ppmedea/ 217) = 1% Pprovdea / 2 = V(27,8122 «0,0831[27.8122 x 0.0831 / 2]")-27.8122 «0.0431 / 2 ¢= 227.04 mm. =kyxd = 0.64867 = 350 a= 18893mm, —=B, xe = 0.83% 227.08 &= 0.00162 =ex(d-d/e = 0,003 x ( 390-227.) / 227.08 f,= 324.97 Mpa. =e, xEs = 0.00162 = 200000 since, fsp, therefore section is ductile. and @ = 0.90 a= 99.03 mm Astumished * fy 0.85 *f,* b* 1000 _ 1964.00 * 414 “0.85 * 27.6 * 0.35 * 1000 c= 116.50 mm &= 0.01335 are _ 635-116.50 = = 0.003 116.50 = Therefore, ®- 0.900 OM,= 428.45 km =" Arman" *[ $2008 03 = 0.900 * 1964.00 * 414 * 635- =S ]aav0 Therefore, SAFE Therefore, adopt 350mm x 700 mm Rectangular Beam with 4 pcs. 25 mm diameter rebars. 4.7 One-Way Slabs Reinforced concrete slabs are large Mat plates that are supported by reinforced concrete bears, walls, or columns: by masonry walls; by structural steel beams or columns; or by the ground. If they are supported on two opposite sides only, they are referred to as one-way slabs because the bending is in one direction only—that is, perpendicular to the supported edges. Should the slab be supported by beams on all four edges, it is referred to as a nvo-way slab because the bending is in both directions. Actually, if a rectangular slab is supported on all four sides, but the long side is two or more times as long as the short side, the slab will, for all practical Purposes, act as a one-way slab, with bending primarily occurring in the short direction. Such slabs are designed as one-way slabs. You can easily verify these bending moment ideas by supporting a sheet of paper on two opposite sides or on four sides with the support situation described. This section is concerned with one-way slabs; two-way slabs are considered in Chapters 16 and 17, It should be realized that a large percentage of reinforced concrete slabs fall into the one-way class. A one-way slab is assumed to be a rectangular beam with a large ratio of width to depth. Normally, a 12-in.-wide piece of such a slab is designed as a beam (see Figure 4.7), the slab being assumed to consist of a series of such beams side by side. The method of analysis is somewhat conservative because of the lateral restraint provided by the adjacent parts of the slab. Normally, a beam will tend to expand laterally somewhat as it bends. but this tendency to expand by each of the 12-in. strips is resisted by the adjacent 12-in.-wide strips. which tend to expand also. In other words, Poisson’s ratio is assumed to be zero. Actually, the lateral expansion tendency results in a very slight stiffening of the beam strips, which is neglected in the design procedure used here. FIGURE 4.7 A 12-in. strip in a simply supported one-way slab. (c) One-way slab (a) One-way slab 9.5.2 — One-way construction (nonprestressed) 9.5.2.1 — Minimum thickness stipulated in Table 9.5(a) shall apply for one-way construction not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged by large deflections, unless computation of deflection indicates a lesser thickness can be used without adverse effects. 9.5.2.2 — Where deflections are to be computed, deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic deflections, considering effects of cracking and reinforcement on member stiffness. TABLE 9.5(a) — MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NONPRESTRESSED BEAMS OR ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE CALCULATED Minimum thickness, A One end Both ends continuous | continuous | Cantilever Members not supporting or attached to partitions or other Member | construction likely to be damaged by large deflections Solid one- way slabs 20, 24 28 “10 e185 i ue way slabs Notes: Values given shall be used directly for members with normalweight concrete! land Grade 420 reinforcement. For other conditions, the values shall be modified) For lightweight goncrete havi ilibrium density, we, in the Sf bee rota ines the values shall be multiplied By (1.88 — 0,00031,. ‘ul [b) For #, other than 420 MPa, the values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + f,/700). 7.12 — Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement 7.12.1 — Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses normal to flexural reinforcement shall be provided in structural slabs where the flexural reinforce- ment extends in one direction only, 7.12.21 — Atea of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall provide at least the following ratios ‘of reinforcement area to gross concrete area, but not less than 0.0014: (a) Slabs where Grade 280 or 350 deformed bars are used .....:.isntsnnnnen0.0020 (b) Slabs where Grade 420 deformed bars or welded wire reinforcement are used... (c) Slabs where reinforcement with yield stress exceeding 420 MPa measured at a yield strain of 0.85 percent is USEd ates sneae 0018 x 420 r 7.2.2.2 — Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than five times the slab thickness, nor farther apart than 450 mm. Design a one-way slab for the inside of a building using the span, loads, and other data given in the figure. Normal-weight aggregate concrete is specified with a density of 23.54 kN/cu.m. fy =420 mPa f fic=27.6mPa L span. SOLUTION ‘Minimum Total Stab Thickness f It Deflections Are Not Computed (S00 Table 4.1) Pipin = 150 mm = (Span * 1000 / 20) * (0.4 + f, / 700) = (3 * 1000 / 20) * (0.44420 / 700) Himin = 150 mm Assume, Cover Ee Drebar 12 Ay= 113.00 mm?fbar d= 124mm = Prnin ~ Coverfciear) ~ Dranar / 2 = 1580-20-12 /2 Analyze per meter strip D= 3,531.00 N/M = = Woancrete™ Lmstrin * Henin =23.54*1* 150 9,500.00 N/m =L* Lpnctrp =9500*1 19,437.20 N/m = =1.2*D#16*L = 1.2 * 3531.00+1.6 * 9500.00 Mo= 21,866.85 Nm _ = 19437.20* 3" 8 Dessumed = 0.90 R= 1.58 Pa p= 0.00390 Prin = 0.00333 OK. Pmax= 0.01780 O.K. ®eesumea™ Tmsrio * 1000* d* ___ 2186.85 * 1000 0.90" 1* 1000 * 124° 0.85 * f 2*R, mot pa ELS ” 085 * Ff, = 085° 276 .f yf, 27255 420 [ 0.85 * 27.6 | = max(14/f,, MF) /(4* i) = max(1.4 / 420, \(27.6] / {4 * 420}) =085*B, *(F./f,) * le, / [e+ &)) = 0.85 * 0.85 * (27.6 / 420) * (0.003 / [0.003+0.005}) As= s= Say, San = 483.39 mm?/m =P * Lmerrp * 1000* d = 0.00390 * 1* 1000 * 124 233.77 mm = Limstip "1000 * Ay mm A, 450.00 mm O.K. Transverse Direction - Shrinkage and Temperature St A= 270.00 mmm = 0.0018 * Bysserip * 1000 * Bain = 0.0018 “1 * 1000* 150 10. mm 73 mm7/m s= 292.593 mm * 1000 * Ay = Lmstao say, en i. __ 1" 1000 + 79 270.00 450 mm Ox. Therefore, adopt 150 mm thick slab with 12 mm diameter main bars at 200 mm on centers and 10 mm diameter temperature bars at 250 mm on centers. ee ee So A reinforced concrete slab is built integrally with its supports and consists of two equal spans, each with a clear span of 4.6 m. The service live load is 4.8 kPa, and 27,6 mPa concrete is specified for use with steel with a yield stress equal to 420 mPa, Design the slab, following the provisions of the ACI Code. TABLE 9.5(a) — MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NONPRESTRESSED BEAMS OR ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE CALCULATED i E Ff i fi i shall be used diecty for membors wth rainloresmert For ther condos, Wa vals jnfot vies Seas Bo mumbo by 1 56“. Bbodegh Han 420 MPa, he values shall bo masichod ty [04+ i i 5 i e Lees e z SOLUTION : Minimum slab thickness: min = 164.29 mm = (U' * 1000 « [0.4+f, / 700] / 28) += (4.6 « 1000 x [0.4+420 / 700) / 28) Atrial thickness of [JGGSEI] mm will be used. Effective depth: da 149 mm Weight of stab: DL= 4.12 kPa Factored floor pressure : Us 12.62 kPa Analyzing 1m width of stab: Wie 12.62 Kn/m Using the ACI Moment Coefficient: At Interior Support: -M= 29.68 kN-m At midspan: +M= 19,08 kN-m At exterior Support: M= 1113 kNm = hows - Clear caver -0.5% Dressy = 175-20-0.5 12 = Weonenete * Nest =23:54%"175 =12xDL+16xUL = L2x412016%48 =uxb = 12.621 =(1/9)xW, x L = (1/9) 12062 4.67 = (1/14) x Wy = (1/14) «12.62% 4.67 = (1/24) — Wy L? = (1/24) ¥ 12.62% 4.6" support “Two spans. (More than two spans Negative moment at other faces ot interior Negative moment at face of all supports fer Slabs with spans not exceeding 10 ft ‘and beams where ratio of sum of eolumn stittnesses to beam stitfness exceeds 8 at each erid of the span, 1 Wyle Negative moment at interior face of exterior support for members built integrally with supports: Where support is spandrel beam... Wiglhy24 Where supports a column. > WubeRN6 ‘Shear in end members al tace of first Interior support. a VABWatg 2 ‘Shear at face of all other supports ... Wubi? Therefore, use M= 29.68 KN-m = =max{-M, #M, -M) = max(29.68 , 19.08, 11.13) The maximum practical reinforcement ratio is, Pooos= 0.0178 $0.85 x By x f/f, xe, / (C4 +0005) =0.85 «0.85 x 27.6 / 420 x 0.003 / (0.003+0.005) If this value of p were actually used, the minimum required effective depth, contraited by negative moment at the interior support, would be found fram Eq. (3.38) t0 be © Gelb O3afIE) @= 524896mm = Moo DX Ponce * f, x bx 1000 * [1 - 0.59 * Davos fy, / Fel = 29.68 < 10007 0.9 0.0178 x 420 « 1x 1000 [1-0.59 x 0.0178 « 420/ 27.6] d= RAS mm —OK, less than d eff = 149 mm Using, a= 9.75 mm A, =a 544.78 mmi/m = Mx 1000" /{*f,* [djy-a/ 2) (4 —a/2) = 29,68 1000" / (0.9% 420 [149-9,75 /2]) ‘Checking the assumed depth a by Eq. (3.32), one gets AS; a = 9.75 mm =A, xf, / (0.85 * 1", x b= 1000) 08506 = 544.78 x 420// (0.85 x 27.6 x 1 x 1000) ye | ®4) «1000 =(113 / 544.78) x 1000 Siac ® 207.42 mm Maximum spacing required by the Code: Sma = 525.00 mm 3% Poin #3175 Sinet™ 450 mm Therefore, use: Smac= 450.00 mm Therefore, use s = 207.42 mm At midspan: Using, a= 6.19 mm at sy = 345.94 mm? = Me 100081 +f, Fr -8 /2) Pi a/2) = 19.08% 1000" / (0.9 = 420 [149-6.19 / 2]), Checking the assumed depth a by Eq. (3.32), one gets A, =A. wf, /(0.85 x fib 1000) = 345,94 x 420 / (0.85 27.6% 1 1000) Seo 32665 mm = (ya; / 84) x 1000 = (113 / 345.94) x 1000 Sreqd= 326.65 mm = (Asse As) = 1000 = (113 345.94) « 1000 ‘Maximum spacing required by the Cade: Swoe= 525.00 mm 23% =3x175 450 mm 450.00 mm Therefore, use s = 326.65 mm At exterior support: Using, a= 358mm M, a — = 200.01 mm = M1000 / (8 f, [oy a / 21) #f,(d — 4/2) = 11.15 * 10007 / (0.9 «420 = [189.3.58 /21) ‘Checking the assumed depth a by Eq. (3.32), one gets eae Sai em =A, «4, / (0.85 xf", xb 1000) oasch = 201.80 420 / (0.85 * 27,6 1 1000} Sread= 564.97 mm = (Aga / Ac) 1000 = (113 / 345.94) x 1000 Maximum spacing required by the Code: Smax= 525.00 mm =3 «hess =3*175 Sa ™ 450 mm Therefore, use: Smax= 450.00 mm Therefore use, s = 450 mm mum reinforcement is that required for control of shrinkage and temperature cracking. A= 315 mm? = 0.0018

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