Dileep Kumar Sharma

SVU92370626
B. Tech (ECE)
VIth Semester
Analog Electronics Circuits Practical
 Experiment 1. Log Amplifier & Antilog Amplifier

Aim:

To study log and antilog amplifier.

Theory:

1. Log Amplifier

A logarithmic amplifier is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is proportional to the
logarithm of the applied input. An op-amp based logarithmic amplifier produces a voltage at the output,
which is proportional to the logarithm of the voltage applied to the resistor connected to its inverting
terminal. The circuit diagram of op-amp based logarithmic amplifier is shown in figure 1.

Fig 1: Op-amp based Logarithmic Amplifier

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That means
zero volts is applied at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp.
The nodal equation at the inverting input is as follows

0 - Vi/R1 + If = 0 ..........(1)

from the equation 1,the feedback current is

If = Vi/R1
When the diode is forward biased, the current flowing through the diode is

If = Is𝑒(Vf/nVT)..........(2)

Where,
Is is the saturation current of the diode,
Vf is the voltage drop across diode, when it is in forward bias,
VT is the diode's thermal equivalent voltage.
The KVL equation around the feedback loop of the op amp will be

0 - Vf - V0 = 0

Vf = -V0

Substituting the value of Vf in Equation 2, we get

If = Is𝑒(-V0/nVT) ..........(3)

Vi/R1 = Is𝑒(-V0/nVT)

Vi/RiIs = 𝑒(-V0/nVT)

Applying natural logarithm on the both sides

ln(Vi/R1Is) = -V0/nVT

V0 = -nVTln(Vi/R1Is)

In the above equation, the parameters n, VT and Is are constants. So, the output voltage V0 will be
proportional to the natural logarithm of the input voltage V i for a fixed value of resistance R1.
The output voltage V0 has a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180° phase difference
between the input and the output.
 2. Antilog Amplifier

An op-amp based anti-logarithmic amplifier produces a voltage at the output, which is proportional to
the anti-logarithm of the voltage that is applied to the diode connected to its inverting input. The circuit
diagram of an op-amp based anti-logarithmic amplifier is shown in figure 2.

Fig 2: Op-amp based Anti-Logarithmic Amplifier

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input of the op-amp is connected to ground. According to
the virtual ground concept, the voltage at the inverting input of op-amp will be equal to the voltage
present at its non-inverting input. So, the voltage at its inverting input will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input node is

-If+0-V0/Rf = 0

V0 = -If*Rf ..........(4)

When the diode is forward biased, the current flowing through the diode is given by

If = Is𝑒(Vf/nVT)

Substituting the value of If in Equation 4, then

V0 = -RfIs𝑒(Vf/nVT)..........(5)

The KVL equation at the inverting input of the op-amp will be

Vi - Vf = 0
So,

Vi = Vf

Substituting the value of Vf in equation 5, then

V0 = -RfIs𝑒(Vi/nVT)

In the above equation the parameters n, V T and Is are constants. So, the output voltage V 0 will be
proportional to the anti-natural logarithm of the input voltage V i, for a fixed value of feedback resistance
Rf.
The output voltage V0 has a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180° phase difference
between the input and the output.

Procedure:

STEP 1: Connect the components as mentioned: (1-3), (2-4), (5-7), (6-8).

STEP 2: Click on 'Check' button to check the connections. If connected connections are wrong, Make the
right connection as per given instruction.

STEP 3: If connections are right, Click on the'Start' button to perform the experiment.

STEP 4: Toggle On/Off button to control the power to the system.

STEP 5: Move the 'Voltage' range slider to fetch values into table.

STEP 6: Click on 'Plot' button to plot the graph

Antilog Amplifier:
PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps

 Experiment 2. Wein bridge oscillator using operational amplifier

Aim:

To analyze Wein bridge oscillator using operational Amplifier.

Introduction:

It is the commonly used audio frequency oscillator which employs both positive and negative feedback.
The feedback signal is connected in the non-inverting input terminal so that the amplifier is working in
non-inverting mode. The Wien bridge circuit is connected between amplifier input terminal and output
terminal. The bridge has a series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoining arm.
In the remaining two arms of the bridge, resistor R1 and Rf are connected. The phase angle criterion for
oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be zero. This condition occurs when the
bridge is balanced. At resonance, the frequency of oscillation is exactly the resonance frequency of
balanced Wien bridge and is given by.

fo = 1/ (2πRC)

At this frequency, the gain required for sustained oscillation is 3. It is provided by the noninverting
amplifier with

Gain = 1+ (Rf/R1) = 3

Figure 1. Wein bridge oscillator using operational Amplifier

Effect of variation of resistance and capacitance on frequency

The frequency of the oscillator varies with the variation in capacitance. It is inversely proportional to the
capacitance. In other words, the frequency decreases with the increase in capacitance and vice versa.
The variation in resistance has a similar effect on the frequency of the oscillator.

Procedure:

STEP 1: Connect the components as mentioned: (1-3), (2-4).

STEP 2: Click on 'Check' button to check the connections. If connected connections are wrong, Make the
right connection as per given instruction.

STEP 3: If connections are right, Click on the'Start' button to perform the experiment.

STEP 4: Toggle On/Off button to control the power to the system.

STEP 5: Move the 'Voltage' range slider to fetch values into table.

STEP 6: Click on 'Plot' button to plot the graph.

PRECAUTIONS: 1. All the connections should be correct. 2. Meters should be connected properly
according to their polarities 3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit 4. DC supply should
be increased slowly in steps

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps

Experiment 3. Voltage Regulator using operational amplifier to produce output of 12V

Aim:

To study Voltage regulator using operational amplifier to produce output of 12V.

Introduction:

A voltage regulator is an integrated circuit (IC) that provides a constant fixed output voltage regardless of
a change in the load or input voltage. It can do this many ways depending on the topology of the circuit
within, but for the purpose of keeping this project basic, we will mainly focus on the linear regulator. A
linear voltage regulator works by automatically adjusting the resistance via a feedback loop, accounting
for changes in both load and input, all while keeping the output voltage constant.

Electronic voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out variations in the
flow of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances; that is, resistance decreases when
the electrical load is heavy and increases when the load is lighter.

A voltage regulator circuit using an opamp, emitter follower transistor and Zener diode. These types of
circuits provide better load regulation than a simple Zener diode and resistor alone. In addition, if you
make R1 a variable resistor, then the output voltage could be varied for a large range of voltages. For this
op amp circuit, we use the operational amplifier as a comparator and the two voltage levels that we are
comparing are the regulated input reference, and final output. We should also remember that we use
potential dividers (PD) to get a sample of the input and output voltages. As you can see, the input side
consists of a Zener diode and resistor, and this arrangement is the same if you were to have a simple
Zener diode regulator circuit. The regulated output from the Zener diode and resistor network feeds the
non-inverting input of the op amp. Engineers usually call this a reference voltage because it remains the
same, even when the input voltage varies. The Zener diode obviously determines this fixed reference
voltage across it, which we call VZ. The output voltage from the second PD consisting of R1 and R2 feeds
the inverting input of the comparator. This voltage is V2, which we usually find using the simple PD
formula.

Figure 1. Voltage regulator using operational amplifier

Vout = VZ x (R1/R2 + 1)

Advantages Of Voltage Regulator

1. It is very simple to implement and easy to use.

2. It gives low output ripple voltage.

3. It has a fast response time to load.

4. It has less noise and low electromagnetic interference.

5. It is more cost-efficient.

Disadvantages Of Voltage Regulator

1. Its efficiency of it is relatively low.

2. It gives the output voltage always less than the input voltage i.e., it performs only step down
operation.

3. It requires a heat sink since it dissipates excess power as heat and becomes extremely hot during
regulation.

4. It requires large spaces.

Procedure:

STEP 1: Connect the components as mentioned: (1-3), (2-4), (5-7), (6-8).

STEP 2: Click on 'Check' button to check the connections. If connected connections are wrong, Make the
right connection as per given instruction.

STEP 3: If connections are right, Click on the 'Start' button to perform the experiment.

STEP 4: Toggle On/Off button to control the power to the system.

STEP 5: Move the 'Voltage' range slider to fetch values into table.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps

 Experiment 4. Voltage to current converter

Aim:

To study voltage to current converter.

Introduction:

In most of the cases we get the output of measuring devices in the form of voltage. It is not good to
transmit this output voltage to the destination directly. Due to addition of noise and wire impedance the
output voltage may get corrupted. So in such cases we have convert that voltage into current form. So let
us see voltage to current converter. Op-amp is implemented to simply convert the voltage signal to
corresponding current signal. The Op-amp used for this purpose is IC LM741. This Op-amp is designed to
hold the precise amount of current by applying the voltage which is essential to sustain that current
through out the circuit. The output current is given by

Io = Vin/R

Following circuit shows the voltage to current converter using operational amplifier. It consist of simple
resistance connected to the inverting and non inverting terminals of op amp.

Figure 1. Voltage to current

converter Procedure:

1. Connect the probes and mentioned below: L1-L2,L3-L5,L4-L6.

2. Click on the "check" button to check if the connections are right.

3. Once you make sure that the connections are right, you may vary the input voltage from 1V to 15V
and calculate the output current by pressing "Calculate" button.

4. Click on "Add to table" button to add the reading to the table.

5. Observe the reading on ammeter for each value of input voltage.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps

 Experiment 5. Function Generator using operational amplifier (sine, triangular & square wave)

Aim:

To analyse Function generator using operational amplifier (sine, triangular and square wave).

Theory:

Function Generator is an instrument that can generate common waveforms like triangle, sine, cosine,
square, sawtooth, etc., It also provides options for changing the characteristics of the waveforms such as
amplitude and frequency. The wave generated is available at the output jack. It can be visualised by
connecting it to the CRO.The waveforms of these frequencies may be adjusted from hertz to a hundred
kHz. This generator is considered as the most versatile instrument in the electrical and electronics
laboratory because the waveforms generated by this generator have applications in different areas.

Function Generator Block Diagram

The block diagram of function generator contains various components they are frequency control
network, constant current supply source 1, constant current supply source 2, integrator, voltage
comparator multivibrator, capacitor, a resistance diode shaping circuit, and two output amplifiers. The
block diagram of this generator is shown in the below figure.

Fig.1 Function Generator Block Diagram

The frequencies can be controlled by varying the current magnitude. The two constant-current supplies
will change the frequency of the output signal. The output waveforms generated by this generator are
sinusoidal, triangular, and square. The frequency range of these waveforms ranges from 0.01 Hz to 100
kHz. The frequency control network controls the frequency on the front panel of this generator, and
there is a knob called frequency control. The frequency of the o/p waveforms can be changed by using
this knob & varying the frequency.

The frequency control network provides the voltage, and this voltage goes to regulate the two constant
current supply sources like upper and lower. The first output voltage of constant current supply can be
increased linearly with the time, whereas the lower current source provides a voltage to change the
output voltage of the integrator which will decrease linearly with time. The output voltage of the
integrator due to the upper current source is expressed.

When the slope of the o/p voltage increases or decreases then the constant current supply source 1 will
be increases or decreases. The lower constant current source two supplies reverse control to the
integrator, and due to this reverse current, the output voltage of the integrator decreases linearly with
the time. The output of the comparator provides a square wave which has the same frequency as the
output voltage. The resistance diode network changes the triangle waveform slope as its amplitude
produces and changes a sine waveform with a <1% distortion. The output waveforms of this generator
are shown below.

Function Generator using op-amp LM1458

A simple function generator circuit using LM1458 is known here. LM1458 is a dual general purpose
operational amplifier. The two opamps inside LM1458 has a common bias network, power supply line
and are independent of each other in operation. The LM1458 does not require an external frequency
compensation circuit and has built in short circuit protection. Lm 1458 has a wide supply voltage range
and it is available in 8 pin mini DIP package.
Four op-amps (2 from each IC) is used in the function generator circuit. First opamp IC 1a is wired as an
astable multivibrator.R1 is the feedback resistor and C1 is the timing capacitor output of IC 1a is feed
back to its non inverting input (pin 3) from the junction of R3 & R2.The output of IC 1a will be a square
wave and its frequency can be varied by varying R1 or C1. The next opamp IC 1b is wired as an
integrator.R5 is the feedback resistor and C2 is the integrating capacitor. Non inverting input of IC 1b
(pin6) is tied to ground using resistor R7. The output of IC 1a which is a square wave is applied to the
inverting input of IC 1b (pin 5) through R4 which is the input resistance of IC 1b.The output of IC 1b will
be a triangular wave form, because integrating a square wave will result in a triangular waveform.

IC 2a forms another integrator, where R11 is its feedback resistor and C3 is the integrating capacitor.R6 is
the input resistance of IC 2a. Non inverting input of IC 2a (pin 3) is tied to ground using the 10K resistor
R8. IC 2b forms an inverting amplifier where R9 is its input resistor and R10 the feedback resistor. With
the used values of R10 and R9, the gain of the inverting amplifier stage will be 27, (AV = -Rf/Rin). The
triangular output waveform from the IC 1b is further integrated using IC 2a inverter using IC 2b circuit
diagram.

Applications of Function Generator

1. Function generators are used for calculating the BPF frequency response.

2. For testing the delay margin.

3. Analyze the audio DAC.

4. To test clock frequency functional range of digital circuits.

5. Analyze switching signals of IGBT circuitry.

Procedure:

STEP 1: Connect the components as mentioned: (A-G1), (B-G2), (C-G3), (D-G4).

STEP 2: Click on 'Check' button to check the connections. If connected connections are wrong, Make the
right connection as per given instruction.

STEP 3: If connections are right, Click on the'Start' button to perform the experiment.

STEP 4: Click on 'Power Off' button to start the experiment.

STEP 5: Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, Phase using the range sliders.

STEP 6: Click on 'Dual' button to observe all the three waveforms.

STEP 7: 'Channel 1' shows the sine waveform, 'Channel 2' shows the triangle waveform and 'Channel 3'
shows the square waveform.

STEP 8: You can also position the waveforms on the graph using the positioning range sliders.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps

 Experiment 6. Astable And Monostable Multivibrator

Aim:

To study astable and monostable multivibrator using IC 555.

Introduction:

A multivibrator is a one type of electronic circuit, that is used to implement a two state system like flip-
flops, timers and oscillators. Multivibrators are categorized by two amplifying devices like electron tubes,
transistors and other devices like capacitors and cross coupled by resistors. Multivibrators are classified
into three types based on the circuit operation, namely Astable multivibrators, Bistable multivibrators
and Monostable multivibrators. The astable multivibrator is not stable and it repeatedly switches from
one state to the other. In monostable multivibrator, one state is stable and remaining state is unstable. A
trigger pulse is the root to the circuit to enter the unstable state. When the circuit enters into the
unstable state, then it will return to the normal state after a fixed time. A bistable mutivibrator circuit is
stable that can be changed from one stable to other stable by an external trigger pulse. This
multivibrator circuit is also called as flipflop which can be used to store one bit of data.

Monostable Multivibrator

Monostable multivibrators have only one stable state that is used to generate a single o/p pulse of a
specified width either high or low when an external trigger pulse is applied. This trigger pulse starts a
timing cycle, which causes the o/p to change its state at the time of start of timing cycle and continues in
the second state which is decided by the time constant of the capacitor C and resistor R until it returns to
its original state. It will continue in this state until another i/p signal is received. Monostable
multivibrators can produce a much longer rectangular waveform. When a trigger pulse is applied
externally then the leading edge of the waveform rises with the externally applied trigger. Here, trailing
edge depends upon the RC time constant of the feedback components used. This RC time constant may
be varied with time to produce a series of pulses which have a fixed time delay to the original triggered
pulse.

Circuit Connections of Monostable Multivibrator with 555 Timer

Fig.1 Monostable Mutivibrator using 555 IC Timer

 In the above circuit, the pin1 is connected to the ground and the trigger input is given to the pin2.In
inactive condition of o/p, this i/p is kept at +VCC. To get transition of the output from a stable state to
unstable state, a negative going pulse of narrow width and amplitude of greater than +2/3 VCC is applied
to pin2. The o/p is taken from pin3 and pin4 is connected to +VCC to avoid accidental reset.Pin5 is
connected to the ground via a 0.01uF capacitor to avoid noise. Pin6 and pin7 are shorted and a resistor is
connected between pins 6 and 8. A discharge capacitor is connected to pin7 while pin8 is connected to
VCC.

Working of Monostable Multivibrator with 555 Timer Circuit

The output of the monostable multivibrator using 555 timer remains in its stable state until it gets a
trigger. In monostable 555 multivibrator, when both the transistor and capacitor are shorted then this
state is called as a stable state. When the voltage goes below at the second pin of the 555 IC, the o/p
becomes high. This high state is called quasi stable state. When the circuit activates then the transition
from a stable state to quasi stable state. Then the discharge transistor is cut off and capacitor starts
charging to VCC. Charging of the capacitor is done via the resistor R1 with a time constant R1C1. Hence,
the voltage of the capacitor increases and finally exceeds 2/3 Vcc, it will change the internal control flip
flop, thereby turning off the 555 timer IC. Thus the o/p goes back to its stable state from an unstable
state. The Time duration of the pulse is given by

T = 1.1RC

Where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

Finally we can conclude that, in the monostable multivibrator using 555 timer, the o/p stays in a low
state until it gets a trigger i/p. This type of operation is used in push to operate systems. When the input
is triggered, then the o/p will go to high state & comes back to its original state.

Advantages of Monostable Multivibrator

1. It needs only one single pulse to start its operation there is no need of extra pulse for its operation.

2. Its construction is very simple and can be constructed easily.

3. Due to simple construction its price is also less.

Disadvantages of Monostable Multivibrator

The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time between the applications of
trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit. Applications of Monostable
Multivibrator

1. Due to time delay capability, it is mostly used in different timer circuits.

2. It also used in different storage circuits.

3. It also used to provide input to other pluse generator circuits.

4. It also has ability to reproduce damage pulses again.

Astable Multivibrator
An astable multivibrator is also known as a free-running multivibrator. It is called free-running because it
alternates between two different output voltage levels during the time it is on. The output remains at
each voltage level for a definite period of time. If you looked at this output on an oscilloscope, you would
see continuous square or rectangular waveforms. The astable multivibrator has two outputs, but no
inputs.

Working of Astable Multivibrator with 555 Timer Circuit

When initially power is turned ON, Trigger Pin voltage is below Vcc/3, that makes the lower comparator
output HIGH and SETS the flip flop and output of the 555 chip is HIGH. This makes the transistor Q1 OFF,
because Qbar, Q’=0 is directly applied to base of transistor. As the transistor is OFF, capacitor C1 starts
charging and when it gets charged to a voltage above than Vcc/3, then Lower comparator output
becomes LOW (Upper comparator is also at LOW) and Flip flop output remains the same as previous
(555 output remains HIGH).

Now when capacitor charging gets to voltage above than 2/3Vcc, then the voltage of noninverting end
(Threshold PIN 6) becomes higher than the inverting end of the comparator. This makes Upper
comparator output HIGH and RESETs the Flip flop, output of 555 chip becomes LOW. As soon as the
output of 555 get LOW means Q’=1, then transistor Q1 becomes ON and short the capacitor C1 to the
Ground. So the capacitor C1 starts discharging to the ground through the Discharge PIN 7 and resistor
R2.

As capacitor voltage get down below the 2/3 Vcc, upper comparator output becomes LOW, now SR Flip
flop remains in the previous state as both the comparators are LOW. While discharging, when capacitor
voltage gets down below Vcc/3, this makes the Lower comparator output HIGH (upper comparator
remain LOW) and Sets the flip flop again and 555 output becomes HIGH. Transistor Q1 becomes OFF and
again capacitor C1 starts charging.
This charging and discharging of capacitor continues and a rectangular oscillating output wave for is
generated. While capacitor is getting charge the output of 555 is HIGH, and while capacitor is getting
discharge output will be LOW. So this is called Astable mode because none of the state is stable and 555
automatically interchange its state from HIGH to LOW and LOW to HIGH, so it is called Free running
Multivibrator. Now, the OUTPUT HIGH and OUTPUT LOW duration, is determined by the Resistors R1 &
R2 and capacitor C1. This can be calculated using below formulas:

Time High (Seconds) T1 = 0.693 * (R1+R2) * C1

Time Low (Seconds) T2 = 0.693 * R2 * C1

Time Period T = Time High + Time Low = 0.693 * (R1+2*R2) * C1

Freqeuncy f = 1/Time Period = 1/ 0.693 * (R1+2*R2) * C1 = 1.44 / (R1+2*R2) * C1

Duty Cycle: Duty cycle is the ratio of time for which the output is HIGH to the total time.

Duty cycle %: (Time HIGH/ Total time) * 100 = (T1/T) * 100 = (R1+R2)/ (R1+2*R2) *100

Advantages of Astable Multivibrator

1. No external triggering required.

2. Circuit design is simple.

3. Inexpensive.

4. Can function continuously.

Disadvantages of Astable Multivibrator

1. Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

2. Output signal is of low energy.

3. Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.

Applications of Astable Multivibrator

Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as amateur radio equipment, Morse code
generators, timer circuits, analog circuits, and TV systems.

Procedure:

STEP 1: Connect the components as mentioned: (1-3), (2-4).

STEP 2: Click on 'Check' button to check the connections. If connected connections are wrong, Make the
right connection as per given instruction.

STEP 3: If connections are right, Click on the'Start' button to perform the experiment.

STEP 4: Toggle On/Off button to control the power to the system.

STEP 5: Move the 'Voltage' range slider to fetch values into table.

STEP 6: Click on 'Plot' button to plot the graph.

Monstable Multivibrator results

Astable multivibrator results
PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

3. Switch ‘ON’ the supply after completing the circuit

4. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps