Master Thesis 2023.04.19.5

Dissertation submitted for Master Degree of Dalian University of Technology
Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response

of High-rise Concrete Buildings.
By
ENG PHEARUM
(201906279)
To
The School of Civil Engineering
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Master
in the subject of
Structural Engineering
on
September 25, 2019
Dissertation Supervisor
Prof. Wang Licheng
大连理工大学
Dalian University of Technology
Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-Rise Concrete Buildings
大连理工大学学位论文独创性声明
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若有不实之处，本人愿意承担相关法律责任。
学位论文题目： Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-

rise Concrete Buildings.
作者签名：日期：2023 年 07 月 12 日
Dalian University of Technology Dissertation Originality

Declaration
I declare that this dissertation is the result of independent research I have done under the
supervision of my supervisor. It does not involve any published or unpublished works or
research results by other individuals or institutions apart from those quoted in the form of
references or notes. All individuals and institutions that have made contributions to my
research have been acknowledged in the acknowledgment.
I am fully aware that I will bear all the legal responsibility arising from violating the
declaration above.
Dissertation Title: Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High- rise
Concrete Buildings.
Author Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 12 Day
I
Abstract
In a high-rise building, the axial deformation of columns cannot be ignored and must
be considered as particular deliberation is required for design and construction. A vertical
member undergoes both elastic and inelastic deformation due to creep and shrinkage. Elastic
deformation occurs instantaneously due to dead loads and live loads applied to the structure,
while deformation due to creep and shrinkage occurs over many years. Most of the vertical
deformation in a high-rise building, however, takes place during its construction.
Due to the difference in axial stiffness and load distribution area on vertical members,
difference shortening inevitably develops. The accurate prediction of vertical elements (i.e,
columns, walls) shortening is required to determine their effects on other structural and
nonstructural elements, which are usually overestimated by linear elastic analysis. Its
adequacy was assessed by comparison of the results for a tall concrete building with those
obtained with commercial software incorporating a nonlinear staged construction analysis
package.
This research presents a set of guidelines so that the effect could be considered
approximately, especially at the preliminary design stage and during the construction phase.
In addition, this study it’s assumed, construction stages analysis considers the creep and
shrinkage effects of a 54-story building consisting of an exterior and interior wall.
In addition, it is carried out using the numerical computation method and the
numerical model will be validated using the results of structural modeling design and
analysis. In order to limit the scope of the research, the study focuses on a high-rise building
with high-strength reinforced concrete columns and core walls where differential axial
shortening problems can be aggravated. The displacement of vertical members is evaluated
and compared with results from nonlinear analysis (construction stages).
As the result, the differential axial shortening between successive floors must be
considered in the façade. As well as, the percentage difference in base reaction between the
nonlinear staged construction analysis case (long-term axial shortening) and load combination
(self-weight + super-imposed dead load + 50% of live load) is approximately 0.00% which is
confirming that all loads have been already considered in nonlinear staged construction
analysis.
Moreover, the differential axial shortening between the core wall and the peripheral
columns must be considered in the design, the proportion of the deformation due to creep and
shrinkage that contribute to the total amount of deformation is 65.80%-75.19% for the column
and 70.40% - 82.10% for the shear wall. Therefore, deformation due to creep and shrinkage
must be considered.
II
Keywords: High-rise building; deformation; Creep and shrinkage effects; Stage construction
analysis; Load-time history; Analysis for column shortening.
Tabble of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................................................
1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic............................................................................

1.2 Aim of the Master's Thesis..................................................................................................
1.3 Research objectives..............................................................................................................
1.4 Scope of Research................................................................................................................
Chapter 2. Literature Review......................................................................................................
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................
2.2 High-rise Building...............................................................................................................
2.2.1 Procedure of Performance-based Design.......................................................- 9 -
2.2.1.1 Basis of Design..............................................................................................- 10 -
2.2.1.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report...................................................................- 10 -
2.2.1.3 Site-specific Probabilistic seismic Hazard Assessment Report....................- 11 -
2.2.1.4 Wind Tunnel.................................................................................................- 11 -
2.3 Theoretical Background of Elastic Deformation in Concrete............................................
2.3.1 Creep Deformation in Concrete...................................................................- 11 -
2.3.2 Factor affecting Creep of Concrete..............................................................- 12 -
2.3.3 Aggregate.....................................................................................................- 12 -
2.3.4 Cement........................................................................................................- 13 -
2.3.5 Water to Cementitious Ratio.......................................................................- 13 -
2.3.6 Chemical Admixtures..................................................................................- 13 -
2.4 Stress-Strength Ratio at Loading.......................................................................................
2.4.1 Age at Loading............................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.2 Size Effect...................................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.1 Curing Conditions.......................................................................................- 15 -
2.4.2 Relative Humidity.......................................................................................- 15 -
III
2.4.3 Temperature under Load.............................................................................- 15 -

2.5 Prediction of Creep of Concrete........................................................................................
2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992).........................................................................................- 15 -
2.5.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001).....................................................................- 16 -
2.6 Shrinkage of Concrete........................................................................................................
2.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.1 Factor Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete.....................................................- 17 -
2.6.2 Aggregate....................................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.3 Cement........................................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.4 Water to Cementitious Ratio......................................................................- 18 -
2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures..................................................................................- 18 -
2.6.6 Mineral admixtures.....................................................................................- 18 -
2.6.7 Size Effect...................................................................................................- 19 -
2.6.8 Curing Conditions.......................................................................................- 19 -
2.6.9 Relative Humidity.......................................................................................- 19 -
2.7 Prediction of Shrinkage......................................................................................................
2.7.1 ACI 209R (1992).........................................................................................- 20 -
2.7.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001).....................................................................- 21 -
2.8 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete.....................................................................................
2.8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................- 21 -
2.8.2 Factor affecting modulus of Elasticity of Concrete....................................- 22 -
2.8.3 Material Properties......................................................................................- 22 -
2.6.4 Mineral Admixtures....................................................................................- 23 -
2.6.5 Prediction of Elastic modulus of Elasticity of Concrete.............................- 23 -
2.6.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete..............................- 24 -
Chapter 3 . Differential Axial Shortening (DAS).....................................................................
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................
3.2 Other Factors influencing in High-rise Buildings..............................................................
3.2.1 Current trends in concrete construction......................................................- 26 -
IV
3.2.3 Current engineering practices to minimize effects......................................- 27 -

3.3 Quantifying Axial Shortening............................................................................................
3.3.1 Concrete models for creep and shrinkage strains........................................- 28 -
3.3.2 Axial Shortening measurement of High-Rise Buildings.............................- 30 -
3.4 Elastic Axial Shortening Differential.................................................................................
Chapter 4. Research Methodology............................................................................................
4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs.....................................................................

4.1.1 Design Philosophy and Concept.................................................................- 32 -
4.1.2 Progress of the Calculating Shortening using Etabs........................................- 34 -
4.2 Case Study.........................................................................................................................
4.3 Design Criteria...................................................................................................................
4.3.1 Software and Assumptions used in the Analysis.........................................- 39 -
4.3.2 Time-dependent Material Properties..............................................................- 39 -
4.3.3 Section Cracking Analysis (Stiffness modifiers)...........................................- 40 -
4.4 Design Loading..................................................................................................................
4.4.1 Load factor and Serviceability Combinations.............................................- 40 -
4.5 Construction Loading Sequence (CSA).............................................................................
4.5.1 Construction Stage Analysis.......................................................................- 42 -
4.6 Material Properties.............................................................................................................
4.6.1 Calculation of Creep Strain According to ACI 209-90...............................- 44 -
4.6.2 Calculation of Shrinkage Strain According to ACI 209-90........................- 45 -
Chapter 5. Result and Summary................................................................................................
5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall...........................................................

5.2 Axial Shortening of the Column after 50 years.................................................................
5.3 Axial shortening of the Wall after 50 years.......................................................................
5.4 Long-term shortening Value to be used in Slabs Design...................................................
5.5 Verification of Load Combination due to Axial Shortening.............................................
5.5.1 Base reaction verification............................................................................- 59 -
5.5.2 Creep and Shrinkage Percentage versus Building Height...........................- 60 -
V
5.5.3 Compensation of Long-term Axial Shortening in Shuttering Level...........- 61 -

Chapter 6. Conclusions..............................................................................................................
References - 63 -
Appendix A Collected accumulative long-term (LT) axial shortening for columns and walls
after 50 years..................................................................................................................................
Appendix B Differential long-term axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years
(Façade design)..............................................................................................................................
Appendix C....................................................................................................................................
Appendix D....................................................................................................................................
Publications during Masters Study................................................................................................
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................................................
Dalian University of Technology..................................................................................................
Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation.......................................................
VI
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic
The idea of a tall building has always been an exciting one for mankind. Towards the
end of the 19th century, the construction of the tall building started in Chicago due to new
inventions such as the elevator and the telephone [1]. Since the first appearance of high-rise
buildings, there has been a transformation in their design and construction. The trends in the
tall building have been discussed by Parker and Wood (2013). According to the council on
tall building and urban habitat, buildings of 14 stories or 50 meters in height and are could be
considered as "Tall buildings"; buildings of 3000 meters and 600 meters height and above are
classified as "super-tall buildings" and "megamall buildings" respectively [2]. The council has
accordingly indicated the following ranges of building height:
 200-300 m: tall building
 300-600 m: super-tall buildings
 > 600 m: mega tall buildings
In 2016, over 100 super-tall buildings and 2 mega tall buildings were fully completed
and occupied globally.
(a)
Fig 1.1 (a) Fig 1.1 (b) Fig 1.1 (c)

Fig 1.1 High-rise building (a) The Burj Khalifa (b) Shanghai Tower (c) Makkah Royal Clock Tower
Research by the council on tall buildings and Urban habitats illustrates the recent explosive growth in
the number of tall buildings. Plotting the number of skyscrapers 200
1
Number of 200m + buildings Number of 200m + buildings, minimum Projected 200m + buildings completion range,
minimum
Number of supertalls (300m +) Number of supertalls (300m +), Projected supertalls (300m +) completion range,
minimum minimum
Number of megamalls (600m +) Number of megamalls (600m +), Projected megamalls (600m +) completion, minimum
minimum
Fig 1.2 Steady build-up during 1990.
2
meters or higher completed ear year since 1960 (Fig 1.2) shows a steady build-up during the
1990s, followed by exponential growth from the mid-2000s onwards. Although there has been
a very definite drop-in skyscraper activity in most western countries recently due to the global
numbers completed during 2012 compared to the year previously), in the longer term, this is
generally being offset by activity in Asia-and China specifically: now expect the global
number of a tall building completed in Fig 1.2. Tall buildings completed each year over 200
meters, 300 meters, and 600 meters since 1960.
The inset shows the total number of completed buildings by decade, revealing
exponential growth [2]. 2013-2014 building completion are predicted from a project in the
advanced constructor; total after 2001 consider the destruction of the world trade center
towers 1 and 2. Each year to keep climbing for the foreseeable future. It’s also worth noting
that although there was a dip in the number of building completions in 2012 relative to the
year previous, 2012 still saw the third-highest number of tall building completions over 200
meters in history.
The detailed statistics are quite staggering. At the time of writing (January 2013),
some 56 of the current 100 tallest building buildings in the world have been completed since
the end of 2005. In addition, a further 24 buildings are expected to enter the list by the end of
2013, which will translate into a 68 percent change in the “world’s 100 Tallest” in just eight
years (this change takes into account those building completed since 2005, but subsequently
pushed out of the list by newer, taller buildings). To translate statistics into the actual building
Fig 1.3 shows the current 20 tallest buildings in the world. Of these, eleven have been
completed since the end of 2005-55 percent.
3
Fig. 1.3 Diagram of the world’s tallest 20 building according to the CTBUH height
criterion of “height to architectural top” [2]
The tall building is indisputably getting taller, in terms both of the tallest and of the
global average height. As the graph on the average height of the world’s 100 tallest buildings
over the past eight decades (Fig 1.4 overleaf) shows, the average height has more than
doubled in that time and increased by 13 percent in the period 2000-2010 alone. At the
“world’s tallest” (see Fig 1.5 overleaf) any building surpassed its predecessor by more than 68
meters, but Buji Khalifa achieved a leap of an unprecedented 320 meters over the previous
world’s tallest, Taipei 101. The total height of the Burj Khalifa is just five meters shy of the
equivalent height of putting the Empire State Building on top of Petronas Towers (both
formerly the “world’s tallest” buildings).
Trend 3: A change in location
The predominant location of the tallest buildings in the world has been changing
rapidly. whereas as recently as 1990, 80 of the “world’s 100 tallest” were located in North
America, now that Fig is only 23, with the shift predominantly to Asia (45, with 31 in China
alone), and the middle east (27, with 20 in Dubai alone).
Fig.1.3.1a History of the “world’s tallest building” .
4
Fig.1.3.1b Structural material of the world’s tallest buildings.
5
70
60
50
40
20
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1980
1970
North America Asia Middle East Europe
South America Australia Central America Africa
Fig. 1.3.2 100 tallest building by location.
100
80
60
40
20
0
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
Office Mixed-use
Hotel Residential
Fig.1.3.3 100 tallest building by function, 1930-

2012.
6
100
80
60
40
20
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
Steel Concrete Composite
Mixed Residential
Fig.1.3.5 100 tallest building by structural material, 1930-2012 .
Trend 5: A change in structural material: The revolution in structural material has also been
very significant over the past few decades. The proportion of all-steel structure building in the
‘100 tallest’ list has fallen from 90 percent as recently as 1970 to just 17 percent, shifting in
favor of concrete or composite structures as shown in Fig. 1.3.5.
1.2 Aim of the Master's Thesis

The construction of high-rise buildings introduces problems that do not exist for low-
rise buildings. One of the serviceability problems associated with high-rise buildings is the
shortening of vertical structural members caused by elastic deformation, such as creep and
drying shrinkage. In actuality, this shortening also occurs in low-rise buildings, but the stress
applied to the members in these types of facilities is comparatively low, and the amounts of
accumulated deformation are negligible due to the lower heights of the buildings. As a
building becomes higher, the large gravity load causes vertical members to shorten
considerably, and the effect of shortening on both structural and nonstructural members can
be potent. Therefore, the shortening problem is mainly considered in high-rise buildings. The
total shortening and the differential shortening are assessed according to their fundamental
causes, as shown in Fig 1.2. Total shortening accumulates due to vertical members' elastic and
inelastic deformation on every floor.
7
Axial shortening (AS) of these composite columns due to time-dependent phenomena

of basic creep, shrinkage, and elastic deformation is an inherent challenge in high-rise
buildings. The magnitudes of this deformation in each member may differ due to differences
in load tributary areas, the loading history, and the geometric and material properties.
As a consequence, the differential axial shortening between these members occurs.
Unfavorable effects of differential axial shortening in building constructed with concrete were
first observed in the 1960s, in tall reinforced of more than 30 stories [3]. More recently in a 45-
story RC building in Chicago, Illinois William D. Bast et al. (2003) measured 101.6mm of
axial shortening of the core wall at the 45 th floor as marked by the gap created between the
condenser riser pipe support.
They further measured similar high axial shortening values on several other floors by
visual inspections of the building, including a downward "scrape" on the elevator guide rail
produced by the mounting bracket at the top floor of each elevator run, highlighting the
necessity of making the axial shortening study an essential serviceability checks for high rise
buildings. Other studies, including those [4], indicated similar trends by measuring
deformations in several high-rise buildings. The adverse effects of this differential axial
shortening in a high-rise building include sloping of floor plates, cracking in beams and slobs
due to the excess stresses induced, buckling of elevator guide rails and pipes, damage to
Fig. 1.2 Failure of wall panel due to differential axial

shortening.
8
partitions and the façade of buildings or column cladding and thus reducing the functionality
of the structure.
1.3 Research objectives
Today, the prediction of shortening and shortening effectiveness is most effectively
achieved using advanced structural analysis software. However, it is vital to understand the
behavior of the software and the types of analysis options available as compared with the
physical behavior of the actual building. It is also helpful and recommended to estimate the
anticipated shortening amounts and validate the results from the analysis software.
The leading cause of vertical shortening in a tall building is the compression of
vertical elements under the load they carry. This is known as elastic shortening. In reinforced
concrete buildings, creep, and shrinkage of the concrete cause additional shortening of
vertical elements beyond the elastic shortening. Foundation settlement and deflection of
structural transfer technically are not shortening of vertical elements. Their effects should be
considered where appropriate.
1.4 Scope of Research
This research is carried out using the numerical computational method. The numerical
model will be validated using the results of structural modeling design and analysis. In order
to limit the scope of the research, the study focuses on high-rise buildings with high-strength
reinforced concrete columns and reinforced concrete shear cores where the differential axial
shortening problem can be aggravated. The system of high-rise buildings resists the lateral
Load Deformation Exterior Interior

appli on applied
ed
Cross section
Elastic
strain
Load effect
Creep strain
Shrinkage
strain Differential shortening
Thermal strain
strain
Causes of total Causes of differential

Strain shortening
Fig. 1.4 Vertical shortening.
9
and gravity load. This research will verify a comprehensive method to quantify the
differential axial shortening of t a high-rise building with reinforced concrete columns as
shown in Fig. 1.4.
Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Tall buildings present unique challenges in terms of both design and construction.
Their sheer scale demands that particular attention is paid simultaneously to strategic and
detailed issues. Tall building design and construction require an integrated approach, with the
need for various engineering disciplines to coexist efficiently from the beginning of the
project. This multi-disciplinary approach extends to consideration of how the building will be
constructed and thus ideally involves an integrated team (including construction and design
professionals) at the earliest stage of the project.
The definition of “tall” of a building is not absolute. It’s understood here as when the
geometry of the building, for example, overall height or height-to-minimum-plan dimension,
significantly influences aspects of the design. These aspects are:
 Structural lateral strength and stiffness

 Vertical transportation
 Fire escape
 Services distribution
 Vertical building movement
 Hoisting of materials.
One definition is that if the building aspect ratio, height divided by the lowest overall
lateral dimension, is more than 5:1, then the building may be considered tall. For consistency,
this document will refer to tall buildings in preference to other common terms including
‘skyscraper’, ‘high-rise’, or ‘tower’, except for sections describing historical context. The
term ‘tall’ may also be sub-divided as follows:
Use (approx. storey height) Tall Supertall-tall

Residential (3.0m) Up to 100 storey (300 m) Over 100 storeys (300 m)
Office (4.0 m) Up to 75 storey (300 m) Over 75 storeys (300 m)
Tab. 2.1 Definition of ‘Tall’
10
2.2 High-rise Building

2.2.1 Procedure of Performance-based Design
Tall building design involves all the design interfaces present in low-rise construction
but there are also several key additional factors that designers must consider. This is
particularly relevant for structural engineers but equally so for clients, architects, and building
services engineers. In addition, the design development is likely to involve input and
collaboration from other specialists, including:
 Façade engineers
 Wind specialists
 Geotechnical specialists
 Seismic specialists
 Fire consultants
 Construction advisors.
For a design to be effective and economic, it’s essential that all disciplines work
holistically and gain a good understanding of the critical factors which have an impact on the
associated disciplines. The following sections give an overview of the various elements
structural engineers need to be aware of when building tall buildings. The choice of structural
system is fundamental to planning a building and must be considered at the outset. One of the
main factors in tall building design, and the critical difference from the design of low-rise
buildings, is the influence of lateral loading. For low-rise construction, measures to resist
lateral loading are well understood by most designers and include well-positioned stiff
vertical elements working in conjunction with horizontal diaphragms.
2.2.1.1 Basis of Design

 Description of building
 Structural system
 Codes, standards, and references
 Loading criteria (gravity load, seismic load, wind load)
 Material
 Modeling, analysis, and design procedures
 Acceptance criteria
2.2.1.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report

 SPT values
 Soil stratification and properties
 Soil types for seismic loading
 Ground water level
11
 Allowable bearing capacity (factor to increase in capacity for transient loads and stress
peaks)
 Sub-grade modulus (vertical and lateral)
 Pile foundation
→ Ultimate end bearing pressure vs. pile length
→ Ultimate skin friction pressure vs. pile length
→ Allowable bearing capacity
→ Allowable pullout capacity
→ Basement wall pressure
2.2.1.3 Site-specific Probabilistic seismic Hazard Assessment Report

 Recommend response spectra (SLE, DBE, MCE)
 Ground motion scaled for MCE spectra
 If piles are modeled in the nonlinear model, depth-varying ground motions along the
pile length, springs, and dashpots
 If vertical members are restrained at pile cap level, Amplified ground motions at
surface level.
2.2.1.4 Wind Tunnel

Wind-induced structural loads and building motion study
 10-years return period wind load

 50-years or 700-year return period wind load
 Comparison of wind tunnel test results with various wind codes
 Floor accelerations (1-year, 5-year return periods)
 Natural frequency sensitivity study
2.3 Theoretical Background of Elastic Deformation in Concrete

The elastic or the instantaneous deformation of concrete is governed by the magnitude
and rate of stress application and young’s modulus of elasticity. Three conventions for the
modulus of elasticity are present and these are elaborated in Fig. 2.3.1.
2.3.1 Creep Deformation in Concrete

Creep is the time-dependent increase of strain in the hardened concrete under
sustained stress [5]. Creep is generally obtained by subtracting instantaneous strain after
loading application and shrinkage strain in the non-loaded specimen, from the total measured
strain with the change of time in a loaded specimen. Creep is classified into a basic and drying
creep. Basic creep occurs under conditions without moisture movement between the specimen
12
and the environment. Drying creep is the additional creep due to moisture movement between
the specimen and the environment. Fig. 2.3.1 shows the relation of deformation of concrete
after loading application with time.
deformation due to creep

Deformation after loading
deformation due to shrinkage
Elastic shortening
Time after loading

Fig. 2.3.1 Relation of deformation after loading application verus
time.
2.3.2 Factor affecting Creep of Concrete
Creep in the current study is on the creep behavior of concrete under compressive
stress. The creep of concrete is influenced by many factors, which are classified into intrinsic
and extrinsic. Intrinsic factors consist of the proportions and properties of the material in
concrete. Extrinsic factors consist of the size of the concrete member, age of loading
application, applied stress-strength ratio, curing conditions, ambient temperature, and relative
humidity surrounding concrete under load.
2.3.3 Aggregate
Aggregates play an important role in the creep of concrete. Aggregate provides a
restraining effect on creep [6]. Generally, higher aggregate content results in lower creep. It
proposed an equation to indicate the relation between aggregate content and creep shown
below:
(2.3)
13
(2.4)
where:
cp is the creep of neat cement paste
c is the creep of concrete
g is the aggregate content
µ is Poisson’s ratio of concrete
µα is Poisson’s ratio of aggregate
E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete
Eα is the modulus of elasticity of aggregate
According to the study by Neville [6], for concrete specimens loaded at 14 days with a
stress-strength ratio of 0.5 stored in 90% relative humidity condition, a linear relationship was
obtained and after 28 days of loading for basic creep. The magnitude was
based on the age of initial loading and the change of modulus of elasticity of concrete with
time after loading application. A similar observation was made by Polivka [7] for both basic
creep and drying creep of concrete.
2.3.4 Cement
Cement paste is the base of the creep phenomenon, so cement has a great influence on
the creep of concrete. According to Neville [6], it was observed that creep was inversely
proportional to the rate of hardening of the cement. It was logical that the higher rate of
hardening of cement, the more hydrated cement, and the restraining effect on creep.
Typically, the concrete with rapid-hardening portland (type III) cement results in lower creep
than the concrete with standard portland (type I) cement for both dry-stored and wet-stored
conditions [8], which was due to the higher strength of type II portland cement concrete at the
age of loading compared with type I cement concrete.
2.3.5 Water to Cementitious Ratio

Typically, creep increases with an increase in the water-cementitious (w/c) ratio [6]. In
1970, Lorman [9] suggested that creep was approximately proportional to the square of the w/c
ratio. This phenomenon was confirmed by Wager and Hummel, whose results were cited by
Neville [6]. From the study by Wager, the effect of the w/c ratio on creep was investigated, and
specimens were prepared with constant cement paste content of 20% by weight with a w/c
ratio ranging from 0.35 to 0.9.
It was found that the higher the w/c ratio, the higher the ultimate specific creep. In
another study by Hummel, all concretes had an aggregate-cement ratio of 5.4, and a similar
14
trend was found, and the ultimate specific creep with a w/c ratio of o.4 was approximately
10% higher than with a w/c ratio of 0.3.
2.3.6 Chemical Admixtures
Mineral admixture, including ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), fly ash,
and silica fume, are widely used as a partial replacement for Portland cement in high-
performance concrete. It is a glassy material with cementitious property formed when molten
blast-furnace slag is rapidly cooled, such as by immersion in water, and slag mainly consists
of silicates and aluminosilicate of calcium [10]. Fly ash is a by-product of coal combustion with
both pozzolanic and cementitious properties [11].
2.4 Stress-Strength Ratio at Loading
According to a wide range of investigations [6], creep is proportional to the applied
stress and inversely proportional to the strength at the time of application of load. Although
some other research indicated a higher upper limit of stress-strength ratio to 0.75 or 0.80,
generally the upper limit was approximately 0.60. In the study by Jones and Richart [16], the
measured creep of concrete specimens was proportional with a stress-strength ratio up to 0.6,
and beyond this limit creep increased more quickly than the increase of applied stress.
Similar behavior of concrete was observed for concrete specimens with different
stress-strength ratios and different initial applications of load [12]. According to the study by
L’Hermite and Mamilla [13], the linear relation was obtained for concrete stored in water
initially at 7 days, 35 days, 70 days, 1 year, and 5.5 years. In the study by Haranki [14], the
linear limit was 0.5 for high-performance concrete after the loading of 91 days. The linear
limit for creep in compression is 40% of concrete compressive strength [15].
2.4.1 Age at Loading
The same concrete loaded at different ages undergoes a different growth in strength,
so for the constant applied stress, creep depends on the age at loading. The strength of the
younger concrete is lower, and the creep is higher, and the older concrete has the opposite
characteristics. In the study by Yashin [17], it was found that when the strength gain of concrete
was smaller the creep was higher. Another study confirmed this behavior, and for the same
concrete, 18% higher creep was obtained for the concrete loaded at 1 day than 3 days after the
loading of 28 days [7].
Loading age effect on creep was also observed by Bryant [18] for both unsealed and
sealed specimens, and the earlier loading the higher creep. In the study by Khan [19], the effect
of age of loading on creep for normal concrete, medium concrete, and high-strength concrete
was investigated. It was found that the creep of high-strength concrete was more sensitive to
the early age of loading than that of normal and medium concrete.
15
2.4.2 Size Effect

It’s important for the shape and size of specimens to make a transition from the results
obtained in the laboratory to actual full-size concrete members under drying conditions.
Neville [6] summarized several investigations and found that the measured creep decreased
with a 90 cm size effect and became negligible. Generally, the influence of size on creep
under drying conditions is great during the initial period (first several weeks) after the
application of load, but after that, the rate of creep is comparable for all specimens with
different diameters ranging.
2.4.1 Curing Conditions
Curing condition has a great effect on the creep of concrete. Low-pressure steam
curing is frequently used for the construction of prestressed concrete with the consideration of
efficiency and economy. Generally, low-pressure steam curing results in lower creep of
concrete than moist the age of loading [6]. According to the study by ACI [20], the effect of two
curing conditions was investigated, including steam curing at 66 C for 13 hours, and moist
curing at 24 C for 5 or 6 days.
2.4.2 Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is an important extrinsic factor affecting the creep of concrete.
Typically, higher relative humidity during loading results in lower creeps due to the decrease
in the drying effect of concrete. In 1958, the study by Troxell, 4 by 14 in. cylindrical
specimens were prepared and after 28 days moist-curing loaded at a relative humidity of 50%,
70%, and 100%. It was observed that the creep of concrete specimens at 50% relative
humidity was 2 to 3 times higher than that of concrete at a relative humidity of 100% after 25
years. Concrete at 70% relative humidity had moderate creep.
2.4.3 Temperature under Load
The temperature under load is another extrinsic factor affecting creep. Generally, the
higher temperature results in higher creep during a certain temperature range [6]. This behavior
was confirmed by Hannant [21]. In this study, it was observed that the specific creep of sealed
specimens had a linear relationship with temperatures ranging from 27 to 08 C) with a
duration of loading of 7333 days. Nasser and Neville [22] took another study to investigate the
influence of temperature on the creep of concrete. All specimens were submerged in the water
all the time, and they were loaded at the age of 14 days. After 15 months under load, the
behavior was observed between creep and temperature at the stress-strength ratio 0.35 for the
temperature in the range of 46 to 96 C.
16
2.5 Prediction of Creep of Concrete

For the prediction of creep of concrete without actual measurement of local material
mixtures, the following five models were used, including AASHTO-LRFD [23], ACI 209R-90
Modified [24], CEB-FIP90[25], and Bazant [26]. CEB-FIP 90[25] also provides the relation between
temperature and maturity of concrete. Therefore, if the concrete is steam-cured, the maturity
of concrete after steam-curing could be calculated, and the adjusted age of the concrete could
be used in creep and shrinkage models.
2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992)

The expression for creep coefficient at the standard condition is given as:
(2.5)
This equation is applicable for both 1-3 days steam cured concrete and 7-days moist-cured
concrete.
where:
t is days after loading
vt is the creep coefficient after t days of loading
vu is the ultimate creep coefficient, and the average value suggested

γc is correction factors for a condition other than the standard concrete composition,
which is defined as:
(2.6)
in which:
γta is a correction factor for loading age, which is defined as:
(2.7)
for loading ages later than 7 days for moist cured concrete
(2.8)
for loading ages later than 1-3 days for steam-cured concrete
γλ is the correction factor ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:
for (2.9)
where the relative humidity is the percent
17
γvs is the correction factor average thickness of member or volume-to-surface ratio. When
the average thickness of the member is other than 150 mm or the volume-to-surface
ratio is other than 38 mm.
2.5.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)
This model is the same as ACI 209-90 [24], and an additional modification factor for
compressive strength is considered:
(2.10)
where:
is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete
(2.11)
'
f c is 28-day compressive strength.
2.6 Shrinkage of Concrete
2.6.1 Introduction
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened concrete with time. Shrinkage of
hardened concrete is divided into drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage [5]. Drying
shrinkage is caused by moisture loss in the concrete. Autogenous shrinkage (or basic
shrinkage or chemical shrinkage) is due to the hydration of cement. Autogenous shrinkage
typically is negligible in concrete with a higher water performance concrete [27].
Carbonation shrinkage results from the carbonation of cement hydration products in
the presence of carbon dioxide. Bazant (2000) found that good concrete carbonation occurs
only in the surface layer with a thickness of serval millimeters, so the carbonation shrinkage
in negligible. This was confirmed by Person [29] and Malhotra [30]. For high-performance
concrete used for prestressed bridge girders, carbonation shrinkage is negligible compared
with drying shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage.
2.6.1 Factor Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete
Shrinkage of concrete is influenced by an intrinsic and extrinsic factor similar to
creep. The intrinsic factor contains the proportions and properties of mixtures. Extrinsic factor
consists of the size of the concrete, age of concrete exposure to the ambient condition, curing
conditions, ambient temperature, and relative humidity after exposure.
2.6.2 Aggregate
Aggregate has a significant effect on the shrinkage of concrete. Aggregate provides
the restraining effect of shrinkage [6], and the more aggregate the higher the restraining effect
18
and the lower shrinkage. Pickett [31] proposed an equation to describe the effect of aggregate
content on the shrinkage of concrete:
Shrinkage ratio (2.12)

where,
Sc is the shrinkage of concrete
Sp is the shrinkage of neat paste
a is the percent aggregate content by volume
n is the experimental exponent, and typically between 1.2 to 1.7[13].
2.6.3 Cement
Cement type and fineness have a slight influence on the shrinkage of concrete [6].
According to the studies by Swayze [32], the finer cement typically resulted in higher shrinkage
of cement pastes, but not necessarily caused higher shrinkage of concrete. A similar
conclusion was also made by Bennett [33]. Typically, rapid-hardening (type III) Portland
cement and other mineral admixture such as slag and fly ash resulted in higher autogenous
shrinkage of concrete [34].
2.6.4 Water to Cementitious Ratio
Water to cementitious (w/c) ratio is another factor influencing both shrinkage and
autogenous shrinkage. A higher w/c ratio typically causes higher drying shrinkage, which is
due to the reduction of the effective volume of restraining aggregate caused by higher water
content [35]. In the study by Odman [36], the effect of the w/c ratio on the shrinkage of concrete
was investigated, and it was found that the shrinkage of concrete increased with an increase in
the w/c ratio in drying conditions. Similar behaviors were observed by Soraka [37].
2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures

Chemical admixtures are widely used in high-performance concrete, and the effect on
the shrinkage of concrete highly depends on the chemical compositions and dosages.
According to the study by Keene [41], it was found that air-entrainment agents had no effect on
the shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions. This was confirmed by Kosmatka (2008).
In the study by Brooks (1989), seven sets of data on the drying shrinkage of concrete
were summarized, and it was indicated that plasticizers and superplasticizers typically
increased the drying shrinkage of concrete by 20%. However, some other investigators had
the opposite conclusion, and decreased shrinkage of concrete was observed due to the use of
high-range water-reducing agents [40].
19
2.6.6 Mineral admixtures

Slag, fly ash, and silica fume are three types of partial replacement materials for
Portland cement used in high-performance concrete. They also influence the behavior of
shrinkage of concrete. Slag influences the shrinkage of concrete. In the study by Tazawa [38],
there were three levels of replacement of Portland cement with slag, including 0%, 35%, and
55%. It was observed that slag decreased the shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions
after 28 days of storage, and the higher the slag content the lower effect of slag on the
shrinkage of concrete. In another study by Sakai [39], the effect of four levels of replacement of
Portland cement with slag including 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80% in concrete was investigated.
It was indicated that shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions increased with an
increase of slag content from 50% to 60%, then decreased with an increase of slag content
was also observed by Brooks [41]. According to a later study [38], the effect of slag content in the
range of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 70% and three levels of fineness of slag particles on autogenous
shrinkage was investigated.
Generally, particle replacement of Portland cement with fly ash has no significant
influence on the shrinkage of concrete under a given drying condition [11], but affects
autogenous shrinkage. According to the study by Naik [42], the effect of class C fly ash of 0%
and 30% replacement of Portland cement on the shrinkage of concrete was investigated. It
was observed that fly ash decreased early-age autogenous shrinkage of concrete and increased
it at later ages.
2.6.7 Size Effect
The size of a specimen has a significant effect on the shrinkage of concrete underlying
conditions. In the study by Carlson [43], mass concrete was stored in the air with 50% relative
humidity. It was observed that the drying thickness was about 76.2 mm from the surface after
one month, and about 228 mm after ten years, which indicated the size effect on the drying
process of concrete. Hansen reported that volume to surface (v/s) ratio was a reasonable
indicator of size effect on drying shrinkage, and it was observed that a higher v/s ratio
typically resulted in lower drying shrinkage during 1200 days [44]. It was additionally indicated
that the effect of the shape of concrete members on drying shrinkage is small when specimens
had similar v/s ratios.
2.6.8 Curing Conditions
Curing condition is an extrinsic factor affecting the shrinkage of concrete. Steam
curing is widely used for high-performance concrete of prestressed members. In the study by
Townsend [45], it was observed that steam-cured concrete had 45% higher shrinkage than
moist-cured at the storage of 1 week under drying conditions, but after 14 weeks this value
became 11%.
20
It was indicated that steam curing increased the initial shrinkage of concrete
significantly, and decreased the rate of shrinkage at later ages. According to the study, it was
found that concretes with 14-day moist curing had smaller shrinkage under drying conditions
compared with concretes with 7-day moist curing, which was due to the higher maturity of
concrete under 14-days moist curing [14].
2.6.9 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity of storage has a great influence on shrinkage under drying
conditions. Concrete swells in the water or the air with 100% relative humidity, and shrinks
when the relative humidity is below 94% [35]. In the study by Troxell [46], concrete specimens
were stored in three conditions of relative humidity for concrete from 50% relative humidity
had 30% higher shrinkage at 1 year and 45% high shrinkage at 25 years compared with
concrete stored at the condition of 70% relative humidity. A similar conclusion was made by
Bissonnette [47].
2.7 Prediction of Shrinkage
For the prediction of shrinkage of concrete without actual measurements of local
material mixtures, the following five models are typically used, including AASTO-LRFD
2010, ACI 209R-90, ACI 209R modified, CEB-FIP 90, and Bazant B3.
2.7.1 ACI 209R (1992)

The expression for shrinkage strain at the standard conditions is given as:
(2.13)
shrinkage after 7 days for moist cured concrete
(2.14)
shrinkage after 1-3 days for steam-cured concrete
where:
t is days after the end of the initial wet curing
(εsh)u is the ultimate shrinkage strain, and the average value suggested for
(2.15)
γsh is a correction factor for conditions other than the standard concrete composition
which is defined as:
(2.16)
in which:
21
γλ is a correction factor for ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:
(2.17)
where λ, is the relative humidity in percent
(2.18)
where λ, is the relative humidity in percent
γvs is a correction factor for the average thickness of member or volume-to-surface
ratio. when the average thickness of the member is other than 150 mm or the volume-to-
surface ratio is other than 38 mm, two methods are offered.
(a) Average Thickness Method
For the average thickness of members less than 150 mm, the factors are given in Tab
2.2.5.1 in ACI 209R-92[5]. For the average thickness of members greater than 15mm and up to
about 300-380 mm, the equation is given:
, (2.19)
during the first year after loading.
(2.20)
where h, is the average thickness of the member in inches and it’s for ultimate value.
(b) Volume-surface ratio method
For members with volume-to-surface area other than 38 mm, the equations are given:
(2.21)
where v/s, is the volume-surface ratio in inches.
γs is a correction factor for the slump, and equations are given as:
(2.22)
where, s, is the observed slump in inches.
γp is a correction factor for fine aggregate percentage, which is defined as:
(2.23)
where ρ ≤ 50 is percent.
(2.24)
where ρ>50 is percent.
where ρ is the ratio of the fine aggregate to the total aggregate by weight expressed as a
percentage.
γc is a correction factor for cement content, which is defined as:
(2.25)
where α is the air content in percent.
22
2.7.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)
(2.26)
γst,s is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete:
(2.27)
2.8 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
2.8.1 Introduction
The modulus of elasticity is an important property of hardened concrete. Concrete is a
composite material, including aggregate and cement paste. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete highly depends on the properties and proportions of the mixture materials’ standard
C469 provides the method to measure the static modulus of elasticity of concrete is
compression. The elastic modulus of concrete has a significant effect on the behavior of
prestressed bridge girders, such as camber.
2.8.2 Factor affecting modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is greatly influenced by the material properties
and mineral admixtures, and the effect of other factors is not significant.
2.8.3 Material Properties

Concrete is a composite of aggregate and cement paste, and it’s typically a composite
soft material due to the higher modulus of elasticity of aggregate than cement paste [6]. Neville
cited two equations for elastic moduli of composite shown below [6]:
(2.28)
which, (Composite hard material when Em > Ep).
(2.29)
which, (Composite hard material when Em < Ep ).
where:
E is the modulus of elasticity of the composite material; Em is the modulus of elasticity
of the matrix phase; Ep is the modulus of elasticity of the particle phase; g = the fractional
volume of the particles.
Aggregate plays an important role in the modulus of elasticity of concrete. Typically,
higher aggregate content and higher modulus of elasticity of aggregate result in higher elastic
23
moduli of concrete. Those conclusions were confirmed, and empirical equations were
proposed [49].
The relation of stress and strain for aggregate, cement paste, and concrete are shown in
Fig 2.8.3.A reasonable explanation for the curved shape of concrete was given. The rate of
increase of induced strain at the interface of aggregate and cement paste was much higher
than the rate of applied stress development beyond a certain range [35].
Further explanation of the effect of the bound of aggregate and cement paste on the
elastic modulus of concrete was also provided. The difference in modulus of elasticity
Fig. 2.8.3 Stress-strain relations for aggregate, cement paste and concrete.
between aggregate and cement paste plays an important role in the modulus of elasticity of
concrete. In high-performance concrete, the difference in modulus of elasticity between
aggregate and cement and higher modulus of elasticity of concrete. In high-performance
concrete, the linear part in a stress and strain curve as high as 85% of ultimate strength or
even higher was observed.
2.6.4 Mineral Admixtures

Mineral admixture is typically added in high-performance concrete as partial
replacement materials for Portland cement. The influence of slag on the modulus of elasticity
of concrete is small [51]. In the study, the effect of 0%, 30%, 50%, and 70% slag replacement
of Portland cement on the property of concrete was investigated [41]. No significant influence
of slag on elastic moduli was observed. It was indicated that dry-stored slag concrete had
higher elastic moduli at early ages, but lower at later ages compared with concrete without
slag, and the opposite trend was found for water-stored concrete.
24
Fly ash has also a slight influence on the modulus of elasticity of concrete, including
class fly ash (Lane, 1982) and class C fly ash (Yildirim, 2011). Silica fume increases the
elastic moduli of concrete within certain content.
According to the study by Alfes [51], it was indicated 10% silica fume as the
replacement of Portland cement increased the elastic moduli of concrete by 12% at 28 days,
but 20% silica fume increased it by 7% at 28 days compared with concrete without silica
fume. In the study by Mazloom (2004), the effect of four levels of replacement of Portland
cement with silica fume including 0%, 6%, 10%, and 15% on the modulus of elasticity of
concrete was investigated. It was found that elastic moduli increased within 10% at 7 days
and 28 days with an increase in silica fume content.
2.6.5 Prediction of Elastic modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
Typically, the relation between the modulus of elasticity of concrete and
corresponding compressive strength is provided, which is not due to a direct relation between
elastic moduli and compressive strength, but because of the convenience of measurement of
compressive strength.
2.6.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete

According to the study by Martinez [53], it was found that the expression of eq 2.31
overestimated the modulus of elasticity for high-performance concrete with a compressive
strength between 41.37 MPa and 82.74 MPa. A correlation between the modulus of elasticity
and compressive strength for normal-weight concrete was reported below:
(2.30)
where:
Ec is the density of concrete.
25
Chapter 3. Differential Axial Shortening (DAS)

3.1 Introduction
The magnitude of time-dependent deformation varies in vertical structural components
due to many factors. These differentials lead to numerous serviceability problems, such as
tilting floor plates, distortion of non-structural elements such as cladding and facades, and
other services such as lift guide rails and plumbing systems. One good example is the tallest
high-rise in the world the Burj Kalifa tower in UAE [4].
According to Moragaspitiya et al. [54], this tower had to be closed soon after opening due to
the failure of the lift operation which may be a result of the adverse effects of differential
axial shortening. In addition to the serviceability, differential axial shortening can also alter
the load paths in the structure which may induce excessive stresses on some vertical elements
and horizontal elements such as the outriggers [55].
Several researchers have therefore attempted to study the differential axial shortening
of reinforced concrete high-rise buildings. Baker et al. conducted axial shortening studies of
Burj Khalifa in UAE using several three-dimensional finite element analysis models [4]. Each
model represents a discrete time strep during construction and time-dependent load
application. The stiffness change of concrete was adopted in the models at the time steps.
The main drawback of this quantification is due to the wide discrete time steps
considered during the axial shortening quantifications [54] conducted analytical studies on the
axial shortening of selected members in the World tower building, in Sydney. The ACI
concrete models were used to obtain the time-varying Yong’s modulus, creep coefficient, and
shrinkage coefficient, and the predictions were compared with the in-situ measurements.
Blius et al. [55] proposed a relationship between the modulus of elasticity and
compressive strength for concrete mixes used in the middle east in the strength range from
70-100 MPa. This was used in the spreadsheet method developed to calculate the expected
differential axial shortening in Dubai Tower Doha, a 438-tall building in Qatar.
26
In this, each member is considered for the calculation with its stress history and hence
it’s a laborious method for optimization or design when the number of vertical elements is
large. Moragspitiya et al. [54] used an SAP analysis package and considered the time-varying
material properties, construction sequences by using compression-only gas elements and
relaxation due to reinforcement in the analysis of 164-story reinforcement concrete high-rise
building structure with a belt and outrigger system.
This method was hence more comprehensive than many others. However, the discrete-
time steps used do not provide the flexibility of varying the time interval which is the main
factor affecting the accuracy of time-dependent deformation predictions, which is equivalent
to the effect of mesh size in a finite element method analysis.
Practicing engineers predict differential axial shortening using different methods but
these are not comprehensive. Most of these represent discrete models of a concrete member or
subframe analysis of a building representing a few stages of the construction process and field
monitoring conducted for a limited time period. These are unable to capture the time-
dependent load path changes due to structural complexities.
Further, the use of concrete-filled tube columns for the exterior columns may
aggravate the problem of axial shortening when the shear core is constructed with reinforced
concrete as common in practice. The few studies on the axial shortening of these types of
structures include the Taipei 101 building which used concrete-filled steel tubes for its eight
mega columns [57] and the studies done on the proposed use of concrete-filled tubes for the
perimeter columns of one of the tallest building in Korea, the tower palace III in Seoul in
which they later abandoned the use of these columns [56].
However, a holistic approach for predicting differential axial shortening in high-rise
buildings with concrete-filled tube columns considering all the influencing factors has not yet
been established.
3.2 Other Factors influencing in High-rise Buildings

3.2.1 Current trends in concrete construction
Due to the present construction technology, the construction cycle of floors in high-
rise buildings has been reduced to about 4-7 days. This increase in construction speed saves
time and money extensively. However, these fast concrete construction trends aggravate
27
Fig. 3.1 Typical sequencing of site operation.
differential axial shortening. Also, the self-climbing formwork systems enable the shear core
to be constructed several floors ahead of the frame as can be seen in Fig. 3.1.
3.2.3 Current engineering practices to minimize effects
The current engineering practices on minimizing the effect of differential axial
shortening in high-rise buildings are three-fold as follows:
(1) Proactive strategies to optimize building layout to minimize differential axial
shortening:
 Stress balancing in the vertical load-bearing elements (by selecting the appropriate
column size)
 Adjustment to reinforcement percentages
 Varying concrete strengths in vertical members
(2) Compensation for differential axial shortening during construction
Several compensations techniques are available to minimize slab tilt during the service
of the structure, occurring due to the anticipated differential shortening of the columns and
walls. Absolute compensation. The absolute compensation is an idealized method, where the
differential shortening is exactly adjusted at each floor using the predicted shortening at each
level. The amount of correction for a vertical member at each level might have different
values leading to many complications such as different lengths of formwork and steel member
requirements. Due to the costly correction procedure, the absolute compensation technique
cannot be used during construction.
 Uniform compensations
To minimize the number of different correction values in the compensation process
encountered in the previous method, the amount of the correction for each floor is averaged
over the number of floors in a building in this technique. Due to this averaging, however,
there are differences between the predicted shortening values and the correction values after
compensation. Therefore, as a result, the uniform compensation may not effectively eliminate
the predicted differential shortenings after compensation [58].
 Lumped compensation
In this method, the lengths of vertical members are increased at the lumped level by
the cumulative correction for a few floors. With the lumped correction method, there are
differences between the predicted shortening values and the correction values after
compensation except at the lumped floor. The differences become gradually larger as the
number of floors to be lumped in a group is increased. On the other hand, the efficiency of the
lumped compensation method depends on the number of floors lumped together.
Park [58] proposed an optimization method for lump compensation using a simulated
annealing algorithm. In this by specifying, the limits on the magnitudes of the compensation
28
errors in each floor level as well as in each group as constraints in the optimization problem,
the magnitude of the differential shortening or the degree of the slab tilt in the floor levels
below the lump corrected is controlled.
The optimum values for the number of lumped groups, the number of floors in each
group, and the average correction value for each group are given as outputs of this method.
Currently, the moving average method which is another form of lumped compensation
optimization method was introduced to decide on the average correction value and the number
of floors to be lumped with much simpler than the earlier measure to reduce adverse effects of
differential axial shortening [58]:
 Shim packing at the contact surfaces between the outrigger and the perimeter columns.
However, this is not effective to prevent the serviceability issues arising due to axial
shortenings such as tilting of floor plates, distortion, and damage to nonstructural
components and services [59].
 The allowance was made for additional stresses induced by differential axial
shortening in load-bearing members.
 Use of prestressed slabs
 20mm limit for the facades attached to the floor [60], but it not only
affects the facades but also other services and floor plates. This 20mm limit can
 increase or decrease depending on many other factors.
In Burj Kalifa, Dubai the tallest building in the world, several measures were taken to
reduce the differential axial shortening. At the design stage, some columns were over-
designed for stress balancing, and during construction, both horizontal and vertical
compensations were implemented and a typical constant floor-to-floor height increase was
incorporated, while each successive center hex core jump was “re-centered” [61] However, an
accurate prediction of axial shortening at the design stage is paramount for the success of
these.
3.3 Quantifying Axial Shortening

The accuracy of predicting the long-term deformations of concrete-filled tube
structures depends consequently on the accuracy of the material models used to describe the
shrinkage and creep behavior of concrete, the creep calculation algorithm, and the correct
representation of the structure and construction conditions.
3.3.1 Concrete models for creep and shrinkage strains

Reliable shrinkage and creep material models for concrete have been an area of
research interest for many years and there are several well-established empirical relationships
29
between these long-term strains and the various properties of concrete. Among them are
several popular models with an increasing number of factors to be considered such as the B3
[26]
model and simple but popular models like the ACI-209, EC2 (BSI 2004), and GL2000 [62]
method.
The time-dependent strain components of concrete considered in these material
models are as given as shown in Tab. 3.1. As mentioned earlier these different models require
a variety of factors to be considered in calculating the creep and shrinkage of concrete.
These include the properties of the individual elements such as the cross-sectional
area, and exposed perimeter, the environmental conditions such as the humidity and
temperature which prominently affect the deformations through drying, and the properties of
the concrete mix such as the cement type, slump, and water/cement ratio. The factors
considered and their range for the successful prediction of creep and shrinkage are tabulated
as shown in Tab. 3-1 and 3.2.
Tab. 3.1 Equation components for Different Models

AS3600 ACI209
Feature EC2 (2004) B3 GL2000
(2009) (2008)
Basic Creep Not differentiated √ ×

Not Not
but possible to do
Drying differential differentiated
so by the user √ √
Creep
Autogenous
√ √ × √
Shrinkage Not
Drying differentiated
√ √ √ √
Shrinkage
Tab. 3.2 Equation component for a Different model

Factor AS3600 EC2 ACI209 B3 GL2000
Age at loading (t0) √ √ √ √ √

Time Time from age at
√ √ √ √ √
dependency loading (t-t0)
Age at end of curing
√ √ √ √ √
(ts)
Concrete mean
√ √ √ √ √
strength (fcm28)
Properties of
Member shape × × √ √ ×
the structural
30
element Member size √ √ √ √ √
Relative Humidity × √ √ √ √
Environment
al conditions
Concrete temperature × √ × × ×
Cement type √ √ × × √
Cement content × × √ √ ×
Concrete mix Aggregate cement
× × √ √ ×
properties ratio (a/c)
Water cement ratio
× × × √ ×
(w/c)
Aggregate stiffness × × × × √
Slump × × √ × ×
3.3.2 Axial Shortening measurement of High-Rise Buildings

Although differential axial shortening is predicted at the design stage, these values can
differ from the actual due to variations in material properties, environmental, and loading
conditions from that considered in the design stage calculations. The following methods are
currently used for the measurement of axial shortening:
• Mechanical gauges (DMEC strain gauges) such as Fig. 3.3.2a
• Surveying techniques (Precise leveling, Total station) such as Fig. 3.3.2b
• Use of sensors: Electronic stain gauges or sensors such as vibrating wire strain gauges
as shown in Fig. 3.3.2c, acoustic wires, strain transducers, and extensometers.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.3.2 Instruments for axial shortening measurements.
Several researchers have measured the axial shortening of high-rise buildings using
these techniques as recorded in literature. Russel and Corley [63] used precise leveling
31
techniques and mechanical strain gauges to measure the vertical deformations of Water Tower
place which is a 75-story reinforced concrete building of 252m in height in Chicago. Axial
shortening of selected columns was measured at six levels of the building for three years.
For all strain gauge readings, measurements of air temperature and the surface
temperature had to be taken. Also, according to them, for the precise leveling techniques, the
reading could only be taken once the formwork had been removed and targets have been
attached. Also, the accuracy is reduced due to the difficulty of taking readings under site
conditions.
Arumugusaamy and Swamy instrumented a sixty-story and an eight-story building to
obtain axial shortening measurements for up to ten years of service, which is one of the very
few studies done for such a long period [64]. Their study indicated the design stress of steel in
some columns was exceeded only in 10 years due to the relaxation of concrete with time.
Bakoss et al. instrumented a medium-rise reinforced building at the new south Wales
University of Technology using vibrating wire gauges [65]. These were installed at three levels
of the building while another set of measurements was taken in parallel using precise leveling.
Brelsford [66] used electronic strain gauges and the total station. He concluded the total station
setup can be successfully used to measure the absolute difference in the shortening of
columns and shear walls at a certain floor level. However, this method becomes problematic
when the construction progresses and the finishes are done.
3.4 Elastic Axial Shortening Differential

Elastic shortening due to initial load, up to casting of solution-floor level as shown in
Fig. 3.4.
Roof level
(3.4)
where, level N
(load increment),i
Ect is the elastic modulus
Pi is applied to load
hj is the height of each floor
N is the level of floor
i is load increment
At is time-dependent transformed area
of column cross section
Ect is time-dependent modulus of
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of a multi-stories differential shortening.
elasticity of concrete
32
t is time of casing or load application.
Chapter 4. Research Methodology

4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs
4.1.1 Design Philosophy and Concept
The purpose of this study is to provide the predicted value of short-term and long-term
axial shortening for each vertical element (columns and the central core wall) considering
creep and shrinkage effects which are considering time-dependent parameters in the design
will have clearly appeared in the following pages.
It’s very important to know how concrete displacement will become in the future.
Thus, the designer can take precautions during construction and during the design stage to
consider the negative effect on horizontal elements due to the differential vertical
displacement between vertical elements as shown in Fig. 4.1a.
This study is normally performed for high-rise buildings where a huge vertical
sustained load is due to the own weight of the structure in additional to the super-imposed
dead load and a portion of sustained live load. The differential vertical displacement between
the concrete columns and the central core wall will affect the following:
 The design of horizontal elements such as slabs, beams, belt walls, and outriggers
where the differential vertical displacement between columns and the central core wall
in the long-term stage will induce additional stresses in those elements which need to
be considered in the design.
33
 The future effect on the façade element where the differential displacement between
successive floors in long-term stages must be considered in the façade joints design
and tolerance, especially for brittle façade materials.
 If the slop values of the slabs due to differential vertical displacement exceed the
(1/240), a compensation of the long-term differential displacements between columns
and the central core should be considered in the shutter leveling during construction as
shown in Fig. 4.1b.
Peripheral column Central core wall
Fig. 4.1b Compensation of predicted value of long-term shortening.
Fig. 4.1a Effects of column shortening.

34
Fig. 4.1c Deformations due to the axial shortening of column and

corresponding bending moment and shear diagrams.
4.1.2 Progress of the Calculating Shortening using Etabs
35
The Fig. 4.1.2a is the progress of the column shortening project using etabs. First step
is to create a group of members, loads and boundary elements in order to set the construction
stage. And then each construction stage should be defined by assigning the group information
depend on the construction schedule.
Next to define the time-dependent material properties such as creep, shrinkage, and
Grouping
Member Loading Boundary
Define construction stage according to the construction schedule
Set construction stage analysis control data (Analysis method)
Perform Construction Stage Analysis
Calculate member force
Self-weight Dead Load Live Load Creep Shrinkage
Wind load
Generate load combinations
Run member design
Fig. 4.1.2a Grouping of member, load and boundary of column shortening

analysis.
compressive strength. And, link each defined material property to each member as shown in
Fig. 4.1.2b. Analysis is performed using the defined construction stage and inelastic material
information.
We can obtain the member force for each gravity load, creep, and drying shrinkage
through this analysis and creates a load combination including a wind and seismic load. Now,
36
it’s possible to do a design that reflects the column shortening using these load combinations.
The shortening of each vertical member can be obtained from the analysis result, and we can
calculate amount of correction using these shortening values.
Material
4.2 Case Study
Time-dependent material Time-dependent material
In order (Creep
to evaluate the theoretical results of the considered
& Shrinkage) ACI 209R-92
(Compressive strength) method, a
[5]
case study of a 306m high vertically asymmetric building was to compare the site readings of
column shortening taken during the tower construction. Th building is 54 floors as shown
typically as shown in Fig. 4.2a, 4.2b, 4.2c and 4.2d.
Time-dependent material link
(Creep & shrinkage + material link +member)
Set construction stage analysis control data (Analysis method)
Perform Construction Stage Analysis
Calculate shortening value
Calculate shortening value (sub to slab shortening)
Fig. 4.2a Typical structural plan of the tower.
Determine correction value (by manual)
Fig. 4.1.2b Material properties of column shortening

analysis.
37
Fig. 4.2b Typical structural plan of the tower from Etabs.

Fig. 4.2c Typical elevation view of the tower from Etabs.
38
Fig. 4.3d Typical elevation view of the tower from Etabs.
39
4.3 Design Criteria

4.3.1 Software and Assumptions used in the Analysis
Etabs v20 ultimate version has been used in performing this study. A nonlinear staged
construction analysis is defined based on the assumed construction schedule (to be verified by
the contractor and if a big difference between the assumed and the actual construction
sequence, the contractor must get back to the designer). ACI 209R-92 [5] has been used in
defining time-dependent material properties.
4.3.2 Time-dependent Material Properties
Tab. 4.3 show the creep and shrinkage parameter used in Etabs based on ACI 209R-
92 .
[5]
Tab. 4.3 Time-dependent Material Properties

Remarks
Type Unit
Shrinkage starts age (days) (time of initial

7
curing)
The average duration of
Loading age (days) 7
shuttering removal
Average relative humidity
Relative humidity % 60%
during the year
Compressive strength factor (α) 4 Tab 2.2.1 ACI-209R
Compressive strength factor (β) 0.85 Tab 2.2.1 ACI-209R
Curing type Moisture cure
Average of low workable

concrete and self-compacted
Slump 150 mm
concrete where flow Tab test
is performed.
Fine aggregate percentage 50%

Air content 2%
For concrete 70 MPa strength
759 (450 kg/m3 )
and 60 MPa
Cement content lb/Yd3
For concrete 50 MPa and 40
6224 (370 kg/m3 )
MPa strength
40
4.3.3 Section Cracking Analysis (Stiffness modifiers)

The long-term axial shortening values will be predicted under service loads. So, the
model used in this study is the uncracked model (cracked under service loads not under
ultimate loads). The following stiffness modifiers have been assigned to different members
[67]
.
Tab. 4.3.1 Stiffness Modifiers (Service Load Analysis)
Columns and Wall 1 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
Beams 0.5 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
Slabs 0.35 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
For lateral load analysis, either the stiffnesses presented in tab. 4.3.1 can be used.
These use values that approximate the stiffness for reinforced concrete building systems
loaded to near or beyond the yield level and have been shown to produce reasonable
correlation with both experimental and detail analytical results [67]. For earthquake-induced
loading, use tab. 4.3.1.
4.4 Design Loading

4.4.1 Load factor and Serviceability Combinations
The required strength U is expressed in terms of factored loads. Factored loads are the
loads specified in the general building code multiplied by appropriate load factors as shown in
Tab. 4.4.1a and 4.4.1b. If the load effects such as internal forces and moments are linearly
related to the loads, the required strength U may be expressed in terms of load effects
multiplied by the appropriate load factors with an identical result. If the load effects are
nonlinearly related to the loads, such as frame P-delta effects [67], the loads are factored in
before determining the load effects.
Tab. 4.4.1a Load Combination for Ultimate Limit State
Load Combination Primary load
U=1.4D D: Dead load

L: live load
U=1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S or R) Lr: Roof live load
R: Rain load
41
U=1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R) +(1.0L or0.5W) Lr or S or R
U=1.2D+1.0W+1.0L+0.5(Lr or S or R) W: Wind load
U=1.2D+1.0E+1.0L+0.2S E: Earthquake load
U=0.9D+1.0W W
U=0.9D+1.0E E
Tab. 4.4.1b Load combination for Allowable Stress Design
Load Combination Primary load
SLS=D D: Dead load
SLS=D + L L: live load
SLS=D+ (Lr or S or R) Lr or S or R
U=D+0.75L+0.75(Lr or S or R) Lr or S or R
U=1.2D+1.0E+1.0L+0.2S E: Earthquake load
U=0.9D+1.0W W
U=0.9D+1.0E E
4.5 Construction Loading Sequence (CSA)

Construction loading sequence is a nonlinear analysis approach in which the structure
is analyzed at various stages corresponding to the construction sequence and the partial
required loads are applied sequentially at every stage. In general, the structures are analyzed
and designed using a single step using gravity analysis or seismic analysis on the basic
assumption that the structure will be fully loaded at once as shown in Fig. 1. Practically, the
structure is constructed story-wise hence dead load is applied story-wise and the finishing
loads are also imposed as the structure is constructed stage-wise as shown in Fig. 4.5. This
analysis will provide more reliable results and hence the method should be adopted in usual
practice.
As the construction of the building proceeds, the structural members are added in
stage-wise and the dead load is carried by that part of the building completed at that particular
42
stage of construction. Hence, the stresses and displacements distribution in the part of the
completed structure at any stage due to the partial dead load of members installed at that stage
does not depend on the geometry, properties, or the presence of members com-posing the rest
A large additional member force is created.
The level is corrected Construction shape

when the slab is poured. Deformed shape
Deformation
Deformation by construction conventional stage analysis. by conventional Analysis.
Fig. 4.5 Deformation by construction stage and conventional analysis model.

of the overall structure and can be obtained correctly by summating the results of analysis at
each stage. The results of the analysis of the overall structures can be obtained incorrectly by
ignoring this effect. Therefore, it is very important to analyze the structure at every
construction stage.
4.5.1 Construction Stage Analysis

Vertical members (columns and walls) in high-rise reinforced concrete building not
only exhibit elastic shortening, but also have shrinkage and creep effect that develop from
long-term compressive loading. In lower stories of a building, additional stresses in girders
become very large due to differential shortening and undergo significant redistribution of the
member forces.
In order to analytically solve the problem described above, the construction stage
analysis function of etabs considers shrinkage and creep during construction stages to
simulate the construction process of a high-rise building as shown in Fig. 4.5.1a. Also, with
input variables, such as the strength of concrete, construction duration of building
components, casting condition, ambient condition, etc., the elastic shortening, shrinkage and
creep of vertical members can be estimated and are reflected in the analysis. Change in
strength gain based on the maturity of concrete member is also reflected in the calculation of
modulus of elasticity at various construction stage.
43
In case of the project,10 days period is considered as a construction cycle period (floor
/ 10 days) and the main core wall has been assumed to be preceded in the construction of
slabs by 3 floors which is normal practice in high-rise building construction as shown in Fig.
4.5.1b.
44
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Stage 4 Stage 5
Fig. 4.5.1a Construction process of high-rise building.
60
50
40
Core wall
30
20 Self-weight of floor
10 plate
Finishes
Story
S5 (50 days)
S10 (100 days)
S15 (150 days)
S20 (200 days)
S25 (250 days)

S26 (260 days)
S30 (260 days)
S35 (350 days)
S40 (400 days)
S45 (450 days)

S50 (500 days)
S56 (560 days)
S59 (590 days)
S60 (600 days)
S61 (610 days)

S65 (700 days)
S75 (800 days)

S80 (850 days)
S81 (880 days)
50% of live load
Fig. 4.5.1b Construction and loading sequence diagram.

45
4.6 Material Properties

Vertical elements (columns and core wall) are used for 70 MPa, 60 MPa, and 50 MPa
concrete strength and 50 MPa, 45 MPa, and 40 MPa for slab and beam as shown in Tab. 4.10.
Tab. 4.10 Material Properties of the Element
E α G Unit Weight
Type v
(MPa) (1/C) (MPa) kN/m3 (MPa)
C35 27800 0.2 0.0000099 11583.33 24 35
C40 29700 0.2 0.0000099 12375 24 40
C45 31528.56 0.2 0.0001 13136.9 24 45
C50 33200 0.2 0.0000099 13833.33 24 50

C60 36400 0.2 0.0000099 15166.67 24 60
C70 39300 0.2 0.0000099 16375 24 70
4.6.1 Calculation of Creep Strain According to ACI 209-90

The strain-time of creep coefficient as shown in Fig. 4.6.1. The creep strain
calculation according to ACI 209-90[24], creep strain equal elastic strain at the time of loading
multiply as shown below:
(4.6.1)
where:
vu is the ultimate creep coefficient, and the average value suggested
is the 28-day compressive strength.
is the product of applicable correction factors.
Fig. 4.6.2 Creep coefficient for strength 70MPa.

46
4.6.2 Calculation of Shrinkage Strain According to ACI 209-90

The calculation of dry shrinkage strain as shown below:
(4.6.1)
shrinkage after 7 days for moist cured concrete:
(4.6.2)
where:
t is days after the end of the initial wet curing.
(εsh)u is the ultimate shrinkage strain, and the average value suggested for:
(4.6.3)
The strain-time of shrinkage coefficient as shown in Fig. 4.6.2 below.
Fig. 4.6.2 Shrinkage strain for strength

70MPa.
47
Chapter 5. Result and Summary

5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall
Fig. 5.1a, 5.1b, and 5.1c show columns and walls layout for podium floors (up to the
10 floor), typical floors-ground 1 (from the 11 th floor up to the 35th floor), and typical floor-
th
ground 2 (from the 36th floor up to roof floor). Results are plotted for axial shortening directly
after Top out (after applying 100% of structure self-weight and super-imposed dead load) and
for axial shortening after 50 years. Finally, total long-term axial shortening equation as shown
below:
(∆LT) = ∆EL + ∆CR + ∆SH (5.1)

where:
∆EL is the elastic shortening of the member after construction process completion
considering only time-dependent concrete compressive strength and member stiffness
(modulus of elasticity) and without considering creep and shrinkage up to the construction
completion date.
∆CR is the additional shortening value due to shrinkage from date zero up to the
considered target time (up to 50 years).
∆SH is the additional shortening value due to shrinkage from date zero up to the
considered target time (up to 50 years).
Fig. 5.1a Columns and walls layout for podium floors.

Fig. 5.1b Columns and walls
48 layout for typical floors-ground 1.
5.2 Axial Shortening of the Column after 50 years

Etabs ultimate version has been used in performing this study. A nonlinear staged
construction analysis is defined based on the assumed construction schedule. ACI 209R-92
has been used in defining time-dependent material properties which is explained in chapter 4.
Axial shortening of the column after 50 years is shown in Tab. 5.2:
Fig.5.1c Columns and walls layout for typical floors-ground 2.
49
Tab. 5.2 Axial Shortening after 50 years
Total Deformation (mm) of Column
Column
E2-A1 E2-A2 F2-B1 F2-B2 G2-Y4
Story Story label ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm)
54 FL53ROOF
Numerical Analysis of 75.332
Columns 75.332
Shortening on the Response of 75.835
High-Rise Concrete Buildings
53 FL52PH 78.803 78.803 78.731 79.34
52 FL51MECH 80.225 80.225 80.328 80.733
51 FL50 81.965 81.965 82.145 82.476
50 FL49 83.567 83.567 83.719 84.097
49 FL48 84.987 84.987 84.933 85.516
48 FL47 86.233 86.233 86.015 86.748
47 FL46 87.321 87.321 86.804 87.802
46 FL45 88.266 88.266 87.235 88.666
45 FL44 89.142 89.142 87.454 89.532
44 FL43 89.591 89.591 87.541 89.972
43 FL42 89.776 89.776 87.404 90.15
42 FL41 89.738 89.738 87.071 90.103
41 FL40 90.015 90.015 86.988 90.375
40 FL39 90.052 90.052 86.689 90.404
39 FL38 89.867 89.867 86.188 90.212
38 FL37 89.455 89.455 85.473 89.787
37 FL36 88.799 88.799 84.532 89.115
36 FL35ROOF 88.556 88.556 84.123 88.891 56.086
35 FL34 88.087 88.087 83.11 88.391 56.458
34 FL33MECH 89.358 89.358 83.63 89.653 57.807
33 FL32MECH 88.547 88.547 81.637 88.834 57.622
32 FL31 88.197 88.197 81.04 88.508 58.131
31 FL30 87.737 87.737 80.496 88.004 58.495
30 FL29 86.918 86.918 79.613 87.127 58.67
29 FL28 85.95 85.95 78.609 86.103 58.794
28 FL27 84.825 84.825 77.484 84.93 58.872
27 FL26 83.561 83.561 76.256 83.615 58.715
26 FL25 82.141 82.141 74.916 82.148 58.419
25 FL24 80.515 80.515 73.424 80.495 57.981
24 FL23 78.762 78.762 71.837 78.714 57.49
23 FL22 76.883 76.883 70.16 76.811 56.903
22 FL21 74.995 74.995 68.512 74.9 56.221
21 FL20REFUGE 73.676 73.676 67.252 73.556 55.804
20 FL19 72.251 72.251 65.913 72.108 55.309
19 FL18 70.736 70.736 64.506 70.571 54.747
18 FL17 69.135 69.135 63.035 68.948 54.124
17 FL16 67.453 67.453 61.506 67.245 53.443
16 FL15 65.697 65.697 59.925 65.469 52.715
15 FL14 63.881 63.881 58.303 63.634 51.95
14 FL13 62.027 62.027 56.66 61.762 51.169
13 FL12 60.179 60.179 55.038 59.9 50.414
12 FL11 59.103 59.103
50 54.106 58.818 50.41
11 FL10 51.927 51.927 47.946 51.651 46.278
10 FL09 46.858 46.858 43.268 46.494 42.419
9 FL08 44.2 44.2 40.835 43.75 40.471
8 FL07 41.421 41.421 38.274 40.92 38.507
From the analysis results, deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as
shown in Tab. 5.2, contribute 65.8%-75.19% of the total deformation of the column.
Fig. 5.2 show the distribution graph of the vertical displacement by stories for the
column, respectively. As the number of stories increases in conventional analysis in which
construction stages are considered, the maximum vertical displacement of the column of
90.404 mm at the 40 story.
51
Graph - Column “E2-

A1”
Axial shortening after 50 years
Axial shortening after top

out
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2a Columns E2-A1 axial shortening after 50 years.
Graph - Column “E2-

A2”
Axial shortening after top out
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2b Columns E2-A2, axial shortening after 50 years.
52
Graph - Column “F2-B1”

Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2c Columns F2-B1, axial shortening after 50 years.
Graph - Column “F2-B2”

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2d Columns F2-B2, axial shortening after 50 years.
53
Graph - Column “G2-Y4”
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2e Columns G2-Y4, axial shortening after 50 years.
Finally, we get the total long-term axial shortening of columns (E2-A1) due to elastic
shortening, creep, and shrinkage after 50 years.
Axial shortening
after
50
ELyears
only
CR only
SH only
Fig. 5.2f Columns E2-A1, ∆EL, ∆CR, ∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years.
54
Axial shortening
after
50 years
EL only
CR + SH
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.2g Columns E2-A1, ∆EL,∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) after 50 years.
5.3 Axial shortening of the Wall after 50 years

A nonlinear staged construction analysis is defined based on the assumed construction
schedule. ACI 209R-92 has been used in defining time-dependent material properties which is
explained in chapter 4. Axial shortening of the wall after 50 years is shown in Tab. 5.3:
Tab. 5.3 Wall Axial Shortening after 50 years

Wall W01 W02 N02 E01
Story Story label ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm)
56 FL55CRF 50.4858 56.89283 49.24386
55 FL54C 53.148 59.55933 51.95846
54 FL53ROOF 54.08888 60.14483 52.54938
53 FL52PH 62.09714 55.4545 61.2536 53.864
52 FL51MECH 61.65513 55.92413 61.6216 54.26315
51 FL50 62.835 57.09713 62.6534 55.36562
50 FL49 63.94763 58.19725 63.6244 56.38077
49 FL48 64.89725 59.22425 64.5308 57.30831
48 FL47 65.59171 60.17475 65.3554 58.15608
47 FL46 66.42538 61.04825 66.0676 58.93015
46 FL45 67.01888 61.84513 66.6712 59.62631
45 FL44 67.507 62.554 67.173 60.23915
44 FL43 67.89213 63.199 67.5756 60.78438
43 FL42 68.1795 63.76713 67.8736 61.26792
42 FL41 68.36475 64.26025 68.0636 61.68869
41 FL40 68.45763 64.68513 68.1632 62.06031
40 FL39 68.4485 65.03325 68.1586 62.37923
55
39 FL38 68.52363 65.8255 68.274 63.15

38 FL37 68.0085 65.747 67.7814 63.27208
37 FL36 67.645 66.00563 67.486 63.80638
36 FL35ROOF 68.0651 66.65238 66.4915 64.59915
35 FL34 68.39488 67.183 67.2175 64.92917
34 FL33MECH 69.58213 68.46713 68.6245 66.29383
33 FL32MECH 68.29113 67.44275 67.4269 65.27892
32 FL31 68.07475 67.49638 67.356 65.38383
31 FL30 67.68425 67.38713 67.1373 65.35517
30 FL29 67.2495 67.17363 66.8617 65.23383
29 FL28 66.75363 66.85638 66.5115 65.02033
28 FL27 66.18375 66.45638 66.0735 64.723
27 FL26 65.55488 65.99475 65.5681 64.36675
26 FL25 64.87413 65.46775 64.9988 63.94108
25 FL24 64.16513 64.85188 64.3872 63.43125
24 FL23 63.391 64.16838 63.7026 62.84608
23 FL22 62.5695 63.42538 62.965 62.19817
22 FL21 61.70425 62.62338 62.1771 61.49142
21 FL20REFUGE 60.9155 61.872 61.457 60.84
20 FL19 60.087 61.06838 60.6855 60.13058
19 FL18 59.2285 60.22425 59.8814 59.37817
18 FL17 58.34813 59.34725 59.0502 58.59
17 FL16 57.454 58.44738 58.2001 57.77875
16 FL15 56.56875 57.54563 57.347 56.97033
15 FL14 55.92188 56.887 56.6551 56.36075
14 FL13 55.21463 56.196 55.8621 55.6945
13 FL12 54.55263 55.53138 55.1323 55.10217
12 FL11 54.31938 55.33538 54.8762 55.09831
11 FL10 49.756 50.78813 50.1007 50.60438
10 FL09 44.41288 45.45163 44.8119 45.36954
9 FL08 41.55138 42.557 42.081 42.72792
8 FL07 38.71063 39.4905 39.3634 40.04885
7 FL06 34.22575 35.1315 35.029 35.775
6 FL05 29.50075 30.31563 30.33 31.08692
5 FL04 22.74925 23.38225 23.6094 24.37246
4 FL03 18.90463 19.61588 19.7811 20.57362
3 FL02 14.92625 15.6495 15.8081 16.647
2 FL01 10.8145 11.46013 11.6679 12.55108
1 FL00GFL 4.85675 5.184375 5.3248 5.510538
56
0 BASE 0 0 0 0
Graph - Wall “C01”
Axial shortening after Top out
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3 Wall C01, axial shortening after 50 years.

Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3b Wall C02,axial shortening after 50 years.
57
Graph - Wall
“N02”

Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3c Wall N02, axial shortening after 50 years.
Graph - Wall “E01”
Axial shortening after 50

years
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3d Wall E01, axial shortening after 50 years.
58
From the analysis results, deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as
shown in Tab. 5.2, contribute 70.4%-82.1% of the total deformation of the shear wall.
Fig. 5.2 show the distribution graph of the vertical displacement by stories for the
column, respectively. As the number of stories increases in conventional analysis in which
construction stages are considered, the maximum vertical displacement of the shear wall of
68.445% mm at the 40 story.
Axial shortening
after 50 years
EL only
CR only
SH only
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3.2a Wall”C01”, ∆EL, ∆CR, ∆SH, and Total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years.
Axial shortening
after 50 years
EL only
CR+SH only
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.3.2b Wal-C0,∆EL, ∆CR+∆SH, and Total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years.
59
5.4 Long-term shortening Value to be used in Slabs Design

In reinforced concrete structures, the deflecting slabs respond to settling
supports with resistant shears acting back on the supports, thus decreasing the
unrestrained differential shortening. A restrained member, as shown in Fig. 5.4,
subjected to an instantaneous differential settlement of supports, ∆, will respond with
restraint moments, ±M. Creep of the concrete will cause relaxation of the moments with time
as shown qualitatively by curve A. The rate of creeping out of the moment depends upon the
creep properties of the member, the change in the effective stiffness of the member caused by
Fig. 5.4 Parasitic moments due to settlement of

supports.
progressive cracking, if any, and the increase of the modulus of elasticity with time. If the
same settlement, ∆, is applied over a period, T, the induced moments will change with time as
shown by curve B.
For the practical design of the building, fintel et al. suggest that the maximum value of
the differential settlement moments be assumed at 50% of the moments that would occur
without relaxation due to creep. These moments should then be used with appropriate load
factors in combination with the effects of other loads. The 50% reduction accounts only for
creep relaxation during the period of settlement. Beyond this time a further creeping out of
settlement moments takes place [3].
The differential between the accumulative long-term shortening values sorted in
previous Tabs for columns and walls at each floor must be considered in slab design.
Appendix A shows the collected accumulative long-term axial shortening for columns and
walls after 50 years.
The total value of long-term axial shortening at the target time does not always occur
due to stresses relaxation of the concrete members, the environmental changes during the
entire life of the building, and the code-based creep and shrinkage values may be
conservative, so it is recommended to use 50% only of the calculated long-term shortening in
the design purposes to obtain a reasonable increase in the reinforcement.
60
In post-tension (PT) slab design, the post-tension consultant shall provide adequate
tendons to achieve the code requirements regarding the stresses at the full-service load stage
and the sustained load stage considering the effect of long-term axial shortening in the used
service and sustained load combinations.
The induced stresses from the differential shortening can be reduced by using a
different approach as shown in the following:
As noticed in previous Tables for columns and walls, the value of differential
shortening between the main core and peripheral columns is increasing with going higher (at
upper floors) and this increase in the value of the differential shortening may induce high
stresses at upper slabs which will lead to increasing slab thicknesses and/or reinforcement
values at upper floors, however, the induced high stresses can be slightly eliminated by
subtracting the value of shortening already occurred before the date of pouring the specific
slab. This will not be workable for lower floors where the subtracted value will be very minor
and will not help in reducing the stresses. This approach may be applicable for at least 50-
story high-rise buildings to give the expected difference.
5.5 Verification of Load Combination due to Axial Shortening

5.5.1 Base Reaction Verification
To be sure that all loads assigned to the staged construction analysis case are counted
in the analysis, a simple verification will be performed. This verification is to compare the
base reactions for the nonlinear staged construction analysis case (long-term axial shortening
case– step 160) with the base reactions for load combination (own weight + super imposed
dead + 50% of live load). To get base reaction from etabs as shown in Tab. 5.5.1.
R1= 209,4974 kN; is base reaction of load combination case (long-term axial shortening)
R2= 209,6187 kN; is base reaction of load combination case (self-weight load + super-
imposed dead load + 50% of live load).
To make percentage difference of the two cases:
( R ¿ ¿ 2−R 1) ( 209,6187 kN−209,4974 kN )

= ≈ 0.00 % ¿
R1 209,4974 kN
The percentage difference in base reaction for both cases ≈ 0.00%, which is confirming
that all loads have been already considered in nonlinear staged construction analysis.
Tab. 5.5.1 Base Reaction Verification
Load case / Load combination Base rection, Fz (kN)
Long-term axial shortening (maximum case) 209,4974
61
SW + SDL + 0.50L+ LL(NR) 209,6187

Ratio between the two cases 0.999
5.5.2 Creep and Shrinkage Percentage versus Building Height

It is noted that the creep shortening is greater than the shrinkage shortening specially
for columns (refer to column E2‐A1 results) due to high elastic displacement. There is no
fixed relation between creep and shrinkage shortening values. Shrinkage shortening value
Shrinkage
Creep
Elastic
Low rise building High rise building

Fig. 5.5.2 Changing of creep and shrinkage percentage with building height changes.
depends on the member size (volume/surface ratio) and the environmental conditions. Loads
and the elastic shortening value have no effect on shrinkage shortening. Since the vertical
member size will affect the shrinkage shortening value, therefore, the shrinkage shortening
will be less (as a percentage of the total long-term shortening) with higher buildings due to
using bigger sections and versa regarding to creep because while going higher, the elastic
shortening will be increased and hence the creep shortening will be increased as well.
Fig. 5.5.2 shows how creep and shrinkage value affected by increasing the building
height and loads. And below Tab. 5.5.2 show the structural type and factors affecting the
creep and shrinkage of concrete.
Tab. 5.5.2 Structural Types and Load Conditions

For vertical member (i.e., columns, wall and core-wall)
Concrete (creep and shrinkage) Concrete composite Cement paste content
Water-cement ratio
Mixture proportions
62
Aggregate characteristics
Degrees of compaction
Length of initial curing
Initial curing Curing temperature
Curing humidity
Concrete temperature
Member geometry and Environment
Concrete water content
environment (creep and shrinkage)
Geometry Size and shape
Concrete age at load application
During load period
Loading history
Number of load cycles
Loading (creep only) Duration of unloading period
Type of stress and distribution
Stress conditions across the section
Stress/strength ratio
5.5.3 Compensation of Long-term Axial Shortening in Shuttering Level

As mentioned in the introduction of this study, the maximum slop of slabs must be
checked to decide if adjustment of shuttering level is required or not. From previous Tabs and
from appendix A, the minimum long-term axial shortening after 50 years will occur at
columns (E2‐A3) and (F2‐A3) at floor level (FL43) equal 97mm (∆ E2-A3 = 97mm). The
minimum corresponding value for the adjacent core wall (N02, N03, S02, and S04) at the
same floor level equal 64mm (∆N02 = 64mm). Therefore, the slope at floor level:
(∆ ¿ ¿ E 2−A 3−∆N 02) ( 97 mm−64 mm )

i slop = = =0.0037=0.37 % ¿
L 9000 mm
The maximum slop of floor level limit;
1
i limit= =0.0042=0.42 %
240
As the result;
i limit >i slop
So, compensate the long-term axial shortening in shuttering level is not necessary
because the differential between long-term axial shortening of the main core and the edge
column is less than code limit (i.e., islop < ilimit ).
63
Chapter 6. Conclusions
From this research, it presents the calculated column shortening of a 54-story building.
The conclusions of this study are summarized as follows:
(1) The differential axial shortening between the central core wall and the peripheral
columns must be considered in the design. In case of a wall, the lateral load is an important
factor in determining the cross-section. Therefore, the ratio of compressive strength to axial
force is generally about 15 to 20%, which is very small. In case of the column, however,
gravity load is the most important factor, and the ratio of axial force compressive strength is
about 40-50%. As a result, a greater vertical strain occurs in the column than in the wall.
(2) The differential axial shortening between successive floors must be considered in
the façade design because it can lead to the unintended sloping/tilting/rotating of the
building’s concrete floor, which can subsequently result in unintended stresses and
misalignment of the interfacing building systems, partitions, cladding.
(3) The material properties of the in-situ concrete are verified by laboratory tests. A
computer program that adopted three-time functions of shrinkage based on ACI and PCA is
developed for the calculation of column shortening.
(4) The underestimation in axial shortening deformation of a concrete member is
mainly caused by the inappropriate use of elastic modulus. The time development equation of
elastic modulus recommends by current standards ignores the adverse influence of loading
history applied on concrete, and the step-by-step loading history with shorter time steps has a
more negative impact on elastic modulus, which makes it around 5%-11% lower than the
predicted values.
(5) The proportion of the deformation due to creep and shrinkage that contribute to
the total amount of deformation is 65.8% - 75.19% for the column and 70.4% - 82.1% for the
shear wall. Therefore, for concrete buildings, deformation due to creep and shrinkage must be
considered.
64
References
[1] Ali M.M., and Moon K.S (2007); Hallebrand and Jakobsson, 2016. “Structural
development in tall buildings:"
[2] Lee Y, Kim JK, Seol HC, Yang JK, Kim KJ. 3D numerical analysis of column
shortening and shore safety under construction of high-rise building. Engineering
Structures. 2017 Nov 1;150:242-55.
[3] Sami S. Matar and William J. Faschan. "A structural Engineer's Approach to
differential Vertical Shortening in Tall Buildings"
[4] ACI 209.2R-08. "Guide for modeling and Calculating Shrinkage and Creep in
Hardened Concrete".
[5] Ruben Correia, Paulo Silva Lobo; "Simplified Assessment of the effects of Columns
Shortening on the Response of Tall Concrete Buildings".
[6] Mark Fintel, S.K. Ghosh, and Hal lyengar.,1987. "Column Shortening in Tall
Structures-Prediction and Compression".
[7] Smith, B.S., Coull, A., 1991. "Tall building Structures: Analysis and Design". John
Willey & Sons, Inc., New York.
[8] Kurc, O., Lulec, A., 2011. "A comparative study on Different Analysis Approaches
for Estimating the Axial Loads on Columns and Structural Wall at Tall Buildings. The
Structural Design of tall and special Building".
[9] M. Asce and E-Doo Kim, Chang-Koon Choi “Multistory Frames Under Sequential
Gravity Loads” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol 111 No.11, Nov 1985.
[10] Hye-Kyo Chung, Chang-Koon Choi, Dong-Guen Lee and E.L. Wilson “Simplified
Building Analysis with Sequential Dead Loads-CFM” Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE,Vol 118, No.4, April 1992.
[11] A. R. Mari, P. J. S. Cruz; and P. Roca “Nonlinear Time-Dependent Analysis of
Segmentally Constructed Structures” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol
124, No.3, March 1998,
[12] W. Jayasena, M. T. R. Jayasinghe, “Effects of Axial Shortening of Columns on
Design and Construction of Tall Reinforced Concrete Buildings” Practice Periodical
on Structural Design and Construction, ASCE, Vol 9, No.2, May 2004.
[13] Hyo-Gyoung Kwak, “Time-dependent analysis of RC frame structures considering
construction sequences” Building and Environment, ELSEVIER, Vol 41, No.10, Oct
2006.
[14] Alexander, S. (2001). Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls. Concrete
(London), 35(3), 36-38.
65
[15] Kim YH, Trejo D, Hueste MBD, et al. (2011) Experimental study on creep and
durability of high-early-strength self-consolidating concrete for precast elements. ACI
Materials Journal 108(2).
[16] Kim H, Cho S. Column shortening of concrete cores and composite columns in a tall
building. The structural design of tall and special buildings. 2005 Jun;14(2):175-90.
[17] Blanc, C.M., Sánchez, A.O. and Navarro, I.F., 2021. Analytical characterization of
axial shortening due to creep of reinforced concrete columns in tall
buildings. Engineering Structures, 228, p.111584.
[18] Wang, L., Zhao, X. and Yan, C., 2020. Time-dependent vertical shortening prediction
for super-tall buildings by using a modified B3 model to consider moisture
distribution. Engineering Structures, 209, p.109994.
[19] Matar, Sami S., and William J. Faschan. "A structural engineer's approach to
differential vertical shortening in tall buildings." International Journal of High-Rise
Buildings 6, no. 1 (2017): 73-82.
[20] Dilger, W.H. and Wang, C., 2000. Creep and shrinkage of high-performance
concrete. Special Publication, 194, pp.361-380.
[21] Rhodes, James A., and D. J. Carreira. "Prediction of creep, shrinkage, and temperature
effects in concrete structures." (1982).
[22] Kim WS, Cho HW, Oh JK, Yom KS. Measured and predicted column shortening of a
tall reinforced concrete building. Korean concrete institute. 1999 Jun;11(3):161-70.
66
67
Appendix A Collected accumulative long-term (LT) axial

shortening for columns and walls after 50 years
Tab. 1 LT Axial Shortening for Column after 50 years
C E2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐
C F2‐B1
A1 A2 B2 A3 B3
Story Story label ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm)
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 75 76 84 83
53 FL52PH 78 79 79 79 87 87
52 FL51MECH 80 80 80 81 89 89
51 FL50 82 82 82 82 91 91
50 FL49 83 84 84 84 93 92
49 FL48 85 85 85 86 94 94
48 FL47 86 86 86 87 95 95
47 FL46 87 87 87 88 96 95
46 FL45 87 87 88 89 97 96
45 FL44 87 87 89 90 97 96
44 FL43 87 88 90 90 97 97
43 FL42 87 87 90 90 97 96
42 FL41 87 87 90 90 96 96
41 FL40 87 87 90 90 96 96
40 FL39 86 87 90 90 96 96
39 FL38 86 86 90 90 96 95
38 FL37 85 85 89 90 95 95
37 FL36 84 85 89 89 94 94
36 FL35ROOF 84 84 89 89 93 94
35 FL34 83 83 88 88 93 93
34 FL33MECH 83 84 89 90 94 94
33 FL32MECH 82 82 89 89 93 93
32 FL31 81 81 88 89 92 93
31 FL30 81 80 88 88 92 92
30 FL29 80 80 87 87 91 91
29 FL28 79 79 86 86 90 90
28 FL27 78 77 85 85 89 89
27 FL26 76 76 84 84 88 88
26 FL25 75 75 82 82 86 86
25 FL24 74 73 81 80 84 85
24 FL23 72 72 79 79 83 83
23 FL22 70 70 77 77 81 81
68
22 FL21 69 69 75 75 79 79
21 FL20REFUGE 68 67 74 74 77 77
20 FL19 66 66 72 72 76 76
19 FL18 65 65 71 71 74 74
18 FL17 63 63 69 69 72 73
17 FL16 62 62 67 67 71 71
16 FL15 60 60 66 65 69 69
15 FL14 59 58 64 64 67 67
14 FL13 57 57 62 62 65 65
13 FL12 55 55 60 60 63 63
12 FL11 54 54 59 59 62 62
11 FL10 48 48 52 52 54 55
10 FL09 44 43 47 46 49 49
9 FL08 41 41 44 44 46 46
8 FL07 39 38 41 41 43 43
7 FL06 35 34 37 36 39 39
6 FL05 30 30 32 31 34 33
5 FL04 23 23 25 24 26 26
4 FL03 19 19 20 20 21 22
3 FL02 15 15 16 16 17 17
2 FL01 11 11 12 11 12 12
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tab. 2 LT Axial Shortening for Wall after 50 years

W C01 W C02 W C03 W N02 W S02 W E14
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C 50 50 57 54 49
54 FL53ROOF 53 52 60 56 52
53 FL52PH 54 53 84 83 67
52 FL51MECH 62 55 54 61 62 54
51 FL50 62 56 55 62 62 54
50 FL49 63 57 56 63 63 55
49 FL48 64 58 57 64 64 56
48 FL47 65 59 57 65 65 57
47 FL46 66 60 58 65 66 58
46 FL45 66 61 59 66 67 59
45 FL44 67 62 59 67 65 60
44 FL43 68 63 60 67 68 60
43 FL42 68 63 60 68 66 61
42 FL41 68 64 61 68 69 61
69
41 FL40 68 64 61 68 69 62
40 FL39 68 65 61 68 69 62
39 FL38 68 65 61 68 69 62
38 FL37 68 66 62 68 69 63
37 FL36 69 66 61 68 69 63
36 FL35ROOF 68 66 62 67 69 64
35 FL34 68 67 62 66 69 65
34 FL33MECH 68 67 63 67 69 65
33 FL32MECH 70 68 64 69 71 66
32 FL31 68 67 63 67 69 65
31 FL30 68 67 63 67 69 65
30 FL29 68 67 63 67 69 65
29 FL28 67 67 63 67 68 65
28 FL27 67 67 63 67 68 65
27 FL26 66 66 62 66 68 65
26 FL25 66 66 62 66 67 64
25 FL24 65 65 62 65 66 64
24 FL23 64 65 61 65 66 63
23 FL22 63 64 61 64 65 63
22 FL21 63 63 60 63 64 62
21 FL20REFUGE 62 63 59 62 63 62
20 FL19 61 62 59 61 62 61
19 FL18 60 61 58 61 62 60
18 FL17 59 60 58 60 61 59
17 FL16 58 59 57 59 60 59
16 FL15 57 58 56 58 59 58
15 FL14 57 58 55 57 58 57
14 FL13 56 57 55 57 57 56
13 FL12 55 56 54 56 56 56
12 FL11 54 55 54 55 55 55
11 FL10 50 51 50 50 50 51
10 FL09 44 45 45 45 45 45
9 FL08 42 43 42 42 42 43
8 FL07 39 39 39 39 39 40
7 FL06 34 35 35 35 35 36
6 FL05 30 30 31 30 31 31
5 FL04 23 23 24 24 24 24
4 FL03 19 20 20 20 20 21
3 FL02 15 16 16 16 16 17
2 FL01 11 11 12 12 12 13
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 6
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
70
Appendix B Differential long-term axial shortening between

successive floors after 50 years (Façade design)
Tab 1 Axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years
C E2‐ C F2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐
A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3
71

56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 3 4 4 4 3 3
53 FL52PH 2 2 1 1 2 2
52 FL51MECH 2 2 2 2 2 2
51 FL50 2 2 2 2 2 2
50 FL49 1 1 1 1 1 1
49 FL48 1 1 1 1 1 1
48 FL47 1 1 1 1 1 1
47 FL46 0 0 1 1 1 1
46 FL45 0 0 1 1 0 0
45 FL44 0 0 0 0 0 0
44 FL43 0 0 0 0 0 0
43 FL42 0 0 0 0 0 0
42 FL41 0 0 0 0 0 0
41 FL40 0 0 0 0 0 0
40 FL39 1 1 0 0 0 0
39 FL38 1 1 0 0 1 1
38 FL37 1 1 1 1 1 1
37 FL36 0 0 0 0 1 0
36 FL35ROOF 1 1 0 1 1 1
35 FL34 1 1 1 1 1 1
34 FL33MECH 2 2 1 1 1 1
33 FL32MECH 1 1 0 0 0 0
32 FL31 1 1 0 1 0 1
31 FL30 1 1 1 1 1 1
30 FL29 1 1 1 1 1 1
29 FL28 1 1 1 1 1 1
28 FL27 1 1 1 1 1 1
27 FL26 1 1 1 1 1 2
26 FL25 1 1 2 2 2 2
25 FL24 2 2 2 2 2 2
24 FL23 2 2 2 2 2 2
23 FL22 2 2 2 2 2 2
22 FL21 1 1 1 1 1 1
21 FL20REFUGE 1 1 1 1 1 2
20 FL19 1 1 2 2 2 2
19 FL18 1 1 2 2 2 2
18 FL17 2 2 2 2 2 2
17 FL16 2 2 2 2 2 2
16 FL15 2 2 2 2 2 2
72
15 FL14 2 2 2 2 2 2
14 FL13 2 2 2 2 2 2
13 FL12 1 1 1 1 1 1
12 FL11 6 6 7 7 8 7
11 FL10 5 5 5 5 5 5
10 FL09 2 2 3 3 3 3
9 FL08 3 3 3 3 3 3
8 FL07 4 4 5 5 5 5
7 FL06 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 FL05 7 7 7 7 7 7
5 FL04 4 4 4 4 5 4
4 FL03 4 4 4 4 5 5
3 FL02 4 4 5 4 5 5
2 FL01 6 6 6 6 7 7
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tab 2 Axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years

C E2‐ C F2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐ C G2‐ C G2‐
A4 B4 A5 B5 Y4 Y5
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 2 2
53 FL52PH 1 2 1 1
52 FL51MECH 2 2 1 2
51 FL50 1 1 1 1
50 FL49 1 1 1 1
49 FL48 1 1 1 1
48 FL47 1 1 1 1
47 FL46 0 0 1 1
46 FL45 0 0 0 0
45 FL44 0 0 0 0
44 FL43 0 0 0 0
43 FL42 0 0 0 0
42 FL41 0 0 0 0
41 FL40 0 0 0 0
40 FL39 0 0 0 0
39 FL38 1 1 1 1
38 FL37 1 1 1 1
37 FL36 1 0 0 0
36 FL35ROOF 0 1 1 1 0 1
73
35 FL34 1 1 1 1 1 3
34 FL33MECH 1 1 2 2 0 2
33 FL32MECH 0 0 0 0 1 1
32 FL31 0 1 0 0 0 1
31 FL30 1 1 0 1 0 1
30 FL29 1 1 1 1 0 1
29 FL28 1 1 1 1 0 1
28 FL27 1 1 1 1 0 0
27 FL26 1 1 1 1 0 0
26 FL25 1 2 1 1 0 0
25 FL24 2 2 1 1 0 1
24 FL23 2 2 1 1 1 1
23 FL22 2 2 1 1 1 1
22 FL21 1 1 1 1 0 1
21 FL20REFUGE 1 1 1 1 0 1
20 FL19 1 2 1 1 1 1
19 FL18 1 2 1 1 1 1
18 FL17 2 2 1 1 1 1
17 FL16 2 2 1 1 1 1
16 FL15 2 2 1 1 1 2
15 FL14 2 2 1 1 1 2
14 FL13 2 2 1 1 1 2
13 FL12 1 1 0 0 0 1
12 FL11 7 4 5 5 4 7
11 FL10 5 5 4 5 4 4
10 FL09 3 3 2 2 2 2
9 FL08 3 3 2 2 2 2
8 FL07 4 5 4 4 4 4
7 FL06 5 5 4 5 4 4
6 FL05 7 7 6 7 7 7
5 FL04 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 FL03 4 5 4 4 4 4
3 FL02 5 5 4 4 4 5
2 FL01 7 7 6 6 6 7
1 FL00GFL 5 6 5 5 5 6
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
74
Appendix C Factors affecting concrete creep and shrinkage

and variables considered in recommend prediction
method
Tab. C.1 Factors affecting Concrete Creep and Shrinkage
Variable Standard
Factors
considered conditions
Concrete (creep Concrete Cement paste content Type of cement Type I and III
75
Slump 70 mm
Water-cement ratio Air content ≤ 6%
Mixture proportions Fine aggregate
composite 50%
Aggregate characteristics percentage
Degrees of compaction 279 to 446
Cement content
kg/m3
and shrinkage)
Moist cured 7 days
Length of initial curing
Steam cured 1 to 3 days
Moist cured 23.2 ± 2 oC
Initial curing Curing temperature
Steam cured ≤ 100 oC
Relative
Curing humidity ≥ 95 oC
humidity
Concrete
Concrete temperature 23.2 ± 2 oC
temperature
Environment
Member geometry Ambient relative
Concrete water content 40%
and environment humidity
(creep and Volume-surface V / S = 38 mm
shrinkage) ratio or
minimum 150 mm
thickness
Concrete age at load Moist cured 7 days
application Steam cured 1 to 3 days
Loading During of loading period Sustained load Sustained load
history Duration of unloading
- -
period
Loading (creep
Number of load cycles - -
only)
Type of stress and
Axial
distribution across the Compressive
Stress compression
section
conditions
Stress / strength
Stress/strength ration ≤ 0.50
ration
Appendix D Creep and Shrinkage Correction Factor
Cement paste content

Water-cement ratio
Concrete
Mixture proportions
Concrete (creep composite
Aggregate characteristics
and shrinkage)
Degrees of compaction
Initial curing Length of initial curing
76
Curing temperature
Curing humidity
Member geometry Concrete temperature
Environment
and environment Concrete water content
(creep and
shrinkage)
Concrete age at load
application
Loading During of loading period
history Duration of unloading
Loading (creep period
only) Number of load cycles
Type of stress and
Stress distribution across the
conditions section
Stress/strength ration
77
Publications during Masters Study

1. E. Phearum, L. C. Wang, R. Partab, “Numerical Analysis of Columns shortening on the
response of high-rise concrete building”. DUT Network Journal.
78
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Khan Theany for the continuous blessings upon me. I want to thank
my family, especially my parents, for supporting me morally and spiritually far away from
home throughout my master's study and every step of my life.
I want to express my sincere gratitude to my respected supervisor Prof. Dr. Wang Licheng,
for his continuous and unconditional support during my Master's study and related research
work. His guidance, patience, motivation, and immense knowledge helped me throughout my
research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and
mentor for my Master's study.
My sincere thanks also go to all my friends, fellow lab mates, juniors, and seniors for their
assistance, valuable time in discussions and suggestions and, all the fun we have had together
in the last three years. I am also thankful to the People’s Republic of China for providing me
with this opportunity for a master's study in DUT.
Thanks to everyone from 220 for all your encouragement and support. Room 220 will stay
in my heart forever.
ENG Phearum
79
Dalian University of Technology

Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation
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the dissertation and submit copies and electronic editions to national departments and
institutions concerned. The university can index relevant databases for retrieval using a part of
the whole dissertation. The university can photocopy, print in reduced format or scan to keep
and compile this dissertation.
Dissertation Title: Numerical Analysis of Columns shortening on the response of
High-rise Concrete Building
Author’s Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 12 Day
Supervisor’s Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 12 Day
80
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学位论文题目：Numerical Analysis of Columns shortening on the response of

High-rise Concrete Building
作者签名：日期： 2023 年 07 月 12 日
导师签名：日期： 2023 年 07 月 12 日
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Dissertation submitted for Master Degree of Dalian University of Technology

Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response

The School of Civil Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

September 25, 2019

Prof. Wang Licheng

学位论文题目： Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-

Dalian University of Technology Dissertation Originality

Author Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 12 Day

1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic............................................................................

2.4.3 Temperature under Load.............................................................................- 15 -

3.2.3 Current engineering practices to minimize effects......................................- 27 -

4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs.....................................................................

5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall...........................................................

5.5.3 Compensation of Long-term Axial Shortening in Shuttering Level...........- 61 -

Dalian University of Technology..................................................................................................

Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation.......................................................

Fig 1.1 (a) Fig 1.1 (b) Fig 1.1 (c)

Fig 1.2 Steady build-up during 1990.

Fig.1.3.1a History of the “world’s tallest building” .

North America Asia Middle East Europe

South America Australia Central America Africa

Fig. 1.3.2 100 tallest building by location.

Fig.1.3.3 100 tallest building by function, 1930-

Steel Concrete Composite

1.2 Aim of the Master's Thesis

Axial shortening (AS) of these composite columns due to time-dependent phenomena

Fig. 1.2 Failure of wall panel due to differential axial

Load Deformation Exterior Interior

Causes of total Causes of differential

 Structural lateral strength and stiffness

Use (approx. storey height) Tall Supertall-tall

Tab. 2.1 Definition of ‘Tall’

2.2 High-rise Building

2.2.1.1 Basis of Design

2.2.1.2 Geotechnical Investigation Report

2.2.1.3 Site-specific Probabilistic seismic Hazard Assessment Report

2.2.1.4 Wind Tunnel

 10-years return period wind load

2.3 Theoretical Background of Elastic Deformation in Concrete

2.3.1 Creep Deformation in Concrete

deformation due to creep

deformation due to shrinkage

Time after loading

2.3.5 Water to Cementitious Ratio

2.4.2 Size Effect

2.5 Prediction of Creep of Concrete

2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992)

vu is the ultimate creep coefficient, and the average value suggested

Shrinkage ratio (2.12)

2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures

2.6.6 Mineral admixtures

2.6.9 Relative Humidity

2.7.1 ACI 209R (1992)

γλ is a correction factor for ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:

2.7.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)

2.8.3 Material Properties

2.6.4 Mineral Admixtures

2.6.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete

and compressive strength for normal-weight concrete was reported below:

Chapter 3. Differential Axial Shortening (DAS)

3.2 Other Factors influencing in High-rise Buildings