NETWORKING

Different Types of Computer Networks

There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The classification of network
in computers can be done according to their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of computers,
which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of
devices spread across the world. Following are the popular types of Computer Network:

Types of Computer Networks

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

Let’s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally

consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.
Characteristics of PAN

Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

  It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single
user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN

Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely
useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The
simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home or
office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which
consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.
Local Area Network (LAN)

Characteristics of LAN

Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and Ethernet.

Advantages of LAN

Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

  LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a
large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or
an organization.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Characteristics of WAN

Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the
latest files.
  Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN

Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN

Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire

city, college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is
mostly limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of
network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Characteristics of MAN

Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.

 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

Other Types of Computer Networks

Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important types of
networks:

 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 Storage Area Network
 System Area Network
 Home Area Network
 POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
 Enterprise private network
 Campus Area Network
 Virtual Area Network

Let’s see all these different types of networks in detail:

1) WLAN

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using
wireless communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It gives users
an ability to move around within a local coverage area which may be connected to the network.
Today most modern day’s WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and tape
libraries.

3) System-Area Network

System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in server-to-
server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a SAN network
operate as a single system at quite high speed.
4) Passive Optical Local Area Network

POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It
allows you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps.

POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal from a
single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.

5) Home Area Network (HAN):

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to form a
local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States, about 15 million
homes have more than one computer.

These types of network connections help computer owners to interconnect with multiple
computers. This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other peripherals.

6) Enterprise Private Network:

Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are building and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer resources.

7) Campus Area Network (CAN):

A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific

geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of campus
buildings to connect all the academic departments.

8) Virtual Private Network:

A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or users
together. The VPN network uses “virtual” connections routed through the internet from the
enterprise’s private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site.

It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public WiFi
hotspots.
 What are network devices?

Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.

Types of network devices

Here is the common network device list:

 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Gateway
 Modem
 Repeater

Hub

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in
that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A
hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN
components with identical protocols.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured
to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital
format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub
passes it on in signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all
connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. There are two types of hubs: simple and multiple port.

Switch

Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in
the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs
are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of
incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.

Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit
capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult
to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the
best capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer
or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers,
which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-
performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to
prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important so
be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection
and MAC address filtering.

Router

Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent
devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be
configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs). Routers,
in conjunction with a channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to
translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use
different network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the outside
connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.

Router is also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnet works. Routers can also
be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers
establish communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A
router contains information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the
destination isn’t known. Routers usually communicate routing and other information using one
of three standard protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that is
authorized by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static or
dynamic. If they are static, they can only be configured manually and stay that way until
changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them and use information about
those routers to build their routing tables.

Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks.
They are usually dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network
interfaces for each connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large
computer networks like the internet, they have special features that give them the flexibility and
the ability to cope with varying network addressing schemes and frame sizes through
segmentation of big packets into smaller sizes that fit the new network components. Each router
interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own LAN address (network
card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with the help of a routing
table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its destination. The routing
table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt of a packet, the router
removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by determining the source
and destination addresses and data type, and noting the arrival time. It also updates the router
table with new addresses not already in the table. The IP header and arrival time information is
entered in the routing table. Routers normally work at the Network layer of the OSI model.

Bridge

Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of
bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments
that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for
transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment,
bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two
physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to
divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments
and managing the flow of data between the two.

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components
with identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for
addresses before they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no
modifications to the format or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards
frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is
initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and the addresses of
each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either
simple or multiple ports.

Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches,
which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges”
because of how they operate.
Gateway

Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport
layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways
are used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such
as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its
own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration
procedures and policies.

Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added
translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation between different
network technologies is called a protocol converter.

Modem

Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone
lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different
frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem
performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a
modem, usually a computer. The digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a
serial line through an industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL
services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals for identification and
recognition of home and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link
layers.

Repeater

A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater
as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the
signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters
work on the Physical layer.

Types of Network Topology: Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree Diagram

What is Topology?

Network topologies describe the methods in which all the elements of a network are mapped.
The topology term refers to both the physical and logical layout of a network.

Types of Networking Topologies

Two main types of network topologies in computer networks are:

1) Physical topology

2) Logical topology

Physical topology:

This type of network is an actual layout of the computer cables and other network devices

Logical topology:

Logical topology gives insights about network’s physical design.

Different types of Physical Topologies are:

 P2P Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology
 N
etwork Topology Diagram

Point to Point (P2P)

Point-to-point topology is the easiest of all the network topologies. In this method, the network
consists of a direct link between two computers.

P2P Topology Diagram

Advantages:

 This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since there is a direct
connection.
 No need for a network operating system
 Does not need an expensive server as individual workstations are used to access the
files
 No need for any dedicated network technicians because each user sets their
permissions
Disadvantages:

The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where computers are in close
proximity (proximity: means, nearness in space, time or relationship).

 You can’t back up files and folders centrally

 There is no security besides the permissions. Users often do not require to log onto their
workstations.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology Diagram

Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes. The main cable acts as a
spine for the entire network. One of the computers in the network acts as the computer server.
When it has two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus topology.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of using a bus topology:

 Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology, so it is widely used to build
small networks.
 Famous (well known) for LAN network because they are inexpensive and easy to install.
 It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary.
 It is one of the passive topologies. So, computers on the bus only listen for data being
sent, that are not responsible for moving the data from one computer to others.
Disadvantages:

Here are the cons/drawbacks of bus topology:

 In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will crash down.
 When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions in the network.
 Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too many, the performance time of the
network significantly decreases.
 Cables are always of a limited length.

Ring Topology

Ring Topology Diagram

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighboring devices for communication
purpose. It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring. In this topology, every
computer is connected to another computer. Here, the last node is combined with a first one.

This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer to another. In this
topology, all the messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of ring topology:

 Easy to install and reconfigure.

 Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two connections.
 The troubleshooting process is difficult in a ring topology.
 Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.
  Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
 Faster error checking and acknowledgment.

Disadvantages:

Here are drawbacks/cons of ring topology:

 Unidirectional traffic.
 Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
 Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
 In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops unwanted power
consumption.
 It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
 Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.

Star Topology

Star Topology Diagram

In the star topology, all the computers connect with the help of a hub. This cable is called a
central node, and all other nodes are connected using this central node. It is most popular on
LAN networks as they are inexpensive and easy to install.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of start topology:

 Easy to troubleshoot, set up, and modify.

 Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still work.
 Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
  In Star topology, addition, deletion, and moving of the devices are easy.

Disadvantages:

Here are cons/drawbacks of using Star:

 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.

 Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
 Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus considerably.
 Performance depends on the hub’s capacity
 A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network down.

Mesh Topology

The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each computer on the network
connects to every other. It develops a P2P (point-to-point) connection between all the devices
of the network. It offers a high level of redundancy, so even if one network cable fails, still data
has an alternative path to reach its destination.

Types of Mesh Topology:

 Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of topology, most of the devices are connected
almost similarly as full topology. The only difference is that few devices are connected
with just two or three devices.

Partially Connected Mesh Topology

 Full Mesh Topology: In this topology, every node or device are directly connected with
each other.
Fully Connected Mesh Topology
Advantages:

Here, are pros/benefits of Mesh topology

 The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.

 Need extra capable compare with other LAN topologies
 No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
 Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
 A mesh topology is robust.
 It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes should be used
for data communication.
 P2P links make the fault identification isolation process easy.
 It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by connecting all the systems to a
central node.
 Every system has its privacy and security.

Disadvantages:

 Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.

 It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of systems.
 Complicated implementation.
 It requires more space for dedicated links.
 Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is expensive to
implement.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.
Tree Topology

Tree Topology

Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes are connected which form a hierarchy.
So, it is also known as hierarchical topology. This topology integrates various star topologies
together in a single bus, so it is known as a Star Bus topology. Tree topology is a very common
network which is similar to a bus and star topology.

Advantages:

Here are pros/benefits of tree topology:

 Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.

 Node expansion is fast and easy.
 Detection of error is an easy process
 It is easy to manage and maintain

Disadvantages:

Here are cons/drawbacks of tree topology:

 It is heavily cabled topology

 If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult
 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies. You can see in the above architecture in
such a manner that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies.

For example, as you can see in the above image that in an office in one department, Star and
P2P topology is used. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network
topologies are connected.

Advantages:

Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:

 Offers the easiest method for error detecting and troubleshooting

 Highly effective and flexible networking topology
 It is scalable so you can increase your network size

Disadvantages:

 The design of hybrid topology is complex

 It is one of the costliest processes

How to select a Network Topology?

Here are some important considerations for selecting the best topology to create a network in
your organization:

 Bus topology is surely least expensive to install a network.

 If you want to use a shorter cable or you planning to expand the network is future, then
star topology is the best choice for you.
 Fully mesh topology is theoretically an ideal choice as every device is connected to every
other device.
 If you want to use twisted pair cable for networking, then you should build star
topologies.
What is a network interface card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component, typically a circuit board or chip, which
is installed on a computer so it can connect to a network.
An IP address, or Internet Protocol address
Is a series of numbers that identifies any device on a network. Computers use IP addresses to
communicate with each other both over the internet as well as on other networks.
The physical address or media access control (MAC)
It identifies a device to other devices on the same local network. The internet address or IP
address identifies the device globally. A network packet needs both addresses to get to its
destination.
The eight-pin RJ45 connector
It is a standardized interface which often connects a computer to a Local Area Network (LAN).
The abbreviation, RJ45, stands for Registered Jack-45
RJ11 is a four pins connector which is used for terminating the telephone wires.

What is Transmission Media in Computer Network?

Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits information from the

source/transmitter to the receiver. It is a physical path for data transfer through
electromagnetic signals. Information is carried over in the form of bits through LAN. It can
mediate the propagation of signals for telecommunication. Signals are imposed on a wave that
is suitable for the chosen medium. These media lie underneath the physical layer that regulates
them. 
Types of Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Broadly, there are two types of transmission media in computer networks including guided and
unguided media. These two types of transmission medium in computer networks have further
subtypes.

1. Guided Transmission Media

Guided media are also known as wired or bounded media. These media consist of wires
through which the data is transferred. Guided media is a physical link between transmitter and
recipient devices. Signals are directed in a narrow pathway using physical links. These media
types are used for shorter distances since physical limitation limits the signal that flows through
these transmission media.

1.1 Twisted Pair Cable

In this type of transmission media, two insulated conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together to improve electromagnetic compatibility. These are the most widely used
transmission medium cables. These are packed together in protective sheaths. They reduce
electromagnetic radiation from pairs and crosstalk between the neighboring pair. Overall, it
improves the rejection of external electromagnetic interference. These are further subdivided
into unshielded and shielded twisted pair cables. 

1.1.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP): These consist of two insulated copper wires that
are coiled around one another. These types of transmission media block interference without
depending on any physical shield. The unshielded twisted pair are very affordable and are
simple to set up. These provide a high-speed link. 

1.1.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This twisted cable consisted of a foil shield to block external
interference. The insulation within these types of the twisted cable allows greater data
transmission rate. These are used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in data and voice channels of
telephone lines.  

1. 2 Optical Fiber Cable

Also known as fiber optic cable, these are thin strands of glass that guide light along their
length. These contain multiple optical fibers and are very often used for long-distance
communications. Compared to other materials, these cables can carry huge amounts of data
and run for miles without using signal repeaters. Due to lesser requirements, they have less
maintenance costs and it improves the reliability of the communication system. These can be
unidirectional as well as bidirectional in nature. 

1.3 Coaxial cable

These guided transmission media contain an insulation layer that transmits information in
baseband mode and broadband mode. Coaxial cables are made of PVC/Teflon and two parallel
conductors that are separately insulated. Such cables carry high frequency electrical signals
without any big loss. The dimension of cable and connectors are controlled to give them
constant conductor spacing for efficient functioning as a transmission line.

2. Unguided Transmission Media

Also known as unbounded or wireless media, they help in transmitting electromagnetic signals
without using a physical medium. Here, air is the medium. There is no physical connectivity
between transmitter and receiver. These types of transmission media are used for longer
distances however they are less secure than guided media. There are three main types of
wireless transmission media. 

2.1 Radio Waves

Radio waves are transmitted in every direction throughout free space. Since these are
omnidirectional, sent waves can be received by any antenna. These waves are useful when the
data is to multicast from one sender to multiple receivers. Radio waves can cover large areas
and even penetrate obstacles such as buildings and walls. The frequency of these waves ranges
between 3 kHz to 1GHz. Due to its omnidirectional nature, issues such as interference might
arise when another signal with the same bandwidth or frequency is sent.  

2.2 Infrared

These waves are useful for only very short distance communication. Unlike radio waves, they
do not have the ability to penetrate barriers. Their range varies between 300GHz – 400THz.
Since they have larger bandwidth, the data rate is very high for infrared waves. These have less
interference and are more secure. 

Describe OSI reference model in line with network devices,

OSI Model History

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was developed in the late 1970s by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to provide a standardized framework for
network communication protocols. It aimed to facilitate interoperability between different
network technologies and vendors.

OSI Model Features

Modular Structure: The model is divided into seven layers, each with a specific set of functions
and responsibilities.

Standardization: It provides a standardized reference for network communication, allowing

different vendors to develop compatible hardware and software.

Layered Approach: The layered structure simplifies network design, troubleshooting, and
protocol development by separating different aspects of communication

Encapsulation: Data from higher layers is encapsulated within headers or data units at each
layer, providing structure and necessary information for transmission.
Interoperability: Adherence to the OSI model ensures that devices and protocols from different
vendors can communicate with each other effectively.

OSI Layers

The OSI model consists of the following seven layers, from top to bottom

Application Layer: This layer interacts directly with end-user applications and provides services
such as file transfer, email, and web browsing. Protocols at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
and DNS.

Presentation Layer: It is responsible for data formatting, encryption, and compression. It

ensures that data from different systems can be properly interpreted. Examples include SSL/TLS
for secure communication and JPEG for image compression.

Session Layer: The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions
between applications. It provides mechanisms for synchronization, check pointing, and
recovery.

Transport Layer: This layer ensures reliable end-to-end data delivery. It can provide error
detection, flow control, and congestion control. Protocols at this layer include TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

 The two most important protocols in the Transport Layer are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP provides reliable data delivery service with
end-to-end error detection and correction. UDP provides low-overhead, connectionless
datagram delivery service.

Network Layer: The network layer handles logical addressing and routing of data packets
between different networks. It determines the best path for data transmission and performs
functions like routing, addressing, and fragmentation. IP (Internet Protocol) is a commonly used
network layer protocol.
Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reliable data transfer across a physical link. It
handles error detection and correction, flow control, and access to the physical medium.
Ethernet, WI-Fi and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) are examples of data link layer protocols.

Physical Layer: The physical layer deals with the actual transmission and reception of raw data
bits over a physical medium. It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of the
physical connection. It includes components like cables, connectors, and signaling mechanisms.