12th CHEMISTRY Notes

Second Year Page |1 Chemistry
Chapter # 01
Periodic Classification
INTRODUCTION
As we know some elements are metals and others are non-metals. Some are gases,
others are liquids and still others are solids. Some are highly reactive while others are inert.
Some elements are soft, others are quite hard.
The classification of elements “PERIODIC TABLE” explains all these behaviors and
properties of elements.
THE HISTORY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Al Razi was the first to classify the elements known at his time.
AL RAZI’S CLASSIFICATION
According to Al Razi, there are two types of elements.
1. Metals
2. Non-metals
DOBERIENER’S LAW OF TRIADS
INTRODUCTION
In 1829, the German chemist John Doberiener found several groups of three elements
that have similar properties. He named these groups as “TRIADS”.
STATEMENT
“If we arrange the elements into three groups according to their increasing atomic
masses then the atomic mass of the middle element is equal to the arithmetic mean of the
atomic masses of other two elements”
Example:
7LI 23Na 39K
7  39 46
A.M   A.M   A.M .  23
2 2
NOTE: The above calculation clearly shows that the atomic mass of Sodium (Na) (23) is equal
to the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of Li (7) and K (39).
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES

INTRODUCTION
In 1864, Newland arranged the elements into seven groups which he called “OCTAVES”
STATEMENT
“If we arrange the elements according to their increasing atomic masses then every eight
elements repeats the properties of the previous elements”
Example:
7Li 9Be 11B 12C 14N 16O 19F
23Na 24Mg 27Al 28Si 31P 32S 35.5Cl
Youtube Knowledgepool (Solved Guess Paper)

MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
INTRODUCTION
In 1869, the Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev arrange the elements into eight groups.
His classification of elements is much similar to the modern periodic table. He presented a law
for the arrangement of elements which is called “Mendeleev’s Periodic Law”. The statement
of which is given below,
STATEMENT
“The chemical and physical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their Atomic
Masses”.
EXPLANATION
His periodic law tells us that if we arrange the elements according to their atomic
masses then they repeat their properties after regular intervals.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

Mendeleev’s periodic table is given below.
7Li 9Be 11B 12C 14N 16O 19F
23Na 24Mg 27Al 28Si 31P 32S 35.5Cl
55Mn
39K 40Ca —— —— 51V 54Cr 56Fe, 59Co, 59Ni
63Cu 65Zn —— ——
MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

 He was the first chemist who presented the concept of eight groups.
 He placed similar elements in the same group.
 He left vacant spaces for undiscovered elements.
 Each group shows the maximum valence of its elements.
 He placed Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel in the same group because of similar magnetic
properties of the elements.
DEMERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

 His classification of elements is based on atomic masses of elements in which the
sequence is not very good.
 His classification of elements does not tell anything about the structure of atoms.
 He did not give any place to the isotopes of elements in his table.
 He placed 40Ar before 39K which is against his periodic law.
MODERN PERIODIC LAW
STATEMENT
“The chemical and physical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their Atomic
Number not Atomic Masses”.
EXPLANATION
This law tells us that if we arrange the elements according to their increasing atomic
numbers then they repeat their properties after regular intervals.
NOTE: Doberiener, Newland and Mendeleev’s periodic laws are based on the atomic
masses while the modern periodic law is based on the atomic numbers of the elements.

REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS
DEFINITION
The elements of “A” family (S and P blocks) are called Representative elements
because they represent all types of elements such as solids, liquids, gases, metals, non-metals
and metalloids.
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
DEFINITION
The elements of “B” family (d and f block) are called transition elements because they
have variable valances such as Fe+2 and Fe+3.
TYPES OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

There are four types of elements according to the electronic configuration which are
given below.
s – BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
These elements are found in the extreme left of the periodic table.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Their general electronic configuration is nS1 nS2
PROPERTIES
i. All the elements of this block are metals except Hydrogen.
ii. They are highly reactive elements.
iii. They form ionic bond.
p – BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
These elements are found in the extreme right of the periodic table.
Their general electronic configuration is nS2, nP1 nS2, nP6
PROPERTIES
i. Most of the elements of this block are non metals.
ii. They are less reactive elements as compare to the reactivity of the S– block.
iii. They usually form covalent bond with other elements.
d – BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
These elements are found in the center of the periodic table.
There general electronic configuration is nS1, (n−1)d1 nS2, (n−1)d10

PROPERTIES
i. All the elements of this block are metals.
ii. All the elements of this block are solids except mercury.
iii. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
f – BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
These elements are found in the bottom of the periodic table.
Their general electronic configuration is nS2, (n − 1)d1, (n − 2)f1-14
PROPERTIES
i. All the elements of this block are metals.
ii. All the elements of this block are solids.
iii. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO PERIODS

And
THEIR ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Period Period Name Electronic Configuration
1st shortest 1s1 – 1s2
2nd 1st short 2s1 – 2s2, 2p6
3rd 2nd short 3s1 – 4s2, 3d10, 4p6
4th 1st long 4s1 - 4s2, 3d10, 4p6
5th 2nd long 5s1 - 5s2, 4d10, 5p6
6th 1st longest 6s1 - 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6
7th 2nd longest 7s1 - 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 766

Chapter # 02
POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
INTRODUCTION
On the basis of properties, Hydrogen can be placed in IA, IVA and VIIA groups of the periodic
table. The details are given below.
IA GROUP
SIMILARITIES DISSIMILARITIES
1. The electronic configuration of Hydrogen 1. Hydrogen is a gas while these elements
is 1S1 and the electronic configuration of are solids.
these elements is nS1. 2. Hydrogen is non–metal while these
2. During reaction, Hydrogen can loose one elements are metals.
electron, these elements also loose one 3. Hydrogen also forms covalent bond while
electron during reaction. these elements always form ionic bond.
3. The valancy of Hydrogen is “1” and the 4. Hydrogen is found in the form of diatomic
valancy of these elements is also “1”. molecule (H2) while these elements are
4. Hydrogen attains “+1” charge when not found in such form.
reacted with VIIA group elements. These 5. Hydrogen ion does not exist in water
Elements also attain “+1” charge. H+ + H2O  H3O+
5. Hydrogen has one electron in its While the ion of these elements exist in
outermost shell; these elements also have water
one electron in their outermost shell. Na+ + H2O  No reaction
IVA GROUP
1. The outermost orbit of Hydrogen is half 1. Hydrogen has one electron in its
filled and the outermost orbit of these outermost orbit while these elements have
elements is also half filled. four electrons in their outermost orbits.
2. Hydrogen is non–metal, these elements 2. Hydrogen is a gas while these elements
are also non–metals. are solids.
3. Hydrogen usually forms covalent bond; 3. Hydrogen form diatomic molecule (H2) while
these elements also form covalent bond. these elements do not form diatomic molecules.
4. The E.N. value of Hydrogen is is similar 4. Hydrogen should belong to “s–block”
to the E.N. value of IVA group elements (H1=1S1) while these elements should
such as E.N. of Carbon. belong to “p–block”(C6 = 1S1, 2S2 , 2P2)
VIIA GROUP
1. Hydrogen needs 1 electron to complete its 1. Hydrogen has only one electron in its
outermost orbit; these elements also outermost orbit while these elements have
require 1 electron to complete their outer seven electrons in their outer orbits.
orbits. 2. Hydrogen belongs to “s–block” (H1=1s1)
2. Hydrogen is a non–metal; these elements while these elements belong to “p–block”
are also non–metals. (Cl17 = 3p5)
3. Hydrogen forms single covalent bond; 3. Hydrogen ion does not exist in water
these elements also form single covalent H+ + H2O  H3O+
bond. While the ion of these elements exist in water
F- + H2O  No reaction

4. Hydrogen forms diatomic molecule (H2) 4. Hydrogen usually form H+ ion when its
and these elements also form diatomic compounds are dissolved in water while
molecules. (F2, C12 etc) these elements always form “−ve” ion.
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
Definition
“Those atoms of an element which have same atomic numbers but different atomic masses are
called Isotopes of each other”.
OR
“Those atoms of an element which have same number of protons but different number of
neutrons are called Isotopes to each other”. There are three isotopes of Hydrogen.
1. Protium 2. Deuterium 3. Tritium
PROTIUM
Definition
“An isotope of Hydrogen which has one proton but no neutron is called Protium”.
OR
“An isotope of Hydrogen whose atomic number is “1”, and its atomic mass is also “1” is called
Protium”.
SYMBOL
It is represented by “1H1”.
PERCENTAGE
Hydrogen (element and compounds) contain 99.98% Protium.
STRUCTURE
P=1
N=0 P=1
N=0
DEUTERIUM
Definition
“An isotope of Hydrogen which have one proton and one neutron in its nucleus is called
deuterium”.
OR
“An isotope of Hydrogen whose atomic number is “1” and its atomic mass is “2” is called
deuterium”.
SYMBOL
It is represented by “1D2” or “1H2”
PERCENTAGE
Hydrogen (elemental and compounds) contain 0.015% Deuterium.
STRUCTURE
P=1
N=1 P=1
N=1

TRITIUM
Definition
“An isotope of Hydrogen which have one proton and two neutron in its nucleus is called
tritium”.
OR
“An isotope of Hydrogen whose atomic number is “1” and its atomic mass is “3” is called
tritium”.
SYMBOL
It is represented by “1T3” or “1T3”
PERCENTAGE
Hydrogen (elemental and compounds) contain 4×10-15% Deuterium.
STRUCTURE
P=1
N=2 P=1
N=2
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

Following are some methods which can be used for the manufacturing of Hydrogen.
1. By the electrolysis of water
When electricity is passed through water (containing H2SO4) as a result Hydrogen gas is
produced at cathode.
2H2O Electricit
 y  2H2 + O2
2. By the thermal decomposition of CH4
When methane gas is heated at 700Co in the absence of Oxygen then H2 is produced.
700
 
0
C
CH4 C + 2H2
3. By thermal decomposition of NH3
When ammonia gas heated at 10000C, it produces H2 gas.
1000
 
0
C
2NH3 N2 + 3H2
4. By the action steam of Carbon
When red hot Carbon is reacted with steam at 10000C, it produces water gas.
H2O 1000  
0
C
C + CO + H2
When water gas (CO + H2) is cooled up to −2000C, Carbon monoxide is liquefied and is
separated from Hydrogen.
5. By the action of steam on methanol
When methanol is reacted with steam at 2500C, as a result Hydrogen gas is produced.
H2O 250  
0
C
CH3OH + CO2 + 3H2
6. By the reaction between steam and CH4
When CH4 gas is reacted with steam at 9000C in the presence of Ni catalyst as a result Hydrogen
gas is produced.
H2O 700  
0
C
CH4 + CO + 3H2
Water Gas

7. By the thermal decomposition of HCl
When HCl is heated up to 5000C, as a result Hydrogen gas is produced.
700
 
0
C
2HCl H2 + Cl2
BINARY COMPOUND OF HYDROGEN
INTRODUCTION
Those compounds which are combination of hydrogen and other elements are called binary
compound, there are six types of binary compounds of Hydrogen (called hydrides) which are given
below.
1. IONIC HYDRIDES
If Hydrogen reacts with the elements of group IA and IIA (except Be, Mg), the hydrides are
called Ionic Hydrides because there is ionic bond between Hydrogen and these elements.
PREPARATION
200
 
0
C
a) 2Na + H2 C + 2NaH
b) Ca + H2  CaH2
GENERAL FORMULA
The general formula is MH and MH2.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) They are soluble in water
b) In molten state they conduct electricity
c) They are hard solids
d) They have high melting points
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
When they react with H2O or HCl etc, they produce Hydrogen gas.
a) Na+ H- + H+ OH-   NaOH + H2
b) + =
Na H + H Cl 
+ -
 NaCl + H2
2. COVALENT HYDRIDES
“If Hydrogen reacts with the elements of IIIA to VIIA, the hydries are called Covalent
Hydrides”.
PREPARATION
a) H2 + Cl2  2HCl
b) 2H2 + O2  2H2O
c) 3H2 + N2  2NH3
2H–OH 700
 
0
C
d) CaC2 + C2H2 + Ca (OH)2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) Most of these hydrides are either gases or liquids.
b) They are less reactive compounds.
3. POLYMERIC HYDRIDES
The hydrides of “Be” or “Mg” are called polymeric hydrides because of small size of “Be” and
“Mg” and high charge density, they form polymers with other molecules.
4. COMPLEX HYDRIDES
When group IIIA hydrides combins with IA hydrides, they form complex hydrides.

GENERAL FORMULA
The general formula of complex hydrides is ABH4
Where A = group IA elements (Li, Na, K etc)
B = group IIIA elements (B, Al etc)
PREPARATION
a) LiH + AlH3 
 LiAlH4
b) NaH + BH3 
 NaBH4
5. METALLIC HYDRIDES
“When Hydrogen penetrates into the space between the atoms of Transition metals, the
hydrides forms are called Metallic Hydrides or Interstitial Hydrides”.
Example
NiH1.7 , CuH2.4 etc.
Note: These are non– Stoicheometric hydrides.
6. BORDER LINE HYDRIDES
The hydrides of group IB and IIB are called border line hydrides. Their properties are
intermediate between Ionic and Covalent hydrides.
Example: ZnH2 and TiH2
ATOMIC HYDROGEN
INTRODUCTION
Ordinary Hydrogen molecules consist of two hydrogen atoms linked with covalent bond. If this
molecule is given 104 Kcal/mole of energy, it is dissociated & the result is called Atomic Hydrogen.
PREPARATION
a) When Hydrogen gas is heated at 50000C, Atomic hydrogen is formed.
5000
 
0
C
H2 2H
b) When at low pressure, electricity is passed through Hydrogen, Atomic hydrogen is produced.
H2 0.1
torr
 2H
50000 C
PROPERTIES
i) 2H + O2  H2O2
ii) 2H + S  H2S
iii) 2H + Cl2  2HCl
iv) 6H + N2  2NH3
v) H + AgCl  AgH + Cl
vi) 2H + CuO  Cu + H2O
NASCENT HYDROGEN
When any compound which contains Hydrogen is decomposed, it initially produces Atomic
hydrogen which is also called nascent hydrogen.
700
 
0
C
CH4 C + 4H
700
 
0
C
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + 2H

Second Year P a g e | 10 Chemistry
Chapter # 03
S –BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
S–Block elements are found in the extreme left of the periodic table. All the elements of this
block are metals except Hydrogen. They are highly reactive elements. There are two groups in this block
IA and IIA. The group IA elements are called “Alkali Metals” because they produce alkalis when reacted
with water. The group IIA elements are called “Alkaline Earth Metals” because they give the earth an
alkaline nature.
GROUP TRENDS
1. ATOMIC RADIUS
“Half of the distance between the nuclei of two same atoms which are linked with each other is
called Atomic Radius”.
TREND
The atomic radius of these elements increases down the group while decreases along the period
(from left to right)
REASON
As we go down the group, the number of orbits increases so the atomic radius also increases.
But if we move in a period from left to right, the number of orbits remains the same but the nuclear
charge is increased due to the reason the atomic radius is decreased.
2. IONIC RADII
“The distance between the nucleus and outermost orbit of an ion is called Ionic Radius”.
TREND
The ionic radii of these elements increases down the group and decreases along the period.
REASON
As we go down the group the number of the orbits are increased so the ionic radii are also
increased and along the period the atomic size decreases so ionic radii also decreases.
3. IONIZATION POTENTIAL
“The amount of energy required to remove electron from the outermost orbit of an atom in its
gaseous form is called Ionization Potential”.
TREND
The IP value decreases down the group while increases along the period.
REASON
As we go down the group, the number of orbits increases so it becomes easier to remove electron
so the IP value is decreased. But the size of atoms decreases along a period so removal of electron
becomes difficult and the IP value is increased.
4. ELECTRO-NEGATIVITY
“The ability of an atom to attract a shared pair of electron towards itself is called Electro–
negativity”.

TREND
The EN value decreases down the group and increases along the period.
REASON
As we go down the group, the atomic size increases and nucleus attraction towards electron
decreases so the EN value also decreases. But the atomic size decreases along the period so the attraction
of the nucleus towards electron increases so the EN value increases.
5. METALLIC PROPERTIES
“The ability of an element to give up its electron from its outer orbit is called metallic characters
or electro–positivity.”
TREND
Metallic characters increases down the group and decreases along the period.
REASON
As we go down the group the atomic size increases so it becomes easier to remove the electron
so the metallic characters increases while along period atomic size decreases and the removal of electron
becomes difficult so metallic characters decreases.
6. HYDRATION ENERGY OF IONS

“The amount of energy released when water molecules surround any ion is called Hydration
energy of ions.”
TREND
“The hydration energy of ions decreases down the group and increases along the period.”
REASON
As we go down the group the ionic size increases and there is less attraction between water and
these ions so the hydration energy also decreases and as the ionic size decreases along the period the
hydration energy increases.
Note: In a period in s–block, the hydration energy of the ions of IA elements is lower than the ions of
IIA elements because of having “+1” charge (the ion of IIA elements have “+2”) so they have less
attraction towards water.
7. DENSITY
“The quantity of matter present in unit volume is called density.”
TREND
The alkaline earth metals have higher densities than alkali metals. Also they have higher melting
and boiling points.
REASON
The atomic size of alkaline earth metals (IIA) is smaller than alkali metals (IA) so the attraction
between atoms is higher due to this reason they have higher densities as well as higher melting and
boiling points.

MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM IN DOWN’S CELL

INTRODUCTION
Sodium is very important metal widely used in manufacture of soaps detergents, useful
medicines and other chemicals. It is also used in chemical laboratories. On large scale, sodium is
manufactured in Down’s cell, the details of the process are given below:
DOWN’S CELL
STRUCTURE
It is a cylinder like cell made up of steel; its internal walls are coated with red fire bricks. In the
center of the cell a “Hood” is also present which prevents the mixing of chlorine and sodium. In the cell,
graphite rods act as anode while iron gauze acts as a cathode as shown in the figure.
NACl + CaCl2
PRINCIPLE
Down’s cell method acts on the principle of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride (NaCl).
CHEMICAL MATERIALS / RAW MATERIALS

1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
2. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
PROCESS
1. First of all some amount of calcium chloride (CaCl2) is mixed with sodium chloride which lowers
the melting point of NaCl from 8010C to 5900C.
2. This mixture is heated up to 6000C. At this temperature the mixture is melted.
3. This molten mixture is introduced into the Down’s cell with the help of injector pipe.
4. Now electricity is passed through this molten mixture.
5. Following reactions take place in this process
600
  Na   Cl 
0
C
NaCl
Solid Molten Form

REACTION AT ANODE
At Anode “ Cl- ” donates its electron to the electrode and converted to neutral chlorine molecule.
2Cl   2e   Cl 2
REACTION AT CATHODE
At cathode, Na+ ion gains electron and converted into sodium metal.
2Na   2e   2Na
OVER ALL REACTION

2Na+ + 2e-  2Na
2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e-
________ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ___ ________ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ___ ________ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ _
2Na+ + 2Cl-  2Na + Cl2
ADVANTAGES
1. Raw materials (NaCl, CaCl2) are very cheap.
2. Sodium produced in this process is pure.
3. Due to the presence of “Hood” Sodium is prevented by mixing with chlorine.
4. The conductivity of Ca+2 ions are lower than Na+ ions so calcium does not majorly gets deposit
at cathode.
DISADVANTAGES
1. A large amount of electricity is consumed in this process.
2. Due to high melting point of NaCl a large amount of energy is also consumed.
MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA BY CASTNER–

KELLNER’S METHOD
INTRODUCTION
Caustic Soda (NaOH) is very important compound, which is used in the manufacture of soaps
and detergents. In laboratories, it is used as a strong base. On large scale caustic soda is manufactured
by Castner–Kellner’s method, the details of which are given below:
CASTNER–KELLNER’S CELL
STRUCTURE
Castner–Kellner’s cell consists of two chambers i.e. primary and secondary chamber.
PRIMARY CHAMBER
The upper chamber is called primary chamber, where the process of electrolysis is carried out,
in the chamber, graphite or titanium rods acts as anode while mercury acts as cathode, it is somewhat
tilted.
SECONDARY CHAMBER
The lower chamber is called secondary chamber, here caustic soda is produced.

RAW MATERIALS
Brine solution is used as raw material in the process.
PRINCIPLE
Castner kellner’s method acts on the principle of electrolysis of brine solution.
BRINE SOLUTION
The highly saturated solution of sodium chloride is called brine solution.
PROCESS
1. First of all a large amount of NaCl is dissolved in water; the solution formed is called Brine
solution.
2. Brine solution is introduced into the primary chamber with the help of injector pipe.
3. Now electricity is passed through the brine solution, following reactions take place in this step.
DISSOLUTION OF NaCL
NaCl ⇌ Na+ + Cl-
REACTION AT ANODE
2Cl- − 2e-  Cl2
REACTION AT CATHODE
2Na+ + 2e-  2Na
________ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ___ ________ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ____
OVER ALL REACTION

2Na+ + 2Cl-  2Na + Cl2
4. Sodium produced in this process goes down into the secondary chamber along with mercury
(called sodium Amalgam)
5. Now a limited amount of water is sprayed on sodium Amalgam and sodium reacts with water
(mercury does not react with water) as a result caustic soda is produced as shown below.
2Na + 2H–OH  2NaOH + H2
Note: Due to the difference of densities, caustic soda and mercury can easily be separated from
each other.
ADVANTAGES
1. Raw material i.e. NaCl is very cheap.
2. Chlorine and NaOH are produced in separate chambers so they can not react with each other.

3. Caustic soda produced is very pure.
4. With the help of mercury, sodium can flow from primary to secondary chamber.
5. Mercury can be recycled in the process.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Large amount of electricity is consumed in this process.
2. In the process, Mercury vapors are also formed which are very harmful for human health.
MANUFACTURE OF WASHING SODA BY AMMONIA

SOLVAY PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
Washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) is very important compound used in the manufacture of
detergent powder and washing purpose it is also used in dyeing purpose etc, on large scale; it is
manufactured by Ammonia Solvay process the details of which are given below.
SOLVAY TOWER
STRUCTURE
This is the tower where sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is prepared. It is a 25 to 30 feet high
tower. Inside the tower, some hurdles (Buffle Sheets) are also present which ensure the complete mixing
of materials and they also control the materials.
NH3 + HCl Solution
AMMONIZATION OF BRINE
In this process brine (NaCl solution) and Ammonia are introduced into the solvay tower, where
they are mixed completely with the help of hurdles. The resulting mixture is called Ammoniated brine
in which more amount of carbon dioxide can be dissolved.
CARBONATION OF AMMONIATED BRINE

In this process, carbon dioxide is mixed with Ammoniated brine in the middle of the tower and
with the help of buffle sheets, all the materials are completely mixed with each other and following
reactions take place.
Reactions
NH3 + H2O + CO2  NH4HCO3
NH4 HCO3 + NaCl  NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate (Soda Ash) produced as a result of the reactions
come out of the tower where they are separated from each other because NaHCO3 is very less soluble
in water in the presence of NH4Cl.
CONVERSION TO SODIUM CARBONATE

When sodium bicarbonate is heated, it converts into sodium carbonate as shown below.
2NaHCO3 Heat

 Na2 CO3 + H2O + CO2
Sources of Raw Materials
1. Sodium Chloride
Sodium chloride is obtained from sea water and from mines etc.
2. Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is obtained from heating calcium carbonate as shown below
CaCO3 Heat

 CaO + CO2
AMMONIA
It is obtained by reaction of Ammonium chloride with lime stone (CaO) as shown below.
2NH4Cl + CaO  2NH3 + CaCl2 + H2O
ADVANTAGES
1. Raw materials used are very cheap.
2. Ammonia and carbon dioxide can be recycled.
3. Sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate produced are very pure.
EPSOM SALT
INTRODUCTION
It is very important compound used in medicine and as a reagent in chemical laboratories.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
MgSO4.7H2O
METHODS OF PREPARATION
By the Action of H2SO4 on Mg
When H2SO4 is reacted with magnesium as a result Epsom salt is produced.
Mg + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2
By the Action of H2SO4 on MgO
When H2SO4 is reacted with MgO, as a result Epsom salt is produced.
MgO + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2O
By the Action of H2S4 on Mg(OH)2
When H2SO4 is reacted with Mg(OH)2, as a result Epsom salt is produced.
Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4  MgSO4 + 2H2O
By The Action Of H2SO4 On MgCO3
When H2SO4 is reacted with MgCO3, as a result Epsom salt is produced.

MgCO3 + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2CO3
USES
1. It is used as a reagent in chemical laboratories.
2. It is used as a purgative.
GYPSUM
INTRODUCTION
It is an important compound used in cement and used in the formation of plaster of paris.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
CaSO4.2H2O
By the Action of H2SO4 On Ca
When H2SO4 is reacted with calcium metal as a result Gypsum is formed.
Ca + H2 SO4  CaSO4 + H2
By The Action of H2SO4 On CaO
When H2SO4 is reacted with CaO, as a result Gypsum is formed.
CaO + H2SO4  CaSO4 + H2O
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is a white solid which is less soluble in water.
2. As is less soluble so it is a very weak electrolyte.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
When it is heated at 1000C, it produces “Plaster of Paris”
2CaSO42H2O 100  
0
C
2CaSO4H2O + 3H2O
BLEACHING POWDER
INTRODUCTION
Bleaching powder is an important compound used in dye industries and for bleaching purpose.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
CaOCl2
By The Action of Ca(OH)2 on Chlorine
When Ca(OH)2 is reacted with chlorine, bleaching powder is produced.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2  CaOCl2 + H2O
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
CaOCl2 + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
CaOCl2 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + Cl2
CaOCl2 + CO2 + H2O 
 CaCl2 + CaCO3 + 2HOCl
USES
1. It is used in dyeing industries.
2. It is used as an oxidizing agent and as a bleaching agent.

Chapter # 04
P –BLOCK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
P–block elements are found in the extreme right of the periodic table. There are thirty elements in this
block. This block contains metals as well as non–metals.
GROUP TRENDS
1. ATOMIC RADII
The atomic radii increases down the group while decreases along the period from left to right.
2. IONIC RADII
The ionic radii also increases down the group and decreases along the period from left to right.
Note: Some elements of this block can loose their electrons to become “+ve” while other can gain
electrons to become “–ve” ions.
3. ELECTRONEGATIVITY
“The power of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself is called
Electronegativity.”
The EN value decreases down the group while increases along the period in this block.
4. METALLIC CHARACTERS
The metallic character increases down the group while decreases along the period in this block.
METALLURGY OF ALUMINUM
INTRODUCTION
Aluminum is a very important metal widely used in the manufacturing of the structures of aero planes,
in household utensils, in windows covering and in making coins. It is also widely used in the metallurgy
of other metals. There are so many ores of Aluminum such as Bauxite
(Al2O3 ∙ nH2O), correndum (Al2O3) etc.
The metallurgy of aluminum is mainly done from Bauxite (Al2O3 ∙ nH2O), the detail of the process are
given below.
GANGUE
Bauxite when taken from the earth’s crust mainly contains Fe2O3and SiO2 as gangue, so these materials
must be removed before the metallurgical process.
PURIFICATION OF BAUXITE
There are three methods of the purification of Bauxite according to the type of gangue present.

HALL’S METHOD
INTRODUCTION
This process is employed when (Fe2O3 and SiO2) both are present as impurities. The process is given
below.
PROCESS
The solution of NaOH is mixed with crushed ore so following reactions takes place.
Al2O3 nH2O + 2NaOH 
 2NaAlO2 + (n+1) H2O
The impurities do not react with NaOH so they are filtered out from the solution. NaAlO2 is then heated
with water as a result, following reactions takes place.
NaAlO2 + 2H – OH  AL(OH)3  + NaOH
2Al(OH)3  Al2O3 + 3H2O
BAYER’S METHOD
INTRODUCTION
This process is done when Fe2O3 is present as impurities. The process is given below:
PROCESS
The solution of Na2CO3 is mixed with crushed ore as a result following reaction takes place.
Al2O3 ∙ nH2O + Na2CO3  2NaAlO2 + CO2 + n H2 O

The impurities do not react with Na2CO3 so they are filtered out from the solution. NaAlO2 is then heated
with water as a result, following reactions takes place.
NaAlO2 + 2H – OH  Al(OH)3 + NaOH
1500
  Al2O3 +
0
C
2Al(OH)3 3H2O
SERPEK’S METHOD
INTRODUCTION
This process is carried out when SiO2 is present as impurities. The process is given below:
PROCESS
In this process, nitrogen and carbon are mixed with the crushed ore and reacted; as a result following
Al2O3 ∙ nH2O + N2 + 3C  2AlN + 3CO + n H2 O
The impuritiy (SiO2) reacts with carbon and the AlN produced is dissolved in water and heated with
water, following reactions takes place.
SiO2 + C  CO2 + Si
AlN + 3H – OH  Al(OH)3 + NH3
1500
 
0
C
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O
Impurity is now separated as undissolved ‘Si’ and Al2O3 (Alumina) is obtained.

ELECTROLYSIS OF PURIFIED Al2O3

DETAILS
The purified Alumina (Al2O3) is melted at about 950oC and poured into a large container in which
graphite acts as anode as well as cathode and now electricity is passed through it.
Following reactions take place here.

REACTION AT ANODE 6O-2 - 12e- 
 3O2
REACTION AT CATHODE 4Al+3 + 12e- 
 4Al
OVER ALL REACTION 6O-2 + 4Al+3 
 3O2 + 4Al
Note:
1. Aluminum produced in this process is 99% pure.
2. Oxygen produced in the process reacts with graphite to produce “CO2” so anode is used up
and it is changed time to time.
REFINING OF ALUMINIUM (HOOP’S PROCESS)

DETAILS
In this process, Al / Cu ore is poured into a large cell in which graphite is coated with its walls. This
forms the first layer.
Here Al / Cu ore acts as anode. The second layer consists of molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) & BeF2 which
acts as electrolyte and third layer consists of pure molten Aluminum which acts as a cathode. These
layers remain separated from each other due to the difference in densities.
Now electricity is passed through it. Following reactions take place in this process.
REACTION AT ANODE Al – 3e 
 Al+3
REACTION AT CATHODE Al+3 + 3e 
 Al
OVER ALL REACTION Al – 3e 
 Al+3
Al+3 + 3e 
 Al
Al + Al+3 
 Al+3 + Al

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM
1. Action of Air
Aluminum reacts with moist air and forms thin film of oxide on its surface. Therefore,
aluminum is self-protected.
4Al + 3O2 Al2O3 ∆H = 788.18 kcal/ mol
2. Action of Acids
Aluminum reacts with HCl and H2SO4(dil) to produce hydrogen gas.
2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2
2Al + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
3. Action of Halogens
Aluminum reacts with halogens and forms halides:
2Al + 2Cl2 2AlCl3
2Al + 2Br2 2AlBr3
4. Action of Alkali:
Aluminum reacts with alkali and forms aluminate.
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O NaAlO2 + 3H2
2Al + 2KOH + 2H2O NaAlO2 + 3H2
5. Action of Nitrogen
Heating aluminum in presence of nitrogen gas at 700oC, produces aluminum nitride.
2Al + N2 AlN
Aluminum nitride
6. Action of Carbon
Aluminum heated at 2000oC with carbon, produces aluminum carbide.
4Al + 3C Al4C3
Aluminum carbide
7. Aluminum as Reducing agent

Aluminum acts as strong reducing agent. It reduces ferric oxide.
Fe2O3 + Al 2Feo + Al2O3
ALUMS (POTASH ALUM = PHITKARI)
INTRODUCTION
Alums are double salts of sulphates of monovalent and trivalent metals containing 24 molecules of water
crystallization are called “Alums”.
Examples
K2SO4 ∙ Al2(SO4)3 ∙ 24H2O
(NH4)2SO4 ∙ Al2(SO4)3 ∙ 24H2O
Na2SO4 ∙ Cr2(SO4)3 ∙ 24H2O
General Formula
Where M′ = A monovalent metal or ion M" = A trivalent metal or ion
PREPARATION OF POTASH ALUM
Potash alum is prepared by mixing the solutions of K2SO4 and Al2(SO4)3 in equimolar quantities. When
these mixtures are mixed with each other and extra water is evaporated, as a result “Potash Alum” is
formed.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is a white crystalline solid which is soluble in water.
2. It is an antiseptic so it is used in the purification of water.
3. It is also used in dyeing purpose.
4. When it is heated, the water molecules escape and the remaining part is called “Phul Phitkari”.
BORIC ACID (H3BO3)

INTRODUCTION
Boric acid is an important compound used as a weak acid, as an antiseptic and as an eye−wash.
1. From Borax
When sulphuric acid is reacted with Borax (Na2B4O7) as a result Boric acid forms.
Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O 4H3BO3 + Na2SO4
2. From Boron Nitride

When super heated water is reacted with Boron nitride as a result Boric acid forms.
BN + 3H2O H3BO3 + NH3
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
When Boric acid is heated at 100oC, it looses a water molecule and converted to Meta Boric acid.
100
 
0
C
H3BO3 HBO2 + H2O
(Boric Acid) (Meta Boric Acid)
If metabolic acid is further heated at 1400C, it pyroboric acid.
140
 
0
C
4HBO2 H2B4O7 + H2O
Pyroboric acid is converted into boron oxide with heating at 2400C.
H2B4O7 240 
o
C
2B2O3 + H2O
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
(i) It is white coloured crystalline compound.
(ii) It is less soluble in cold water but highly soluble in hot water.
BORAX (Na2B4O7 ∙ 10H2O) (SUHAGA)

INTRODUCTION
Borax is an important industrial compound in the manufacture of high quality glass.
1. By The Action of NaOH on Boric Acid
When Boric acid is reacted with NaOH as a result Borax forms.
4H3BO3 + 2NaOH  Na2B4O7 + 7H2O
2. By The Action of Na2CO3 on Boric Acid
When Boric acid is reacted with Na2CO3 as a result Borax forms.
4H3BO3 + Na2CO3   Na2B4O7 + 6H2O + CO2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
i. It is a white crystalline solid.
ii. It is soluble in water.
iii. Its aqueous solution is alkaline because of the following reaction.
Na2B4O7 + 7H2O  2NaOH + 4H3BO3

ALLOTROPY OF CARBON
INTRODUCTION
If an element is found in more than one crystalline or Amorphous forms the phenomena is known as
Allotropy.
OR
The Phenomena in which an element is found in two or more physical shaped is called Allotropy.
ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON

There are many allotropic forms of carbon in which some are given below:
DIAMOND
INTRODUCTION
Diamond is the purest form of carbon which is found in crystalline form it contains 99.99% carbon
atoms.
STRUCTURE
In diamond each carbon atom is sp3 hybridized and attached to four other carbon atoms directly. The bond
length between each carbon atom is 1.54A0. The geometry of diamond is tetrahedral.
PROPERTIES
1. In pure form, diamond is colorless.
2. It is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
3. It is very bad conductor of electricity.
4. At room temperature it is very inert.
5. Its density is 5.1 gm / cm3.
USES
1. It is used in jewelry.
2. It is used for cutting glass.
3. It is used for drilling.
GRAPHITE
INTRODUCTION
Graphite is the purest form of carbon which is found in crystalline form. It contains 99.99% carbon
atoms.
STRUCTURE
In Graphite, each carbon atom is sp2 hybridized and attached to three other carbon atoms directly. It is
found in the form of layers and there is a distance between each layer. In graphite, carbon atoms form
a hexagonal ring and these hexagonal rings are fused to other hexagonal rings by Vander waal force of
attraction.
PROPERTIES
1. It is dark grey, opaque and crystalline solid.
2. It is a conductor of electricity.
3. It is very soft and slippery.
4. Its density is 2.3 gm / cm3.
USES
1. It is used as electrode in electrolytic cell.
2. It is used in pencils.
3. It is used as lubricants.
4. In nuclear reactors it is used as moderator.
LEAD PIGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Colored substances are called Pigments, which give colour to other substances. Lead forms so many
pigments which are used to give proper colours to paints. The details of some important Lead pigments
are given below.
WHITE LEAD PIGMENT

Introduction
This lead pigment is used in white paints.
Chemical Formula
2PbCO3 ∙ Pb(OH)2 OR Pb3 (OH)2 ∙ (CO3)2
1. By the reaction of Pb with CH3COOH

When lead is reacted with Acetic acid in the presence of water, as a result of this lead acetate is
formed as shown below.
2Pb + 2CH3COOH + 2H2O   [Pb(OH)2 ∙ Pb(CH3COOH)2] + 2H2
When this product is further reacted with H2O and CO2 as a result white lead pigment is formed.
3[Pb(OH)2 ∙ Pb(CH3COOH)2] + 2H2O + 2CO2   2[2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2] + 6CH3COOH
2. By the reaction of “PbO” with CO2

When PbO is reacted with CO2 in the presence of Lead acetate and water, as a result “White Lead
Pigments” is formed as shown below.
2PbO2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O + Pb(CH3COOH)   [2PbCO3 ∙ Pb(OH)2] + 2CH3COOH + O2
RED LEAD PIGMENT (SINDHUR)

INTRODUCTION
This lead pigment is used in red paints. It is insoluble in water but soluble in acids.
Chemical Formula
Pb3O4 OR 2PbO ∙ PbO2
1. From Lead Monoxide (PbO = Litharge)

When PbO is heated at 450oC, as a result red lead pigment is produced.
6PbO + O2 2Pb3O4
CHROME YELLOW PIGMENT

INTRODUCTION
This lead pigment is used in yellow paints. It is soluble in water but soluble in nitric acid.
Chemical Formula
PbCrO4
1. From Lead Nitrate

When lead nitrate is reacted with Potassium chromate as a result “PbCrO4” is formed.
Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4 PbCrO4 + KNO3
2. From Lead Acetate

When lead acetate is reacted with K2CrO4, as a result “PbCrO4” is formed. Pb(CH3COOH)2
+ K2CrO4 PbCrO4 + 2PbCH3COOK
CHROME RED PIGMENT

INTRODUCTION
This lead pigment is used in dark red paints.
Chemical Formula
PbCrO4 ∙ PbO OR Pb2CrO5
From Chrome Yellow pigment (PbCrO4)
When chrome yellow pigment is reacted with NaOH as a result Pb2CrO5 is formed.
2PbCrO4 + 2NaOH 
 Na2CrO4 + Pb2CrO5 + H2O
TURNER’S YELLOW PIGMENT

INTRODUCTION
This lead pigment is used in yellow paints.
Chemical Formula
PbCl2 ∙ 4PbO
Form Lead Monoxide (PbO)
When PbO is reacted with NaCl in the presence of water as a result Turner‟s yellow pigment is formed.
5PbO + 2NaCl + H2O   2NaOH + PbCl2 ∙ 4PbO

MANUFACTURE OF NITRIC ACID BY OSTWALD’S METHOD
INTRODUCTION
Nitric acid is very important industrial compound widely used in the manufacture of urea fertilizer,
Nitrate fertilizer and explosives etc. in chemical laboratories, it is used as a strong acid.
Manufacturing of Nitric acid consists of three steps:

i) Oxidation of ammonia
ii) Oxidation of nitrous oxide
iii) Formation of Nitric acid
1. OXIDATION OF AMMONIA
In this step, Ammonia and oxygen are introduced into “Converter” where they are mixed with each
other to produce “Nitrous Oxide” as shown below:
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O + Heat
This reaction is reversible so Le−Chatlier‟s principle will be applied to get maximum amount of Nitrous
Oxide.
(a) Concentration
The concentration of Oxygen should be high.
(b) Temperature
Temperature should be low (600oC)
(c) Pressure
Pressure should be low.
2. OXIDATION OF NITROUS OXIDE

In this step, Nitrous Oxide is introduced into the oxidation chamber where it reacts with more amount
of oxygen to produce “Nitrogen dioxide”
2NO + O2  2NO2
3. FORMATION OF NITRIC ACID

In this step, Nitrogen dioxide is introduced into “Absorption Tower” along with more amount of
oxygen where hot water is sprayed on it as a result, nitric acid is produced.
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O   4HNO3
Nitric Acid produced in this process is about 63% pure.
ADVANTAGES

1. Raw materials are very cheap and easily available.
2. Raw material (NH3) is already purified so there is no need to purify the products produced.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NITRIC CID
1. ACIDIC PROPERTIES
Nitric acid acts as strong acid. It reacts with base to give neutralization reaction and it reacts with
water to form hydronium ion (H3O+).
HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O

HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3+
2. OXIDIZING PROPERTIES
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent. This property is due to the higher oxidation state of nitrogen in
the molecule. The degree of oxidation depends upon the concentration of acid and the nature of
reacting element.
Oxidation of metals:
Concentrated HNO3 reacts with Cu:

Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
Dilute HNO3 reacts with Cu:

3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Dilute HNO3 reacts with Mg (active metal):

4Mg + 10HNO3 4Mg(NO3)2 + NO2 + 5H2O
Oxidation of non-metals:
S + HNO3 H2SO4 + NO2 + H2O
P + HNO3 H3PO4 + NO2 + H2O
Si + HNO3 SiO2 + NO2 + H2O
3. NITRATING PROPERTIES
Nitric acid can replace hydrogen of other compound with nitro group (-NO2) and acts as nitrating
agent.
𝐶𝑢
CH4 + HNO3 CH3NO2 + H2O
4500 𝐶
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
C6H6 + HNO3 C6H5NO2 + H2O
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
C6H5NO2 + HNO3 C6H4(NO2)2 + H2O
AQUA REGIA (ROYAL WATER)

INTRODUCTION
About allmetals are dissolved in strong mineral acids but noble metals such as gold etc are not dissolved
in these acids but Aqua Regia is the one which dissolve these metals in it.
DEFINITION
A mixture containing 1 volume of HNO3 (concentrated) and 3 volume of HCl (concentrated) is called
Aqua Regia.

DISSOLUTION OF GOLD
When HCl and HNO(3:1) are mixed with each other it produces chlorine atoms which is highly reactive
and if gold is introduced it reacts with chlorine atoms to produce soluble hydroauric chloride. The
reactions are given below:
HNO3 + 3HCl 2H2O + NOCl + 2Cl
Au + 3Cl AuCl3
AuCl3 +HCl H[AuCl4] (Soluble hydroauric chloride)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. HNO3 is colourless fuming liquid with choking smell
2. It has sour taste
3. It boils at 83oC
4. It freezes at -41.6oC
5. It is commercially available with variable concentrations
a. 65% pure (Density 1.4g/L) – Ordinary nitric acid
b. 98% pure (Density 1.51g/L) – Concentrated nitric acid
c. Fuming nitric acid
STRUCTURE OF NITRIC ACID

In vapour phase: In Solid state
H H
O O
1.22o 1.24o
115o A A
112.5o
90 o
90
o N 130
N 135o
o
O O
1.41o 115o
o 1.30o 112.5o
1.22 1.24o
A A
A A
O O
ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SULPHUR

There are various allotropic forms of sulphur in which some are discussed.
RHOMBIC SULPHUR OR Α – SULPHUR

INTRODUCTION
This allotrope of sulphur is found at room temperature. This is the stable most form of sulphur.
STRUCTURE
One molecule of rhombic sulphur consists of eight sulphur atoms (S8) forming an octahedral molecule
(eight member ring). In this ring, four sulphure atoms lie in one plane and four in other plane. The atoms
are linked with each other by a single covalent bond. The Sulphur – Sulphur bond length is 2.12 A0 and
bond angle is 105o.
PROPERTIES
1. It is a pale or lemon colored solid.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in petroleum and benzene.
3. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
4. Its melting point is 113oC.
5. Its density is 2.1 gm/cm3.

MONOCLINIC OR PRISMATIC OR Β−SULPHUR
INTRODUCTION
It is a dark yellow transparent needle like form of sulphur which is unstable at room temperature.
STRUCTURE
Like Rhombic sulphur each molecule of monoclinic sulphur also consists of eight atoms (S8). Each atom
is linked with other by a single covalent bond.
PROPERTIES
1. It is unstable at room temperature.
2. Its melting point is 119oC.
3. It is stable between 95.5oC and 119oC.
PLASTIC OR γ – SULPHUR
INTRODUCTION
When ordinary sulphur is heated up to 444oC, it converts into atomic sulphur and if this sulphur is
poured into ice cold water as a result plastic sulphur is formed.
STRUCTURE
In plastic sulphur, each atom is linked with other by a single covalent bond and there is no specific
number of atoms in the molecule.
PROPERTIES
1. It is soft, sticky rubber like material.
4. It is elastic form of sulphur.
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H2S)

INTRODUCTION
It is an important gas used as a reagent in laboratories.
1. FROM SULPHUR
When sulphur is reacted with hydrogen at 600oC as a result H2S forms.
2HCl 600   H2S
o
C
ZnS +
2. FROM ZINC SULPHIDE (ZnS)
When ZnS is reacted with HCl, as a result H2S forms.
ZnS + 2HCl   ZnCl2 + H2S
3. FROM FERROUS SULPHIDE (FeS)

When FeS is reacted with HCl or H2SO4 as a result H2S is forms.
FeS + H2SO4  FeSO4 + H2S
FeS + HCl 
 FeCl2 + H2S
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is colorless gas with unpleasant smell.

2. It is soluble in water.
3. It is 1.2 times heavier than water.
4. It is very poisonous gas.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Acidic Characters
When it is dissolved in water it produces H3O+ ion which shows that it is an acidic gas.
H2S + H2O   HS− + H3O+
2. Combustion
It burns with oxygen to produce SO2 and H2O
2H2S + 3O2  2SO2 + 2H2O
3. Reducing Properties
H2S is strong reducing agent and reduces other substances by loosing electrons.
H2s(-2) + Br 02 
 2HBr(-1) + S(0)
2Fe(+3)Cl3 + J2S(-2)   2Fe(+2)Cl2 + 2HCl + S(0)
STRUCTURE
The molecules of H2S gas is tetrahedral in which two corners are occupied by two hydrogen atoms and
other two corners are occupied by two lone pairs of electrons.
MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID BY CONTACT PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
Sulphuric acid is a very important compound widely used in many industries such as sugar, paper,
fertilizer and fabric industries; it is used in laboratories as a strong acid and also used in explosives
manufacture.
Sulphuric acid is mainly manufactured by two methods.
(i) Lead Chamber Method.
(ii) Contact Process.
About 70 to 80 percent of the whole production of sulphuric acid is produced by contact process, the
details of which are given below.
CONTACT PROCESS
Raw Materials
Sulphur is the main raw material used in the process.
H2 O H2SO4 H2SO4 H2O
Pyrite Dust filter Washing Drying contact or oxidizing Absorption H2SO4

burner chamber tower tower tower tower
Flow diagram of Contact Process
1 Oxidation of Sulphur or FeS

First of all sulphur or iron pyrite (FeS) is introduced in pyrite chamber or pyrite burner and reacted with
oxygen, this produces sulphur dioxide.
S + O2  SO2
2FeS + 3O2  2SO2 + 2FeO
Sulphur dioxide produced in this process is not very pure and it contains following impurities.
i) Dust ii) Carbon dioxide
2. Purification of SO2
1. This mixture of gases (SO2, CO2, Dust) is introduced into dust chamber where dust is removed
with the help of filter paper.
2. The remaining mixture (SO2, CO2) is introduced into ‘scrubber’ or washing toner where hot
water is sprayed as a result CO2 is removed.
3. The remaining mixture (SO2, H2O vapors) is introduced into the drying tower, where
concentrated H2SO4 is sprayed on it, as a result water vapors are removed.
Now, sulphuric dioxide is completely purified.
3. Oxidation pf Sulphur Dioxide

The purified „SO2‟ is introduced into the contact tower where it is reacted with more amount of
oxygen in the presence of „V2O5‟ catalyst as shown below:
2SO2  O2  2SO3  Heat
The above reaction is reversible so Le−chatelier’s principle will be applied to get maximum
amount of ‘SO3.
i. Concentration
The concentration of reactants should be high, to get maximum amount of „SO3‟.
ii. Pressure
The pressure should be high. About 1.7 atm pressure is applied in this process.
iii. Temperature
o
The temperature should be low. The suitable temperature for this process is 450 – 500 C.
4. Production of Oleum
SO3 produce in the above step is introduced into the oleum tower where concentrated H2SO4 is
sprayed on it so ‘SO3’ is converted to Oleum.
SO3 + H2SO4   H2S2O7 (oleum)
5. Conversion of Oleum Into Sulphuric Acid
Oleum is introduced into dilution tower where a limited amount of water is sprayed on it as a
result sulphuric acid is produced.
H2S2O7 + H2 O   2H2SO4
H2SO4 produced in this process is about 98% pure.
ADVANTAGES
i. Raw material is very cheap.
ii. Very pure H2SO4 is produced in this process.
MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE IN NELSON’S CELL

INTRODUCTION
Chlorine is very important gas used in the manufacture of medicine, hydrochloric acid and explosives.
It is also used in the purification of water.
On large scale, chorine is manufactured in Nelson‟s cell.
NELSON’S CELL
STRUCTURE

It is a “U” shaped cell made up of porous (perforated) steel. Outside of the cell, asbestos is coated
with the walls which control the flow of ions. After asbestos, a perforated cell is also present which acts
as cathode while graphite which is present in the central cell acts as anode as shown in the figure.
PRINCIPLE
Nelson‟s cell method acts on the
principle of electrolysis of brine
solution.
BRINE SOLUTION
The highly saturated solution of sodium chloride is called brine solution.
PROCESS
1. First of all, a large amount of NaCl is dissolved in water; the resulting solution is called brine
solution.
2. The brine solution is introduced into the Nelson‟s cell through injector pipe.
3. Now electricity is passed through this solution.
4. Following reactions takes place in this process
Reaction at Anode 2Cl- 

 Cl2 + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode 2Na+ + 2e- 
 2Na
Over All reaction 2Cl- 
 Cl2 + 2e-
2Na+ + 2e- 
 2Na
2Cl- + 2Na+ 
 Cl2 + 2Na
5. Sodium ions of brine solution pass through asbestos and converted to sodium atoms when
they gain electron.
6. Sodium reacts with water to produce NaOH and hydrogen as shown below.
ADVANTAGES
1. Raw material is very cheap.
2. Chlorine produced in the process is very pure.
3. NaOH and H2 are produced as by−products.
4. Due to the presence of asbestos, chlorine is prevented by reaction with NaOH.
DISADVANTAGES
1. A large amount of electricity is consumed in the process.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE
1. Oxidation Reaction
Chlorine acts as a good oxidizing agent
Zno + Cl2 ZnCl2
Cuo + Cl2 CuCl2
Po + Cl2 PCl5
H2 + Cl2 HCl
2. Addition Reaction
Chlorine also gives addition reaction with some compounds:
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 CH2Cl-CH2Cl
CO + Cl2 COCl2
SO2 + Cl2 SO2Cl2
3. Substitution Reaction
Chlorine replaces one or more atoms from other compounds such reactions are called ‘Substitution
reactions’.
H2S + Cl2 HCl + S
KI + Cl2 KCl + I2
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
4. Auto-Oxidation and Reduction Reaction
When chlorine is dissolved in water then one chlorine is reduced to HCl and other atoms is oxidized
to HOCl (Hypochlorous acid) as shown below:
(0)
Cl2 H–Cl(−) (Reduction)
(0)
Cl2 HO–Cl(+1) (Oxidation)
Overall reaction:
Cl−Cl + H−OH H−Cl + HO–Cl
This reaction of chlorine is called Auto Oxidation Reduction reaction of chlorine.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Chlorine is greenish yellow gas with pungent smell

2. It is a typical non-metal and fairly soluble in water
3. Its density is 3.21 g/Lit at STP
4. It has variable oxidation state i.e. -1, +1, +3, +5 and +7.

Chapter # 05
General Properties of Transition Elements
METALS
Because of having large atomic size, all the transition elements are metals.
CONDUCTIVITIES
Because of having large atomic size, their outermost electrons (free electrons) can move easily, due to
this reason all transition elements are good conductors of heat & electricity.
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS

Transition elements have high melting and boiling points.
ALLOY FORMATION
When transition metals are mixed with other transition metals or any other metal, they form another
metal−like substance called Alloy.
VARIABLE OXIDATION STATE

The energy difference between “nS” and “(n−1)d” orbital is very small that is why the electrons of these
orbital can jump to one another by providing almost same amount of energy therefore, these elements
show variable valancies.
CATALYTIC PROPERTIES
Because of having large atomic size, they provide suitable surface area to break the bonds in reactions
so these elements are good positive catalysts. i.e. ‘Ni’ acts as a catalyst hydrogenation reaction.
COLOURED IONS
They have unpaired electrons in their valance shell and they can jump from one orbit to other orbit due
to this reason their ions are coloured.
MAGNETIC CHARACTER
Due to having unpaired electrons in „d‟ and „f‟ orbitals, their ions and compounds are attracted by
magnetic field so they show paramagnetic behavior.
COMPLEX FORMATION
Due to having vacant „d‟ and „f‟ orbitals, they can accept lone pair of electrons therefore, transition
metals are capable of forming complex compounds.
COMPLEX COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION
When “AgCl” approaches “NH3” is added into the solution of “Cu+2”, a deep blue solution is
formed and the following reaction takes place.
H  NH 3 
|  | 
 
4H  N : Cu  2  H 3 N  Cu   NH 3 :
 
|  | 
H  NH 3 

The compound in which transition metal (Cu+2) acts as LONE PAIR ACCEPTOR and other molecules
acts as LONE PAIR DONOR are called complex compounds.
OR
“The co–ordination compounds of transitions metals are called complex compounds”
BEHAVIOR OF COMPLEX COMPOUNDS

If Alum {K2 SO4∙ Al2(SO4)3∙24H2O} is dissolved in water, it is dissociated into its ions i.e. K+, Al+3 and
2
SO 4 so these ions can be detected very easily due to this reason alum is not a complex compound on
the other hand, CuSO4∙4NH3 shows different behaviour, when this compound is dissolved into water,
2
SO 4 is ionized but Cu+2 is not ionized and remains attached with NH3 therefore, CuSO4∙4NH4 is
considered to be complex compound.
DEFINITION OF TERMS ABOUT COMPLEXES

Central Metal Atom
The transition metal atom present in the center of a complex compound OR complex ion is called
“Central Metal Atom”.
Co–ordination Number
The number of lone pair of electron accepted by a central metal atom OR the number of Ligands attached
with a central metal atom is called “Co–ordination number”.
Co–ordination Sphere
That part of a complex compound which is written within square bracket [ ] is called “Co–ordination
sphere” on the bases of number of co-coordinating sides:
Ligand
The molecule OR atom OR ion (−ve) which donates lone pair of electron to the central metal atom and
forms co–ordinate bond is called “Ligand”. There are different types of ligands.
Mono Dentate Ligand

The ligand which is capable of donating only one lone pair electron to the central metal atom is called
“Mono Dentate Ligand”.
Example: Cl− , OH− , NH3 , H2O etc.
Bi– Dentate Ligand

The ligand which is capable of donating two lone pair of electron to the central metal atom is called
“Bi–Dentate ligand”.
Example: C2O4−2 (Oxalate ion), H2N – CH2 – CH2 – NH2 (en = Ethylenediammine)
On the bases of charge on ligands:
(-ve) charged those contain negative charge are called “Negative Charged Ligands”
Neutral Ligand
The ligand which does not have any charge is called “Neutral Ligand”.
Example: NH3 , H2O etc.
STRUCTURE OF COMPLEX COMPOUNDS

1. Transition metals possess two types of valancies
(a) Primary valancy (b) Secondary valancy
2. Every transition metal tends to satisfy both of its valancies i.e. primary and secondary.
3. The primary valancies are satisfied by positive or negative components which are ionizable.
4. The secondary valancies are satisfied by neutral molecules or negative ions but they are non–
ionizable.

5. Each complex compound has a metal atom or metal ion in the center of the complex called
“Central Metal Atom or Ion”
6. The molecules or ions satisfying the secondary valancy of the central metal atom are called
“Ligands”.
7. The number of secondary valancies or ligands attached to the central metal atom is called “Co–
ordination number” of the central metal atom.
8. The number of secondary valancies (Co–ordination number) for each metal atom is fixed.
The secondary valancies attached with the central metal atom are written in the square bracket [ ]
while the primary valancies are written outside the square bracket [ ]. So the above complexes can be
written as.
(i) [Co (NH3)6] Cl3 (ii) [Co (NH3)5 Cl] Cl2
(iii) [Co (NH3)4 Cl2] Cl (iv) [Co (NH3)3 Cl3]
METALLURGY OF COPPER
INTRODUCTION
The metallurgy of copper is mainly done from its “Ore” called “Chaleopyrite” (copper pyrite) it contains
about 6% copper. Copper is widely used in almost all electrical instruments. It is also used in making
coins and medals etc.
Following steps are involved in the metallurgy of copper.
1. Extraction:
Copper is extracted from Sulphide are (CuFeS2). It consists of two main steps:
(a) ROASTING
In this step, the concentrated ore is introduced into a furnace where it is heated at high temperature
as a result following reaction takes place.
2CuFeS2 + O2 SO2↑ + 2FeS + Cu2S
(b) SMELTING
Metallurgically smelting is the process of adding “silica” to other materials.
In this step, some silica is mixed with “Matte” and this mixture is introduced to “Blast Furnace” and
the mixture is heated at a high temperature.
Following reaction takes place in this process.
In this process, FeSiO3 is produced as slag which comes out of the materials in the form of foam slag.
(i) Oxidation of FeS and production of slag
2FeS + 3O2 2FeO + 2SO2
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3
(ii) Production of Metallic Copper
2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2
Copper produced in the above process is 99% pure and is called “Blister Copper” because when
solidifies, blisters, are formed on its surface due to the escape of Sulphur dioxide.
2. REFINING OF BLISTER COPPER

In this process, the blister copper bricks and pure copper strips are introduced into an electrolytic cell
as anode in which the solution of copper sulphate acts as electrolyte.
Pure copper strips act as cathode and electricity is passed through this solution. Following reactions
takes place in this process.

Reaction at anodes: 
 Cu+2 + 2e-
Cu +
Reaction at cathode
Cu+2 + 2e 
 Cu
Over all reaction
Cu Cu+2 + 2e-
Cu+2 +2e Cu
Cu + Cu+2 Cu+2 + Cu
NOTE: The copper produced in this process is 99.99% pure.
COPPER SULPHATE (BLUE VITRIOL)

INTRODUCTION
Copper sulphate is a very important compound widely used in industries and chemical
laboratories.
Chemical Formula
i) CuSO4.5H2O (Blue vitriol OR Blue Stone)
ii) CuSO4 (White vitriol)
(i) By the action of H2SO4 on Copper

When sulphuric acid react with copper as in presence of air, copper sulphate is formed.
Cu + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2
(ii) By the action of H2SO4 on Copper Oxide

When sulphuric acid is reacted with copper oxide as a result copper sulphate is formed.
CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2 O
(iii) Anhydrous of CuSO4 from Hydrous CuSO4
When sulphuric acid is reacted with copper oxide as a result copper sulphate is formed.
o
CuSO4.5H2O  
230 C
CuSO4 + 5H2O
(Blue) White
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
4. Reaction with NH3

When copper sulphate is reacted with ammonia a deep blue complex is formed as shown below.
CuSO4 + 4NH3   [Cu(NH3)4]SO4]
(Deep Blue ppts)
(iii) Reaction with KI

When Copper Sulphate is reacted with the solution of KI, the chocolaty brown ppts of
Cu2I2 are formed as shown below.
2CuSO4 + 4KI  Cu2I2 + 2K2SO4 + I2
NOTE: This reaction is used for the confirmation of Cu+2 ions in the chemical laboratories.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 CuSO4 ∙5H2O is a blue colored compound.
 It is highly soluble in water.
 Its aqueous solution conducts electricity.
USES
 Copper sulphate is used in copper plating
 It is used in making green pigment.
 It is used with milk of lime to kill fungus & molds.

CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CARBON
Carbon is the fundamental element of all of living organisms. All of bio-molecular like carbohydrates. Protein and Fats are
the examples of Carbon compound.
Caenation:
The tendency of carbon through which it combines with carbon atoms to form straight or branched chain structures; is
called Catenation.
C C C C C C C C C
C C C
Vital Force Theory:
It is the old concept about organic chemistry. Which states that “Organic compounds are only isolated by living organisms.”
After the death of living organisms, they are decomposed by various kinds of bacterias. These bacterias decomposed them
into simple substance and mixed with soil. Now these compounds are takes by plants from the soil and these plants are
the dietary source of animals whose decomposition forms a cyclic process. In this process formation and dissociation of
organic compounds take place simultaneously.
Vohler’s experiment:
In 1826 a German Scientist Fredrich Vohler prepared 1st organic compound in laboratory, named as Urea.
First of all Potessium cyanate (KOCN) is combined with NH4Cl to form Ammonium cyanate (NH4OCN), finally the heating of
Ammonium Cyanate yield Urea.
KOCN + NH4Cl 
 NH4OCN + KCl


NH4OCN  NH2CONH2
Ammonium Cynate Urea
Modern Concepy:
According to this concept “The branch of chemistry which deals with composition and properties of compounds containing
carbon and hydrogen is called Urganic Chemistry.”
NATURE SOURCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The organic compounds are widely distributed in nature. The major sources or organic compounds are given below:
1. Plants:
The plants are one of the important sources of naturally occurring compounds of carbon. These provide organic
compounds such as carbohydrates vegetable, essential oils, dyes and natural fibres. Decaying plants also
constitute our major source of petroleum and natural gas.
2. Coal:
Coal is the important mineral source of many organic compounds. It is found in different depths under the earth
surface. The main component of coal is carbon with some percentage of hydrogen, oxygen nitrogen and usually
sulphur. Coal can be classified as follows.
i. Anthracite:
It is hard and black form of coal containing 92 – 98% carbon. It is mainly used as domestic fuel.
ii. Bituminous Coal:
It is the most abundant form of coal and is sued as energy source and carbonization for coke, coal tar and coke-
oven gas. It contains 65 – 72% carbon.

iii. Sub – bituminous Coal:
It is used by power generating stations.
iv. Lignite:
It is soft and brown and has moisture content. It contains 50 60% carbon.
When it is subjected to destructive distillation (heated in the absence of air from 500-1000oC) products of
industrial important i.e. coal gas, coal tar and coke are obtained.
COAL
Gaseous Viscous Solid

products liquids materials
Coal gas (main Coaltar (A good Coke (Pure carbon

product used as source of hundreds used as reducing
fuel) of organic agent in industries)
compounds)
Coal gas is used as a fuel. It contains Hydrogen (50%), methane (35/-) and carbon monoxide (8%). Coke is pure
carbon. It is used as a fuel as reducing agent in the manufacture of iron and steel.

Natural Gas:
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons which are found in porous rocks under the earth’s crust, usually associated with
petroleum deposits. Natural gas like petroleum originates in the decomposition of organic matter. It consist of mainly
methane (about 85%) other gases include ethane, propane and butane. It is widely used as a fuel and also to produce
carbon black and fertilizers.
Petroleum:
Petroleum is a very important source of organic compounds. The word petroleum comes from the Latin petra (“rock”) and
oleum (“oil”). It is also called “black gold”. It is one of the world’s most important substances. It consists largely of alkanes
along with other hydrocarbons.
Refining of Petroleum:
Petroleum when obtained form its wells is unrefined and called “crude oil”. This is a very complex mixture of a large number
of compounds. Its components are not separated as pure compounds as it is difficult and also it is not desired. Rather, it is
subjected to fractional distillation to obtain several fractions at different temperature ranges. Each fractional obtained
from the fractional distillation of petroleum is a mixture of many compounds. The principal fractions are given below in the
order of decreasing volatility:
1. Natural gas 2. Gasoline 3. Kerosene
4. Diesel oil 5. Lubricating oils and waxes 6. Asphalt
Natural Gas:
Natural gas is the mixture of C1 to C4 alkanes. Methane is the major component of natural gas. Natural gas is distilled at
temperature below 20oC. It is used as fuel.
Gasoline (petrol):
Gasoline is a complex liquid mixture of a large number of hydrocarbons composed mainly of C 5 to C10 compounds. The
boiling range of gasoline is from 40o to 200oC approximately. Gasoline is used as motor fuel. It has been found that gasoline
containing large amounts of branched-chain alkanes have much higher efficiency as a fuel than that having unbranched
alkanes.

Kerosene:
Kerosene consists chiefly of C11 and C12 hydrocarbons. It boils between 175o to 325oC. It does not vapourize well in
automobile engines. It is used in jet engines and for small heating units. It can be converted to gasoline by a process known
as “cracking”.
Diesel Oil:
Diesel is composed of C13 to C25 compounds. It boils between 250o to 400oC. It is also known as fuel oil. It is also used in oil
burning furnaces and as fuel in diesel engines.
Lubricating oils and waxes:
The petroleum fraction having very high boiling points (higher than about 400 oC) is obtained as lubricating oils and waxes.
Lubricating oils and waxes are complex mixture whose melting point is much lower than that of their pure components.
They are mainly composed of C26 to C28 compounds. They are used to form candles and vaselines etc.
Asphalts:
When all volatile components are removed from petroleum, a black tarry material remains which is known as “asphalt”. It
is a mixture of minerals and complex high molecular weight organic compound.
Reforming of petroleum:
To convert a petroleum molecule into a more useful compound is called reforming of petroleum. By this process, a low-
grade petrol can be converted to a high-grade petrol. For example, octane can be reformed into 2, 2, 4-trimethylpentane
which is a much better motor fuel.
CH3 CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 
 CH3 CH CH2 C CH3
CH3
2, 2, 4-trimethylpentane

Octane Number:
The quality of petrol is indicated by its octane number. Heptane has been given octane number o while 2, 2, 4-trimethyl
pentane has been given octane number 100. Now, the octane number is defined as follow:
“The octane number of a petrol is the percentage by volume of 2, 2, 4-trimethylpantane in a mixture of 2, 4-trimethyl
pentane and heptane which gives the same ‘knock’ as the petrol under test”.
It has been observed that branched alkanes are better motor fuel than unbranched compounds since these burns smoothly
and produce less knock.
Antiknock additives:
Knocking can also be decreased by adding tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4 to the petrol. This prevents knocking. However, this
results in the pollution of air with lead.
CRACKING
The process of decomposition of organic compounds in Absence of air is called pyrolysis, while for Alkanes, it is called
cracking.
“The process in which long chain alkane is heated in absence of air to form short chain alkane, alkene and hydrogen is called
Cracking.”
OR
“The reverse process of Polymerigation is called cracking.”
e.g.:
2CH3 – CH2 – CH3 

 CH2 = CH – CH3 + CH2 = CH2 + CH4
In Absence of air
“The process of cracking may occur in two ways.”

1. Breaking of C – C Bond:
Which results in the formation of simple hydrocarbons i.e. are alkane and other alkane as follows:’
CH3 CH2 CH3 

 CH2 = CH2 + CH4
heat
Propane Ethane Methane
2. Breaking of C – H bond:
Which results in the formation of unsaturated hydrocarbon and H 2 as follows:
CH3 . CH2 . CH3 

 CH3 – CH = CH2 + H2
heat
Propane propene
Significance:
Fractional distillation of petroleum yields only a small percentage of total petrol demand i.e. about 20%. Thus cracking is
employed to obtain additional amount of Petrol (gasoline) from the crude oil. During the process of cracking number of
other useful by products are also obtained which are used for making drugs, plastics, fertilizers, synthetic fibers etc, few of
them are ethane, propane, butane and benzene etc.
POLYMERIZATION
“The process in which monomers (molecules of lower mol.wt and size) are combined to form polymers (molecules of higher
mol.wt and size) is called Polymerization.”
Polyethene, Polyviny chloride and Bakelite are the different synthetic polymers.
Types of Polymerization:
One the basis of nature of monomers there are two types of polymerization.

1. Addition Polymerization
2. Condensation Polymerization
1. Addition Polymerization:
“The process in which monomers similar kinds of monomers are combined to form polymer without releasing
simple molecules, is called Addition Polymerization.”
For example: Polyethene and PVC.
Polyethene:
The molecules of ethane are combined at certain temperature and pressure to form poly ethene
o
n CH2 = CH2 10atn
 [–CH2 – CH2 – CH2–]n
200 C
Ethene Polyethene
P.V.C. (Poly vingle Chloride):
The reaction between ethyne and HCl gives vinyl chloride, while these molecules are combined to form PVC.
CH = CH + HCl 
 CH2 = CHCl
Ethyne vinyl chloride
n CH2 = CHC2 
 [–CH2 – CHCl–]n
vinyl chloride P.V.C
2. Condensation Polymerization:

“The process in which different monomers are combined to form polymer, with the formation of water molecule is
called condensation polymerization.”
For example: Bakelite and Nylen.
Bakelite:
This condensation polymerization between phenol and formaldehyde yield Bakelite and Water molecule.
ISOMERISM
“Those organic compounds which have same molecular formula but different structure formula are called isomers, while
phenomenon is called Isomerism.”
e.g.:
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 CH3 – CH – CH3
CH3
(C4H10) (C4H10)

Types:
There are four types of isomerism.
1. Position Isomerism
2. Functional Isomerism
3. Chain Isomerism
4. Metamerism
1. Position Isomerism:
“The phenomenon of isomerism in which isomers are formed by the change in position of functional group and
double or triple bonds is called position isomerism.”
e.g.:
1. CH3 – CH – CH3 , CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – Cl
Cl
(C3 H7 Cl) (C3H7Cl)
2. CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 , CH3 – CH = CH – CH3
(C4H8) (C4H8)
2. Functional group isomerism:
“The phenomenon of Isomerism in which isomers are formed by the change in functional group is called functional
Isomerism.”
1. CH3 – CH2 – OH , CH3 – O – CH3

Ethylalocohal Diethyl either
(C2 H6 O) (C2 H6 O)
2. CH3 – CH2 – CHO , CH3 – CO – CH3
Prepanal Acctone
(C3O6O) (C3H6O)
3. Chain Isomerism:
“The phenomenon of isomerism in which isomers are formed by converting straight chain of carbon into branched
structure, is called chain or skeletal isomerism.”
1. CH3 – CH – CH3 , CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
CH3
(C4H10) (C4H10)
CH3
2. CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH3 , CH3 – C – CH3
OH OH
(C4H10O) (C4H10O)
4. Metamerism:
“The phenomenon of isomerism in which isomers are formed by the change in radicals while functional group and
formula are same, is called Metamerism.”

1. CH3 – CH2 – O – CH2 – CH3 , CH3 – O – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
(C4H10O) (C4H10O)
2. CH3 – CH2 – NH – CH2 – CH3 , CH3 – NH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
(C4H10N) (C4H10N)
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
“The properties of an organic compounds depend on the presence of an atom or group of atoms that is substituted in the
chain of carbon atoms in place of a hydrogen atom which is termed as Functional Group.”
An atom or group of atoms whose presence in an organic compound confess the properties to organic compound.
Functional group has its own characteristic properties. The functional group determines the basic chemistry of an organic
compounds while the alkyl group effect on its physical properties.
Name of some common functional groups and structures are as follows:
Functional Group Homologous Series Name General Formula
R–X Alkyl halide R–X
– OH Alcohol R – OH
R H
–C=O Aldehyde R–C=O

R
C – OH Ketons C – OH
R
O O
– C – OH Carboxylic Acid R – C – OH
O O
– C – OR Ester R – C – OR
– OH Phenol OH
With Benzene ring
– OR Ethers R–O–R
O O
–C–X Acid Halides R–C–X
O O
– C – NH2 Acid Amides R – C – NH2
– NH2 Primary Amines R – NH2
Homologous Series:

“The series of organic compounds in which two adjacent members are differ from each other by CH 2 group is called
Homologous Series.”
For Example:
Alkane Alkene Alkyne
 CH4 – –
CH2 
   
C2H6  CH2 C2H4  CH2 C2H2  CH2
     
CH2  CH2  CH2 
 C3H8   C3H6   C3H4 
 CH2  CH2  CH2
  
C4H10 C4H8 C4H6
C5H12 C5H10 C5H8
Every member of series is called Homogues.
Properties:
1. Molecular formula:
In homologous series we can easily predict molecular formula and molecular masses of next incoming compounds.
2. Properties:
The member of homologous series have same chemical properties but different physical properties.
3. Preparation:
The compounds of homologous series are manufactured by similar methods.

e.g.:
All of Alkanes are manufactured by hydrolysis of Grignard reagent.
RMgX + H2O 
 RH + Mg OH
Grignard Alkane
Reagent
4. General Formula:
They also have same general formula.
For example, the general formula of alkane, alkene and alkyne are C nH2n+2 CnH2n and CnH2n-2 respectively.
5. Reactions:
They undergoes in same kinds of reactions, like alkane always perform substitution reactions.

CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. First organic compound synthesized in the laboratory is
A. Citric acid B. Formic acid
B. Lactose D. Urea
2. Urea is an organic compound which is prepared in the laboratory from
A. Ammonium cyanate B. Ammonium chloride
C. Ammonium sulphate D. Ammonium hydroxide
3. The chemist who synthesized urea from ammonium cyanate was
A. Kekule B. Wholar
C. Lewis D. Boher
4. Carbon forms long chains, branched chains, ring structure with other carbon atoms due to
A. catenation B. 4 valence electrons
C. low electron affinity D. small atomic size
5. Those organic compounds in which valences of carbon are fully satisfied are known as
A. alkanes B. alkenes
C. alkynes D. none of these

6. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are
A. Alkene B. Alkyne
C. Both of these D. None of these
7. Molecules having same molecular formula but different structure formula are known as
A. Isotopes B. Isomers
C. Isomorph D. Polymorph
8. The general formula of alkane family is
A. CnH2n+2 B. CnH2n
C. CnH2n-2 D. CnHn
9. The general formula of alkene family is
A. CnH2n+2 B. CnH2n
C. CnH2n-2 D. CnHn
10. The molecular formula of octane is
A. C8H16 B. C8H14
C. C8H18 D. C8H20
11. Members of homologous series differ from each other by an integral number of
A. -CH group B. -CH3 group
C. -CH2 group D. -CH4 group
12. Members of homologous series have
A. different chemical properties B. different physical properties

C. different structure D. same physical properties
13. Benzene is an example of
A. Alicyclic compound B. Aliphatic compound
C. Homocyclic compound D. Heterocyclic compound
14. An organic compound with molecular formula C6H12 belongs to
A. alkane B. alkene
C. alkyne D. benzene
15. Ethanol and methyl ether are
A. chain isomers B. position isomers
C. function group isomers D. metamers
16. Organic compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen are known as
A. hydrocarbons B. carbohydrates
C. functional group D. alkyl group
17. Which one is not an organic compound
A. CH4 B. CO2
C. C2H4 D. CH3OH
18. Natural gas mainly consist of ___________
A. methane B. ethane
C. propane D. butane

19. General formula of Alkyl halide is
A. R-NH2 B. R-X
C. R-OH D. R-O-R
20. Hydrocarbons in which carbon has double bond are known as
A. alkane B. alkene
C. alkyne D. cyclic
21. Alkenes are also known as
A. Paraffins B. Olefins
C. Benzene D. Alkyl radical
22. Benzene is an example of
A. Homocyclic compound B. Heterocyclic compound
C. Acyclic compound D. Alicyclic compound
23. General formula of aldehydes is
A. R-OH B. R-COOH
C. R-COOR D. R-CHO
24. Isomers have the same
A. Structure formula B. Chemical properties
C. Physical properties D. Molecular formula
25. The properties of an organic compound depend on the presence of an atom or groups of atoms which is known
as

A. General group B. Functional group
C. Main group D. None of these
26. 1-butene and 2- butane are
A. chain isomers B. functional isomers
C. position isomers D. metamers
27. The mineral source of organic compound is
A. Coal B. Natural gas
C. Petroleum D. All of these
28. Many small molecules join together to form very large molecules this process is known as
A. Cracking B. Pyrolysis
C. Polymerization D. Isomerism
29. Bakelite is an polymer formed by condensation process from
A. phenol and formaldehyde monomers
B. phenol and benzene monomers
C. benzene and formaldehyde monomers
D. methane and phenol monomers
30. Polyethylene is a polymers of
A. Ethylene B. Acetylene
C. Ethyne D. Ethane
31. Cyclohexane is an example of

A. Alicyclic compound B. Aromatic compound
C. Acyclic compound D. Heterocyclic compound
32. C5H12 has how many isomers
A. 3 B. 4
C. 5 D. 6
33. Alkyl or aryl derivatives of ammonia are called
A. amines B. amides
C. ammonium D. amino acid
34. A carbon atom bonded to functional group when attached three other carbon atoms are called
A. primary carbon B. secondary carbon
C. tertiary carbon D. beta carbon
35. Isopropyl alcohols is an example of
A. primary alcohol B. secondary alcohol
C. tertiary alcohol D. 1 alcohol
36. Which one of the following compound exist in liquid state at ordinary temperature
A. C2H6 B. C3H8
C. C4H1O D. C5H12
37. The general formula of ester is

A. R C OH B. R O R
O O
C. R C OR D. R C R
38. The general formula of carboxytic acid is
A. R C OH B. R O R
O O
C. R C OR D. R C R
39. Which one is a tertiary amine
A. R C OH B. R O R
C. R C OR D. None of these
40. The I.U.P.A.C name of the following compound is

A. 2, 3 – dimethyl – 4 – pentyne B. 3, 4 – dimethyl – 1 – pentyne
C. 3, 4 – dimethyl – 1 – butyne D. 2, 3 – dimethyl – 4 – butyne

CHAPTER 7
CHEMISTRY OF HYDROCARBONS
Introduction:
Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. For example, ethane, ethylene, acetylene,
cyclo hexane and benzene etc. the number of such compounds are very large.
Classification of Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons have been divided into two main classes based on the structure of chain or the size and nature of the ring.
i) Open chain or Aliphatic ii) Closed chain or Aromatic
i. OPEN CHAIN OR ALIPHATIC: In aliphatic hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms are attached to another carbon
to form chains. These chains may be either open or closed (rings) chains. These open chains on the basis
of saturation of valence are classified as saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
ii. SATURATED HYDROCARBONS: They are known as alkanes or peraffins. In these compounds all the
valencies of carbon atoms are fully satisfied by single bonds and carbon-carbon bonds are always single.
The general formula of Alkanes is CnH2n+2.
H H H
H C H H C C H
H H H
Methane Ethane
iii. UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS: The compounds in which all the four valencies of carbon atoms are
not fully satisfied are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. There are two types of unsaturated
hydrocarbons.

1. ALKENES OR OLEFINS:
These are unsaturated open chain hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are linked by a double bond. The
general formula of alkenes is CnH2n where ‘n’ is 2 or greater than 2.
H H H H H
C=C
H H H C C C H
Ethene H
Propene
2. ALKYNES OR ACETYLENES:
Alkynes are unsaturated open chain hydrocarbons in which two carbon atom are connected by a triple bond
(– C  C –). The names of alkynes end with –yne and general formula is CnH2n-2 where n is a whole number which
is equal to 2 or greater than 2.
H–C  C–H H
Ethyne (C2H2) H C C C H
3. CLOSED CHAIN HYDROCARBONS:
The compounds of carbon and hydrogen which contain rings of carbon atoms are called closed chain
hydrocarbons. They are of two types.
i) Alicyclic Chain Hydrocarbons ii) Aro0matic Hydrocarbons

4. ALICYCLIC HYDROCARBONS:
They are aliphatic closed chain hydrocarbons they resemble alkanes in chemical behaviour. The cyclic
hydrocarbons are named by prefixing the word cyclo to the name of the corresponding open chain hydrocarbon.
The general formula is CnH2n. where n is a whole no which is equal to 3 or greater than 3.
CHEMISTRY OF METHANE
Introduction:
Methane is the first member of Alkane family whose formula is CH4. It is also called Marsh gas, while commercial name is
“Sui Gas”. The derivatives of methane are chlororm (CHCl3) & CTC (CCl4).
Molecular Orbital Structure:
The lewis structure of methane shows that carbon atom is surrounded by four hydrogen atoms. According to hybridization
in methane carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization to form four sp3 hybride orbitals. These hybrid orbitals are combine with
‘s’ orbitals of hydrogen by sp3 – s overlapping to form sigma bond. Hence, the structure of methane is tetrahedral with
109.5 angle.
Preparation:
1. By Reduction of Methyle Iodide:

The gain of hydrogen during a reaction is called ‘reduction’. Methyl sodide (Iodo methane) can be easily reduced
by nascent hydrogen and catalyst to form methane gas.
i. By catalytic Reduction of methane
CH3I + H2 Ni
/ pt
 HI + CH4
/ pd
Methyl Iodide
ii. By Reduction Methyliodide with Nascent Hydrogen
CH3I + 2 [H] Zn

/ HCl
 HI + CH4
Iodomethane Nascent hydrogen Methane
2. BY HYDROLYSIS OF GRIGNARD REAGENT:
Methyle Magnesium Iodide undergoes in hydrolysis to form methane gas by polar mechanism.
CH3 Mg+I + H+OH- 

 CH4 + Mg IOH
Grignard reagent
3. FROM SODIUM ACETATE:
The manufacturing of methane from sodium Acelate decarboxylation reaction. When sodium acetate is treated
with soda lime, than it loses carbon dioxide & Na to form methane gas.
CH3 COONa + NaOH 

 CH4 + Na2 CO3
Physical Properties of Methane:

1. Methane is colourless, odourless gas.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. It’s boiling point is –162oC.
5. It’s critical temperature is –82oC and critical pressure is 45.6 atmospheres.
6. It is an important constituent of natural gas and coal gas.
Chemical Properties:
Methane belongs to alkane family which contains sigma (  ) bond between carbon atom therefore it is less reactive
towards chemical reaction and only perform substitution reaction.
Halogenation (Chloration):
Methane reacts with Cl2 in presence of sunlight to form chloromethane (CH3Cl). It is a chain reaction and terminates when
all of hydrogen of methane is displaced by chlorine. Finally Tetra chloro methane is the last substitution product.
CH4 + Cl2 
 HCl + CH3Cl
(Chloromethane)
CH3Cl + Cl2 
 HCl + CH2Cl2
(dichloromethane)
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 
 HCl + CHCl3
(Chloroform)
CHCl3 + Cl2 
 HCl + CCl4
(Carbon Tetra Chloride)
Mechanism:
The mechanism of chlorination is free radical chain reaction. Sunlight breaks chlorine molecules into chlorine free radical.
These chlorine free radicals then reacts with methane molecules and forms methyl free radical. This methyl free radical

reacts with another chlorine molecules and forms chloro-methane and chlorine free radical this chlorine free radical
repeats same sequence. This reaction can be classified into three steps.
i. Initiation ii. Propagation iii. Termination
..
: .
..
Initiation: Cl2 
hv
2 Cl
. .
Propagation: . 4 + Cl
CH 
 C H3 + HCl .
C H3 + Cl2 
 CH3Cl + C l
. .
Termination: Cl + Cl 
 Cl2
. .
C H3 + C H 3 
 C2H6
Combustion:
The reaction in which a compound burns with oxygen to form CO 2, H2O and heat is called combustion or ignition reaction.
Methane also undergoes in combustion reaction to form following products:
CH4 + 2O2 
 CO2 + 2H2O + Head
CHEMISTRY OF ETHANE:
Introduction:
Ethane is the 2nd number alkane family, whose molecular formula is ‘C 2H6’. It is also present in natural gas in very small
percentage.
Molecular Orbital Structure:
The lewis structure of ethane shows that each carbon atom is bonded with three hydrogen and one adjacent carbon atom
therefore it undergoes sp3 hybridization to form four hybrid orbitals.The hybrid orbital of both carbon atoms are combine

by sp3 – sp3 overlaping to form a sigma bond, while remaining orbitals are also used to form  -bond with ‘s’ orbitals of
hydrogen atom hence, the structure ethane is tetrahedral in which the bond angle is 109.5 o.
Preparation:
1. BY REDUCTION OF ETHYL IODIDE:
The gain of hydrogen during a chemical reaction is called reduction. Ethyl iodide (iodo ethane) can easily be reduce
by nascent hydrogen & catalyst to form ethane gas.
Zn/Cu + 2C2H5OH 
 (C2H5O)2 Zn + 2 H + Cu
C2H5I + 2 H 
 C2H6 + HI
Ethane
C2H5I + H2 
 HI + C2H6 [Catalytic Reduction]
Ni / Pt / Pd
C2H5I + 2 [H]  HI + C2H6 [By Nascent Hydrogen]

Zn / HCl
Nascent hydrogen Ethane
2. BY HYDROLYSIS OF GRIGNARD REAGENT:

Ethyl magnesium iodide undergoes in hydrolysis to form ethane gas by polar mechanism.
- +
C2H5MgI + H+ OH- 
 C2H6 + MgIOH
Ethane
3. WURTZ REACTION:
It is only applicable for the manufacturing of symmmeterical Alkane. When in presence of Na metal then having
of halogens combine the molecules to form ethane.
2CH3I + 2Na 
 2NaI + C2H6
OR
CH3 – I + 2Na + I – CH3 

 2NaI + CH3 – CH3
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
Ethane also belongs to alkene family and therefore undergbes in substitution reaction.
1. CHLORINATION:
The reaction between ethane and chlorine yield a molecule of chloro ethane but further substitution of hydrogen
with chlorine (Cl2) form pair of Isomers, due to assymmerica condition. Finally the end product of the reaction
with hexachlorothane.
CH3 CH3 + Cl2 


^
CH3 CH2 + HCl
Cl
Chloro ethane
Cl

CH3 CH2 + Cl2 
 1) CH3 C H + HCl
Cl Cl
1, 1, - dichloro ethane
2) CH2 + CH2 + HCl
Cl Cl
1, 2, - dichloro ethane
2. COMBUSTION:
The reaction in which a compound burn with oxygen to form CO 2, H2O and heat is called “combustion or ignition
reaction. Ethane also undergoes in combustion reaction to following products.
2C2H6 + 7O2 
 4CO2 + 6H2O + heat
Physical Properties of Ethane:
1. Ethane is a colourless, odourless and testeless gas.
2. It boils at –89oC.
3. It is insoluble in water.
4. It is slightly soluble in alcohol.
5. It is slightly heavier than air.
CHEMISTRY OF ETHENE (C2H4)
Introduction:
Ethene is the first member of alkene family with molecular formula ‘C2H4’.
STRUCTURE OF ETHENE:

The lewis structure of ethene shows that atom is bonded with two hydrogen and one adjacent carbon atom. According to
hybridization in ethene carbon uncharges sp2 hybridization to form three hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals arranged in
trigonal structure with 120o angle.
The hybrid orbitals of carbon atom are combined by sp2 – sp2 overlaping to form a sigma (  ) bond. While remaining hybrid
orbitals are also combine with ‘s’ orbitals of hydrogen atom to form  -bond. The unhybrid Pz orbital of carbon atom are
perpendicularly present and then side by side overlapping forms a pi bond (  ) between carbon atoms. The structure of
ethene is trigonal, in which the bond angle is 120.
Preparation:
1. BY DEHYDRATION OF ALCOHOL:
The loss of water form adjacent carbon atoms is called dehydration. Ethyl alcohol loses a molecule of water in
presence of catalyst (Al2O3 and Cr2O3) or dehydrating agent H2SO4 to form ethene gas.
C2H5OH + H2SO4 
 C2H5SO2OH + H2O
Ethyhydrogen Sulphate
C2H5OSO2OH Heat

 C2H4 + H2SO4
Ethene
2. BY DEHYDROHALOGENATION OF ETHYL CHLORIDE:
“The loss of hydrogen and halogen from adjacent carbon is called dehydrohalogenation.” Ethyl chloride losses a
molecule of HCl in presence of alcoholic KOH to form ‘ethene’ gas.

CH3 CH2 Cl + KOH   CH2

Alcohol
CH2 + KCl + H2O
heat
3. BY DEHALOGENATION OF VICINAL DIHALIDES:
The loss of halogen from adjacent carbon is called dehalogenation. Vicinal dichloroethane losses molecule of Cl in
pressure of zinc to form ethene gas.
Cl Cl
CH2 CH2 + Zn 
 CH2 = CH2 + ZnCl2
(Ethane)
4. BYREDUCTION OF ETHYNE:
The reduction of ethyne in presence of Ni, also yield ethene gas
CH + H2  CH = CH
Ni
CH
Ethyne Ethene
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANE:
1. Ethene is a colourless gas. 2. It has sweet smell.
3. It is sparingly soluble in water. 4. It is easily soluble in alcohol and ether.
5. It’s density is just equal to air. 6. It causes unconciousness when inhaled.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANE:
Ethene is an unsaturated compound. A double bond present between two carbon atoms. This double bound consists of a
strong sigma bond and a weak  bond. Thus the presence of double bond many reaction are addition reactions which
involve breaking of Pi bond and two strong  bonds are formed in its place.

“A reaction in which two molecules combine to yield a single molecules as product is called Addition reaction.”
Due to  electrons in ethene, electrophill reacts with ethene hence the reactions is called Electrophilic Addition reaction.
The typical reaction of the double bond is given below:
> C = C < + AB 
 C C
A B
Addition Reaction
i. ADDITION OF HYDROGEN OR HYDROGENATION: Addition of hydrogen is known as hydrogenation. Ethene adds

one molecule of hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst at 250o – 300oC or Pt at room temp and form ethane.
o
CH2 = CH2    CH3 – CH3
Ni / 300 C
Ethene Ethane
ii. ADDITION OF HALOGEN (HALOGENATION): “Addition of halogen molecule is called as Halogenation” one
molecule of halogen is added to an ethene to give 1, 2 dihalo alkane the order of reactivity of the addition of
halogen is Cl2 > Br2 > l2. Cl2 and Br2 add at room temperature where as iodine add in the presence of ethanol.
CH2 = CH2 + Cl2  CH2 – CH2

Room Temp
Ethene Cl Cl
1, 2-dichloro ethane
iii. ADDITION OF HYDROGEN HALIDES (HYDROHALOGENATION): Alkyl hilide is formed when ethene add one
molecule of hydrogen halide the order of reactivity is HI > HBr > HCl.
CH2 – CH2 + HCl 

 CH2 – CH2
Cl
Chloro ethane

iv. ADDITION OF SULPHURIC ACID: Ethene is absorbed by concentrate (88%) sulphuric acid with the formation of
ethyl hydrogen sulphate.
CH2 = CH2 + H – O – S – OH 
 CH2 – CH2
O H OSO3H
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate on hydrolysis with water, is converted to ethyl alcohol.
CH3 – CH2 – OSO3H + H2O 

 CH3 – CH2 – OH + H2SO4
Ethyl alcohol
v. ADDITION OF HYPOHALOUS ACID: Ethene reacts with hypohalous acid to gives ethane halo hydrin.
CH2 = CH2 + HO – X 
 CH2 – CH2
OH X
vi. REACTION WITH WATER: Ethene combines with water the presence of acid forming ethyl alcohol.

CH2 = CH2 + H2O 
H
CH3 – CH2
OH
(Ethyl alcohol)
vii. REACTION WITH CHLORINE AND BROMINE WATER: Ethene reacts with chlorine water to gives chloro ethanol
and choro ethane. Chlorine water containing HCl and HOCl.
Cl2 + H2O 
 HCl + HOCl
CH2 = CH2 + HOCl 

 CH2 – CH2

OH Cl
Chloroethanol
CH2 = CH2 + HCl 

 CH3 – CH2Cl
Chloroethane
viii. REACTION WITH KMnO4: When ethene is passed through a dilute alkaline solution of KMnO4 the purple colour of
KMnO4 is decolourized, and ethene is oxidized to ethane 1 – 2 diol (ethylene glycol).
CH2 = CH2 + H2O + [O] 

 CH2 – CH2
OH OH
From KMnO4 Ethane 1, 2 – diol
ix. FORMATION OF MUSTARD GAS: Ethene reacts with sulphur monochloride to give mustard gas which is highly
poisonous.
CH2 – CH2 – Cl
2CH2 = CH2 + S2Cl2 

 S +S
CH2 – CH2 – Cl
(Mustard gas)
x. FORMATION OF POLYETHENE: Polyethene formed by the addition polymerization of ethene. Ethene heated to
200oC under 100 atmospheric pressure in the presence of traces of oxygen.
o
nCH2 = CH2        [–CH2 – CH2 –] n
200 C. 100 atm Pr es
Traces of O2
Polyethene
CHEMISTRY OF ETHYNE

Introduction:
Ethyne is the 1st member of Alkyne, whose formula is C2H2. It is also called Acetylene.
Structure of Ethyne:
The lewis structure of ethyne shows that, each carbon atom is bonded with one hydrogen and adjacent carbon. According
to hybridization in ethyne carbon undergoes sp hybridization to form 2 hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals arranged in
Linear Structure with 180o angle.
The hybrid orbitals of adjacent carbon atoms are combine by sp – sp overlapping to form a  -bond. While, remaining
hybrid orbitals are sued to form sigma (  ) bond with ‘s’ orbitals of hydrogen atom, the unhybrid py and pz orbitals of
carbon atoms are used to form pi (  ) bonds by their side by side overlapping. Hence, the structure of ethyne is linear with
angle 180o.
bond sp–s bond
H C C H
bond
Preparation:
1. BY HYDROLYSIS OF CALCIUM CARBIDE:
In commercial scale, ethyne gas (Acetylene) is manufactured by the action of water an calcium carbide, which
yields ethyle gas (C2H2) and calcium hydroxide.
CaC2 + 2H2O 
 Ca (CH)2 + C2H2
2. BY DEHYDROHALOGENATION OF DIBROMO ETHANE:

The loss of hydrogen and halogen from adjacent carbon is called dehydrohalogenation. Dibromoethane on
bonding with alcoholic KOH, to form ethyne gas.
CH2 CH2 + KOH   CH  CH + 2HBr + 2H2O

Alcohlic
Ethyne
Br Br
3. BY DEHALOGENATION:
The loss of halogen from adjacent carbon atom is called dehalogenation. Geminal tetra chloro ethane loses
chlorine in presence of Zinc, to form ethyne gas.
Cl Cl
CH – CH + 2Zn 
 CH  CH + 2ZnCl2
Ethyne
Cl Cl
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACETYLENE (ETHYNE):
1. It is colourless gas with sweet smell.
2. It is slightly soluble in water.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. It is readily soluble in acetone and alcohol.
5. Its critical temperature is 35.5Co.
6. It gives white solid, when strongly cooled.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYLENE:

Ehylene is an unsaturated compound. It has a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Triple bond contains one sigma and
two Pi bonds. Thus the presence of Pi bond many reaction are addition reaction which involve breaking of Pi bond and two
strong sigma bond are formed in its place.
1. ADDITION OF HYDROGEN (HYDROGENATION):
Addition of hydrogen is called as hydrogenation. When a mixture of ethylene and hydrogen is passed over catalyst
(nickel) at 200oc an addition reaction takes place in two stages.
HC = CH 2 
o CH2 CH2 2 

H / Ni H / Ni
o
CH3 – CH3
200 C 300 C
ethyne ethene ethane
ii. ADDITION OF HALOGENS: Acetylenes reacts with chlorine and bromine to give 1, 2 dichloro ethane. Continuation
of the reaction with a higher concentration of the halogen and finally product is tetrahalo ethane.
HC  CH + Cl 
 H – C = C – H
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
H – C = C – H + Cl2 
 H – C – C – H
Cl Cl Cl Cl
1, 1, 2, 2 tetrachloro ethane
iii. ADDITION OF HALOGEN ACID (HYDROGEN HALIDE): The addition of a halogen acid molecule forms an
unsaturated halide, which is called as vinyl halide. Further addition of halogen acid to give the respective
dihaloalkane
H Br

CH  CH + HBr 
 CH = CH + HBr 
 CH – CH
H Br H Br
Vinyle bromide 1. 1 - dibromoethane
The second addition follows Markownikoff’s rule which states that “the negative part of the acid goes to that
carbon which has lesser number of H atoms.”
Ethyne combined with hydrogen iodide at room temperature, with hydrogen bromide at 100 oC and the reaction
with hydrochloric acid is very slow.
iv. ADDITION OF HCN: Ethyne add HCN in the presence of cuperous chloride acid and NH 4Cl to form acrylonitrile
(vinyl cyanide)
HC  CH + HCN 224 HC = CH
Cu Cl / NH Cl
CN H
vinyl cynide
v. ADDITION OF WATER: Ethyne react with water in presence of mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid at 75 oC to
produce unstable intermediate vinyl alcohol which on rearrangement form ethanal (aldehyde)
CH  CH + H2O    CH2 CH 

 CH3
HgSO 4 / H 2SO 4 Re arrangement
75oC
C H
OH
Ethanal
Intermediate
Vinyl alcohol

vi. COMBUSTION OF ETHYNE: The complete combustion of ethyne is exothermic and releases 312 KJ/mole heat due
to evolution of this high amount of heat, the oxyacetylene flame can attain a temperature upto 3000 oC which is
used in gas weldings.
5
CH  CH + O2 
 2CO2 + H2O  H = –312 KJ/mole
2
vii. OXIDATION OF ETHYNE: When ethyne is treated with hot aqueous KMnO4, two molecules of acid are formed.
CH  CH + H2O + 3 [O] 

  2HCOOH
4 KMnO
Cold
Formicacid
OH OH
CH  CH + 4[O]   O=C

KMnO
4
hot
C=O
Oxalic acid
SUBSTITUTION OR ACIDICILITY OF ETHYNE:
i. REPLACEMENT BY Na: When acetylene is passed over heated sodium both the mono substituted and disubstituted
acetylides are formed.
HC  CH  CH  CNa  NaC  CNa

Na Na
Mono Di-sodium
Acetylide Acetylide
If Di-sodium acetylide is treated with an acid acetylene is reformed.
NaC  CNa + 2HCl 

 HC  CH + 2NaCl

ii. REPLACEMENT OF HEAVY METALS: When acetylene is heated with AgNO3 or cuprous chloride in Ammonia
cuprous acetylide or silver acetylids are formed.
CH  CH + 2 AgNO3   AgC  CAg + 2HNO3

Ammonia
Silveracetylide
(White solid)
CH  CH + 2CuCl   Cu – C  C – Cu + 2HCl

Ammonia
Copper acetylide
(Red solid)
In these reaction, acetylene shows acidic properties.
Uses:
Acetylene is sued for the preparation of oxyacetylene flame which has a temperature of 3000 oC. It is also used in welding
purposes. It is used for the preparation of acetaldehyde, acetic acid and ethanol for the manufacture of PVC i.e poly vinyl
chloride.
BENZENE
Introduction:
Benzene is an Aromatic hydrocarbon whose molecular formula is C 6H6. Aromatic is a word (Greek) derive from ‘Aroma’
which means ‘Fragrance’. Benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbon bum with specific odour, so they are called ‘Aromatic
hydrocarbon’.
Benzene was discovered by Michael faraday in 1825 in the gas produced by the destructive distillation of vegetable oils,
and was found in coal tar by Haffman. Chemical analysis and molecular weight determination show that the molecular
formula of benzene is C6 H6.
Structure of Benzene:

Kekule Structure:
In 1865 a German chemist Kekule proposed benzene structure. According to line structure of benzene is regular hexagonal.
Six carbon arranged in a hexagonal cyclic (ring), in which one carbon atom is at each corner of benzene ring. Each carbon
atoms is attached with other two carbon atoms and one hydrogen atom in the same plane. Each carbon atom forms pi
bond with other carbon atom. There are three alternative double bonds present in benzene ring. According to Kekule the
structure of benzene is equally represented by structure I and II and that there structure are equivalent and can be shifting
of doable bond.
These  electrons are related with all the six carbon atoms in the region above and below the benzene rang. Some the
electronic cloud is delocalized this is responsible for special chemical behavior of benzene.
Objections:
Kekule’s structure of Benzene has three Pi bonds, therefore it should perform addition reactions, and also decourize KMnO4
solution, But Benzene doesn’t perform these reactions.

+ KMnO4 
 no decolourization
+ Cl2/H2 
 no addition
Answers of Objections:
Kekule give answers of objection and said that Benzene has not a single structure, and it is a mixture of two contributing
structures I and II, these are interchange through revesible reaction, due to delocalization of Pi bonds.
(I) (II)
BAYER-ARMSTRONG THEORY:
Baryer and Amstrong suggested that “The remaining fourth valencies of each carbon atoms in Benzene are situated
towards the centre of ring, without forming Pi bonds.”
Baeyer-Amstrong structure of Benzene
If Benzene has above structure, then it should reacts with sulphur to from following compound, but actually Benzene
doesn’t react with sulphur.
+S 
 (Not form)

The molecular orbital treatment of benzene:
According to molecular orbital theory in benzene each carbon has sp 2 hybridization 2s and two 2p orbital mixed with each
other and formed three sp2hybride orbital and lie at an angle of 120 o from one another.
2s Px Py Pz
sp2 hybridization     Three sp2 hybride orbitals
Each carbon atom forms two sigma bonds with adjacent carbon atoms by sp 2 – sp2 overlap and third sigma bond with
hydrogen atom by sp2 – s overlaps. Bond angles of the carbon atoms (C – C – C) in the ring and carbon – hydrogen (C – C –
H) atoms are all 120o.
Each carbon atom contain one unybride orbital (2p z) so there are six 2pz orbitals which are perpendicular to the plane of
the ring and parallel to each other. These six 2pz unhybridized orbitals overlap with each other in parallel exis forming three
alternate Pi bonds. However, as a result of regular hexagonal shape of benzene ring. Pi electrons get associated with all the
six carbon atoms above and below the plane of benzene ring forming a continuous sheet. Hence the  electrons in benzene
are deloclised and it is responsible for the special chemical behavior of benzene.

1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BENZENE:
1. Benzene is a colourless liquid at room temperature.
2. Its B. P is 80. 2 Co.
3. Its specific gravity is 0.8788 at 20 Co.
4. It has a burning taste and a peculiar smell.
5. It is highly inflammable.
6. It burns with luminuous and smoky flame.
7. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, alcohol and petrol.
8. It can dissolve fats and resins.
PREPARATION OF BENZENE:
Benzene is manufactured by the following sources.
i. From petroleum:
Benzene from aliphatic hydrocarbons (n–hexane) is called Hydroforming and isomerization.
First of all hexame is heated at 480 – 550oC leaving of H2 through cyclization, and finally cyclchexane undergoes in
dehydrogenation to yield Benzene.
480 550 C o
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3     + H2
150-300 PSI
Cyclohexane

+ 3H2
ii. From n–Heptane:
When n-heptane is heated at high temperature and under high pressure and in presence of catalyst, gives toluene
CH3
480 550 C o
CH3 – (CH2)5 – CH3    + 4H2
150 – 300 PsiV2O5
Toluene
Toluene of further heating with hydrogen at 580o 760oC and in presence of cobalt-molybdenum catalyst, gives
benzene.
CH3
580 760 C
o
+ H2     + CH4
Co - Mo
Toluene Benzene
iii. From Phenol:

Benzene can also be manufactured by Aromatic hydrocarbon like Phenol. Phenol reacts with Zinc dust to yield
Benzene.
OH
+ Zn 
 + ZnO
(dust)
Phenol Benzene
iv. From Sodium Benzoate:
Sodium Benzoate also release CO2 in presence of Soda lime to form Benzene. In this process removal of carboxyl
takes place hence it is called decarboxylation.
COONa
+ NaOH 
 + Na2CO3
Sodium Benzale Benzene
From Acetylene:
The addition polymerization of three molecules of Acetylene (ethyne) in a red hot tube in presence of Organic Nickel
catalyst also yield Benzene.
Organo Ni
3 CH  CH
catalyst
Benzene
Acetylene Benzene
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Benzene behave as saturated as well as unsaturated hydrocarbon, but normally it behave as saturated hydrocarbon due
to presence of Pi electronic shield. But in specific conditions Pi electronic shield becomes break and it easilundergoes in
addition and Oxidation reaction.
1. AS SATURATED HYDROCARBON:
Normally it behave as saturated hydrocarbon, and perform electrophilic substitution reactions.
Electrophilic Substitution Reactions:
“The substitution reaction in which an electrophite displace by another electrophite is called Electrophilic
Substitution reaction”.
The delocalized  electrons in benzene are responsible of relectrophilic substitution reaction, the electrophile
altacks benzene and forms  -Complex (carbonium ion).
This causes unstability and to over come this problem sigma complex loses a proton from that carbon atom which
contains electrophile. By the losing of proton a new substituted product is formed. Electrophile substitution
reaction occurs in the presence of a catalyst which helps in the formation of an electrophilic.

Loss of proton formation of substitution Production.
Some important electrophilic substitution reaction are given below:
1. HYLOGENATION (CHLORINATION):
The displacement of H+ ion of Benzene by halogen is called Halogenation.
Benzene reacts with Cl2 in presence of lewis Acid (FeCl3) to form Chloro Benzene.
Cl
FeCl3
+ Cl2 
 + HCl
Benzene Chloro Benzene
Mechanism:
ii. Preparation of Electrophile: In this step halogen reacts with lewis acid to form an electrophile

Cl – Cl + FeCl3 
 Cl+ + FeCl4-
ii. Attackign of Electrophite: Electrophile Cl- attack’s benzene to form arenium ion.
Cl H H
H Cl Cl
+ Cl+ 

+
+
iii. Leaving of H+: Arenium ion loses proton to gives chlorobenzene.

+ H Cl
Cl
Benzene Chlorobenzene

 + H+
iv. Recovery of Catalyst: Catalyst regenerate in the final step.
FeCl4- + H+ 
 HCl + FeCl3
NITRATION:
The substitution of H+ ion of Benzene by nitronium ion (NO2+) is called nitration. Benzene reacts with Nitrating mixture of
concentrated HNO3 and H2SO4 to form Nitro Benzene.
NO2
H2SO4
+ HNO3 
 Nitro Benzene + H2O

Mechanism:
 Preparation of electrohpile: In this step HNO3 reacts with H2SO4 to form nucleophil.
H O NO2 + H O SO3H H O+ NO2 + HSO4
+ +
-
H O NO2 + H2SO4 NO2 + H3O + HSO4
 Attacking of Electrophile: In this step electrophil attacks with benzene to form Arenium ion.
NO2 H + H
H NO2 NO2
+ NO2 

+ +
 Leaving of H+: In this step Arenium ion give proton to form product.
+ H NO2
NO2
Nitro Benzene

 + H+
 Recovery of Catalyst:
H+ + HSO4- 
 H2SO4

Sulphonation:
The displacement of hydrogen of Benzene by SO 3H+ is called Sulphonation. Benzene reacts with fuming H 2SO4 (H2SO4 + SO3)
to form Benzene sulphonic Acid.
SO3H
fuming
Benzene Sulphonic Acid
+ H2SO 

Mechanism:
The sulphonation of Benzene also contain following steps.
i. Preparation of Electrophile: In this step fuming sulphuric acid give electrophil.
SO3 + H2SO4 
 SO3H+ + HSO4-
fuming
ii. Attacking of Electrohpite: In this step electrophil reacts with benzene to give arenium ion.
SO3H H + H
H SO3H SO3H
+ SO3H +


+ +
iii. Leaving of H+: In this step arenium ion give proton to form product.
+ H SO3H

SO3H

 + H+
Benzene Sulphonic acid
iv. Recovery of catalyst:
H+ + HSO4- 
 H2SO4
ALKYLATION AND ACYLATION:
By Friedel – Crafts Reaction:
In the presence of AlCl3 as catalyst (Lewis acid) benzene reacts with alkyl and acyl halides producing alkyl and acyl benzene
respectively. This reaction is known as Friedal-Craft reaction.
Alkylation:
Alkyl halide reacts with benzene in the presence of Lewis acid to form new compound.
CH3
Cl  
AlCl
+ CH3 3
+ HCl
Toluene
Mechanism:
Alkyl halide reacts with Lewis acid to give electrophile. Than electrophile reacts with benzene ring to give new compound.

Acylation:
Friedal craft Acylation is carried out by reacting benzene with an acyl halide in the presence of AlCl 3 as catalyst.
Mechanism:

Same as above
Electrophile Substitution In Monosubstituted Benzene:
In presence of Monosubstituted Benzene the position of new incoming electrophile has decided by group, w/h present on
Benzene ring. This group also decided that whether the reactivity of Benzene increase or decrease due to incoming group.
There are three position available for incoming group in monosubstituted Benzene w/h are Ortho, para and meta.
Ortha Ortho
meta meta
Para
Ortho-Para Directors:
Those groups w/h present on Ortho and Pora positions are called Ortho-Para directors.
E.g.:
All of electron domating groups are the examples of Ortho-Para directors.
R (CH3, C2H5) , X (F, Cl, Br) , OH, NH2 , NH2R , NH2COR etc.
Meta Directors:
Those groups w/h present on Beanzene and direct the new incoming group towards meto positions, are called meta
directors.

All of electron with drawing groups are the examples of meta directors.
E.g:
COOH , NO2 , SO3H , CHO , RCOR , ROR , RCOOR etc.
Activating Groups:
Such types of groups which present on Benzene and increase the reactivity of Benzene, are called Activating groups.
All of Ortho-Para directors except of halogens are the examples of Activators.
Deactivating Groups:
Such types of groups w/h decrease the reactivity of Benzene are called deactivity groups. All of meta directors including
hologens are the examples of deactivating groups.
Derivatives of benzene:
One or more hydrogen from Benzene are displaced by electrophite to give Derivatives of Benzene.
i. Ortho-Para dichloro Benzene from Benzene:
Cl
FelCl2
+ Cl2 
 + HCl
Chlorobenzene

Cl Cl Cl
+ Cl2 
 + + HCl
Cl2
Cl p-dichloro 0-Nitro toluene

Benzene
ii. Ortho-Para Nitro Toluene from Benzene:
CH3
AllCl3
+ CH3Cl 
 + HCl
Toluene
CH3 CH3 CH3
NO2
H2SO4
+ HNO3 
 + + H2O
o-Nitro Toluene
NO2
P-Nitro Toluene
iii. m Nitro Toluene from Benzene:
NO2

H2SO4
+ HNO3 
 + H2O
nitro benzene
NO2
NO2
+ CH3Cl  
AlCl
3
+ HCl
CH3
Nitrobenzene m-Nitro Toluene
iv. m-Chloro Benzene Sulphonic Acid from Benzene:
SO3H
+ H2SO4 
 + H2O
fuming
Benzene Sulphonic acid
SO3H SO3H
FeCl3
+ Cl2 
 + HCl

Cl
m-Chloro Benzene Sulphonic Acid
v. Benzoic Acid from Benzene:
CH3
AlCl3
+ CH3Cl 
 + HCl
Toluene
CH3 COOH
KMnO4

Toluene Benzoic Acid
vi. m-Nitro Benzoic Acid from Benzene:
COOH COOH
CH3
     
KMnO4 HNO3
Oxidation H2SO4

NO2
Toluene Benzoid acid m-Nitrobenzoic acid
vii. o-p Nitro Benzoic acid from Benzene:
CH3 COOH
NO2 NO2
KMnO4
CH3
HNO3
CH3 COOH
KMnO4
NO2

CHAPTER 7
CHEMISTRY OF HYDROCARBONS
1. The hydrocarbons in which four valencies of carbon atom are fully satisfied are called
A. Alkane B. Alkene
C. Alkyne D. Benzene
2. Paraffins are also known as
A. Alkyne B. Alkene
C. Alkane D. None of these
3. The characteristic reactions of alkanes are
A. Addition reactions B. Substitution reactions
C. Condensation D. Polymerization
4. In alkynes the bond between C-atoms are
A. all sigma bonds B. all pi bonds
C. one sigma and two pi bonds D. two sigma and one pi bonds
5. In Ethylene carbon is

A. sp3 hybridized B. sp2 hybridized
C. sp hybridized D. s2p2 hybridized
6. The structure of benzene was proposed by
A. Lewis B. Boher’s
C. Kekule D. Faraday
7. Benzene was discovered by
A. Kekule B. Lewis
C. Boher D. Faraday
8. Ethylene gives addition reactions due to the presence of
A. pi bond B. sigma bond
C. long chain D. ring structure
9. Calcium carbide reacts with water to produce
A. Accetylene B. Etylene
C. Ethene D. Ethane
10. Which one of the following compound has acidic nature hydrogen
A. Ethane B. Ethene
C. Ethyne D. Ethanal
11. Halohydrins are formed due to the addition of ____________ in ethene.

A. Hydrogen halide B. Hypohalous acid
C. Hydroxide D. Water
12. Formula of chloroform is
A. CH3Cl B. CCl4
C. CH2Cl2 D. CHCl3
13. The final product of chlorination of methane is
A. CH3Cl B. CCl4
C. CH2Cl2 D. CHCl3
14. Halogenation of methane occurs in the presence of
A. Lewis acid B. Ni
C. Pt D. Sunlight
15. Geometry of Ethyne is
A. Linear B. Tetrahedral
C. Trigonal D. Hexagonal
16. In benzene carbon is
A. sp3 hybridized B. sp2 hybridized
C. sp hybridized D. s2p2 hybridized
17. The presence of a double bond in a compound is the sign of
A. Unsaturation B. Saturation

C. Substitution D. None of these
18. The addition of unsymmetrical reagent to an unsymmetrical alkene is in according with the rule
A. Hund’s rule B. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
C. Markowni Koff’s rule D. Aufbau Principle
19. General reactions of benzene are
A. Nucleophilic substilution reactions B. Electrophilic substitution reactions
C. Nucleophilic addition reactions D. Photochemical reactions
20. Substitution reactions of benzene occurs in the presence of
A. Lewis acid B. Lewis base
C. Nickel D. Platinium
21. Benzene ring contains
A. 3 sigma and 3 pi bonds B. 6 sigma and 3 pi bonds
C. 12 sigma and 3 pi bonds D. 6 sigma and 6 pi bonds
22. By the oxidation of benzene with oxygen which one product is obtained
A. Ozonide B. Glycol
C. Maleic anhydride D. Carbide
23. By the dehydration of ethanol which one product is obtained
A. Ethanol B. Ethanoic acid
C. Ethane D. Ethene

24. Which one is correct
A. Benzene has hexagonal planar ring B. Benzene has sp2 hybridization
C. Benzene is a homocyclic compound D. All of these
25. The electrophile in the nitration of benzene is
A. NO 2 B. NO 3
C. NO 2 D. NO 3
26. Nitration of benzene occurs in the presence of
A. H2SO4 B. FeCl3
C. HCl D. Ni
27. By the oxidation of Ethyne with hot KMnO4 which one product is obtained
A. Ethylene glycol B. Oxalic acid
C. Formic acid D. Ethanol
28. By the oxidation of Ethene with KMnO4 which one product is obtained
C. Formic acid D. Ethanol
29. Ethyne react with water in the presence of HgSO4/H2SO4 which one product is obtained
C. Formic acid D. Ethanal

30. Copper acctylide is formed when AgNO3 in ammonia react with
A. Ethane B. Ethene
C. Ethyne D. Ethylene
31. Which one is Ortho-para directing group
A. –CHO B. –NO2
C. –COOR D. –NH2
32. Which one is meta directing group
A. –COOH B. –NH2
C. –OH D. –R
33. By the nitration of Toluene which one product is obtained
COOH CH3
NO2
A. B.

CH3
NO2
C. D. All of these
34. Molecular formula of benzoic acid is
A. C6H5 – NO2 B. C5H5 – CH3
C. C6H5 – COOH D. C6H5 – OH
35. Geometry of Ethane is
A. Tetrahedral B. Trigonal
C. Linear D. Hexagonal
36. By the halogenatio of nitrobenzene which one product is obtained.
NO2 NO2
Cl
Cl
A. B.
NO2
Cl
C. D. b and c both are correct
37. The I.U.P.A name of the following compound is
CH3
CH3 C CH CH3
A. 2 – methyl – 2 – butene B. 2 – methyl – 2 – butyne
C. 2 – methyl – 2 – butane D. 4 – methyl – 2 – butene
38. The I.U.P.A name of the following compound is
HC C CH (CH3)2
A. 2 – methyl – 3 – butyne B. 3 – methyl – 1 – butyne
C. 3 – methyl – 1 – butane D. 1 – pentyne
39. Addition reactions in ethene is
A. Nucleophilic addition reactions B. Electrophilic addition reactions
C. Free radical reactions D. Phostochemical reactions
40. The combustion of ethyne is a/an
A. Exothermic reaction B. Endothermic reaction

C. Reversible reactions D. None of these
41. Which one of the following group increases activity of the benzene ring
A. –COOH B. –NO2
C. –CHO D. –NH2
42. Which one product is obtained by the following reaction
CHO
+ HNO3 
CHO CH3
NO2
NO2
A. B.
CHO
NO2
C. D. All of these
43. Benzene is prepared from

A. n-hexane B. n-heptane
C. acctylene D. all of these
44. Which one of the following substance give substitution reaction
A. Ethene B. Ethylene
C. Ethyne D. All of these
45. Hydrogenation of ethene and ethyne occurs in the presence of
A. KMnO4 B. Ni
C. Lewis acid D. K2Cr2O7
46. Geometry of ethene is
A. Linear B. Trigonal
C. Tetrahedral D. Hexagonal
47. By the halogenation of benzene which one product is obtained
A. Nitro benzene B. Chlorobenzene
C. Bnzulphonic acid D. Acetophenone
48. In the acylation of Benzene, benzene react with acetyl chloride which one product is obtained
A. Nitro benzene B. Benzene sulphonic
C. Acetophenone D. Chlorobenzene
49. Methane can be prepared from

A. Grignard reagent B. Methyl iodide
C. Sodium acetate D. All of these
50. Ethene can be prepared from
A. Ethanol B. Ethyl chloride
C. Ethyne D. All of these

CHAPTER 8 (PART 1)
ALKYL HALIDES
The derivatives of Alkanes in which Hydrogen atom displace by halogen are called Alkyl halicles.
Alkyl halides are denoted by RX and their general formula.
CnH2n+1X
Where,
X = Halogens, F, Cl, I.
For Example:
X
RH 
 RX
Alkane –H alkyl Halide
Cl
CH4 
  CH3Cl Methyl chloride
–H
I
C2H6 
–H
C2H5I Ethyl Iodide
Classification:
Alkyl halides are classified in following three types on the basis of Alpha (  ) Carbon. (Carbon which is bonded with a
functional group).
1. Primary Alkyl halides

2. Secondary Alkyl halides
3. Terliary Alkyl halides
i. Primary Alkyl Halides:
Alkyl halides in which alkyl radical called as ‘Primary Alkyl Halides’, primary Alkyl Halides are expressed by
(Pri or 1o)
For Example:
R C Cl
Secondary Alkyl Halides:
Alkyl Halides in which Alpha (  ) carbon is bonded with two alkyl radicals called as Secondary Alkyl halides.
Secondary Alkyl halides are expressed by (sec or 2o)
R C Cl
Teritary Alkyl Halides:
Alkyl halides in which Alpha (  ) carbon is bonded with three alkyl radials called as tertiary alkyl halides.

Tertiary Alkyl halides are represented by (Tri or 3o)
R C Cl
Preparation of Alkyl Halides:
Alkyl halides are manufactured by following three sources.
1. From Alkany
2. From Alkene
3. From alcohol
1. From Alkanes:
Alkanes react with chlorine in presence of sunlight to yield on Alkyl Halide though substitution reaction.
h
i. CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
Methane Methyl Chloride
h
ii. C7H6 + Cl2  C2H5Cl + HCl
Ethane Ethyl Chlorie
2. From Alkenes:
The addition of halogen acid like HCl and HBr in Alkene also yield an alkyl halide.

Cl Cl
CH2 = CH + HCl 
 CH2 – CH2
Ethyl Chloride
CH2 = CH – CH3 + HBr- 

 CH3 – CH – CH3
Br
2-Bronopropans
3. From Alcohol:
The SN reaction between ethyl alcohol and HCl , PCl3 , PCl5 , and SOCl2 also formed ethyl chloride.
i. C 2 H 5 OH- + H+Cl- 
 C2H5 – Cl + H2O
ii. C 2 H 5 OH- + PCl3 

 3C2H5 – Cl + H3PO3
iii. C 2 H 5 OH- + PCl5 

 C2H5Cl + HCl + POCl3
iv. C 2 H 5 OH- + SOCl2 

 C2H5Cl + HCl + SO2
(Thionyl Chloride)
Grinard Reagent:
An organo metallic reagent which is manufactured by the reaction of Alkyl halide with magnesium metal in presence of an-
hydrous ether is called Grignard Reagent.
RX + Mg Ether
 RMgX+
Anhydrous
Grigriard Reagent

Application:
Grignard Reagent is commonly used for the manufacturing of variety of organic compounds like Alkanes, Alcohol and acids
etc.
1. Formation of Alkanes:
The reaction between methyl magnesium Iodide (Grignard Reagent) with water, alcohol, alkyl halids, Ammonia
and Amines also from Alkanes by polar mechanism.
CH3MgI + H+ – OH- 
 CH4 + MgIOH
CH3MgI + C2 H 5 OH+ 
 CH4 + MgIOC2H5
CH3MgI + C H 3 I- 
 C2H6 + MgI2
CH3MgI + +NH2 – H- 
 CH4 + MgINH2
CH3MgI + -NH2 – C H 3 
 C2H6 + MgINH2
2. Formation of 1o, 2 o, 3 o Alcohols:
The reaction between grinard reagent and Carbonyl compounds like aldehyole and Ketones always form an
alcohol. Incase of formaldehyde the product will be primary alcohol while acid aldehyole and Ketomes yield
secondary and tertiary alcohols respectively.
O OMg+I OH
i. CH 3 MgI + H – C – H 
 H – C – H – H+ - OH 
 CH3 – C – OH + MgIOH
CH3 CH3
–O – OMg+I OH
ii. CH3MgI + H3 – C – H 
 CH3 – C – H + H+ - OH- 
 CH3 – C – H + MgIOH

CH3 CH3
–O – OMg+I OH
iii. CH3Mg+I – CH3 – C – CH3 

 CH3 – C – CH3 + H+ - OH- 
 CH3 – C – CH3 + MgIOH
CH3 CH3
3. Formation of carboxylic Acid:
Grignard reagent also reacts with carbon dioxide to form an intermediate, it becomes stable by hydrolysis to form
acetic arid.
CH 3 MgI + O = C – O 
 OMgI – C = O + H+ - OH- 
 OH – C = O + MgIOH
CH3 CH3
NUCLEOPHIC SUBSTITUTION REACTION (SN-ERACTION):
The substitution reaction in which a nucleophile is displaced by another nucleophile is callad nucleaphilic substitution
reaction.
It is the characteristic reaction of alkyl halides because polor, +ve to the difference of electro negativity has partially (+)ve
charge.
RX + NU 
 [R ------X] 
 R – NU + X-
Nu Leaving
Types:
On the basis of nature of substrate there are two types of SN reactions.

i. SN2 reaction
ii. SN1 reaction
SN2 Reaction:
Nucleophile substitution reaction in which attacking and leaving of muleophiles takes place in the single step is called SN 2
reaction.
EXPLANATION (Mechanism):
In case of primary alkyl halides, where Alpha (  ) carbon is bonded with one alkyl redical, therefore attacking nucleophile
easily approach (  ) carbon without facing any hinderance. And reaction proceed with the formation of transition state,
where dissociation and formation of bonds takes place simultaneously.
It is highly unstable state and rapidly change into stable product.
Equation
Characteristics:
1. Only Pri alkyl halides perform SN2 reaction, but secondary alkyl halides also undergoea in SN2 reaction in presence
of non-polar solvent.
2. There is a transition state always from SN2 reaction.
3. The rate of SN2 reaction is directly proportional with two reactants, therefore it is also called bimblecular reaction
or second order reaction.

4. It is fesible in non-polar solvent.
SN1 Reaction:
Nucleophilic substitution reaction in which attacking and leaving of nucleophiles takes place in double step is called SN 2-
Reaction.
EXPLANATION (Mechanism):
In case of tertiary and alkyle halides where radicals, therefore attacking nucleophile does not approach (  ) carbon, due to
the presence of stearic hinderance cause by bulley alkyl radicals and in 1 st form stable product.
CH3 CH3
Step 1: CH3 – C – Cl 
 CH3 – C+ + Cl-
CH3 CH3
(Terbutyl Chloride) (Carbonium Ion)
CH2 CH3
Step 2: CH3 – C + Na+CN- 

 CH3 – C – CN + NaCl
CH3 CH3
Characteristics:
1. Only tertiary alkyl halides perform SN1-Reaction but secondary alkyl halides also undergoes in SN1-reaction in
presence of polar solvent.

2. There is a carboniun ion also from in SN 1-reaction.
3. It is fesible in polar solvent.
4. The rate of SN1 reaction is directly proportional with concentration of one reaction, therefore it also called
unimolecular or first order reaction.
* Rate of SN1 reaction  [(CH3)3 Cl].
Elimination Reaction:
The reaction in which hydrogen and halogen leave from two adjacent carbon in presence of catalyst to form double or
triple bond is called elimination reaction.
Alkyl Halides with two or more carbon atoms are eliminate hydrogen and halogen to give elimination reaction which also
known as dehydrohalogenation.
Equation
Types of Elimination:
On the basis of structure of substrate, there are two types of elimination.
1. E2-Reaction
2. E1-Reaction
1. E2-Reaction:
The elimination reaction in which leaving of hydrogen and halogen takes place simultaneously in single step is
called E2-reaction.

Explanation:
In case of primary alkyle halides where Alpha (  ) carbon is bonded with one alkyl radical, OH - ion easily approach on (  )
hydrogen without facing any hinderance. And reaction proceed through the formation of transition state, where
dissociation and formation of bond takes place simultaneously, it is highly unstable and easily covert into stable alkane.
Equation
2HC = CH2 + H2O + KCl
Rate of E2 reaction  [C2H5 – Cl] [KOH]
Characteristics:
i. Only primary alkyl halides perform E2 reaction but secondary alkyl halides indergoes in E2 reaction in presence of
non-polar solvent.
ii. There is a transition state always form E2 reaction.
iii. The rate of E2 reaction is directly proportional with reaction or second order reaction.
iv. It is fesible in non-polar solvents.
E1 – Reaction:
The elimination reaction in which leaving of hydrogen and halogen took place steps is called E-Reaction.
Explanation:

In case of tertiary alkyl halides where  -carbon is bonded with three alkyl radicals therefore OH - ions does not easily
approach on  -hydrogen due to presence of steric hinderance causes by bulky alkyl radicals. Therefore in first step halogen
leave from carbon to form carbonium ion. While in second step (  ) hydrogen easily eliminate by OH- ion to form stable
alkane.
Step-1:
CH3 CH3
CH3 – C – Cl Slow
 CH3 – C + Cl-
Polar Solvent
CH3 CH3
Step-2:
CH2 – H CH2
CH3 – C + KOH 
 CH3 – C + KCl + H2O
Fast
CH3 CH3
Characteristics:
i. Only tertiory alkyl halides perform E1-Reaction, but secondary alkyl halides also undergoes in SN1 reaction in
presence of polar solvent.
ii. There is a carbonium ion also form SN1-Reaction.
iii. It is fesible in polar solvent.
iv. The rate of E1 reaction is directlyproportional with concentration of one reactant, so called unimolecular reaction.

CHAPTER 8 (PART 2)
ALKYL HALIDES
“Halogen derivatives of alkanes are called alkyl halides.”
General Formula of Alkyl Halides is CnH2n+1 – X Or R–X Where R – is an alkyl group and x is halogen, mostly –Cl or –
Br, or –1.
Alkyl halids are also called Monohaloalkanes. Monohaloalkanes are actually the Halogen derivatives of Alkanes i.e. if one
H atom of alkane is replaced by one halogen atom, the compound obtained is called Monohalo-Alkane or Alkyl halide.
Types of Alkyl Halides:
Depending upon nature of  -carbon it is divided into the following three categories:
i. Primary Alkyl Halides: When  -carbon has at least two hydrogen atoms, and one alkyl group. For example:
 
R C H2 X; CH3 CH2 Cl
ii. Secondary Alkyl Halides: When  -carbon has only one hydrogen atom, and two alkyl groups. For example:
 
R CH R; CH3 CH CH3
X Cl
iii. Tertiary Alkyl Halides: When  -carbon has no hydrogen atom, and three alkyl group. For example:
R CH3

R C R; CH3 C CH3
X Cl
PREPARATION OF ALKYL HALIDE:
Preparations:
1. From Alcohols: The – OH group of alcohols (R – OH) can be replaced by halogen atom, by the reaction of alcohols
with halogen acids (HX) or with reagents like PCl3, PBr3, PCl5SOCl2 (thionyl chloride) etc.
i. CH3 CH2 OH + HBr 

 CH3 CH2 Br + H2O
Ethyl bromide
OH + SOCl2  CH3

Pyridim e
ii. CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 Cl + SO2 + HCl
Primary Propyl Alcohol Propyl chloride
Or l – Chloropropane
CH3 CH3
iii. CH3 C OH + HCl 

 CH3 C Cl + H2O
CH3 CH3
Tertiary butylalcohol Ter-butyl chloride
iv. 3CH3 – CH2 – OH + PBr3 

 3CH3 – CH2 – Br + H3PO3
v. CH3 – CH2 – OH + PCl5 

 CH3 – CH2 – Cl + HCl + POCl3
Ethyl chloride

2. From Alkenes: Alkenes react with halogen acids (HX) to give an alkyl halides.
CH2 CH CH2 + HCl 

 CH3 CH CH3
Cl
Propene 2-chloropropane
3. From Alkanes: Alkyl halides can also be obtained by halogenation of alkanes.
RH 
x
2
RX + HX
CH4 + Cl2 
 CH3Cl + HCl
REACTION OF ALKYL HALIDE:
Alkyl halides are very reactive compounds. The main reason of the great reactivity of Alkyl halides the carbon atom which
is directly bonded with the halogen atom is partial positive and halogen atom is partial negative due to the electronegativity
difference between carbon and halogen.
R Cs+ X s-
Alkyle halides give the following types of reaction.
1. Nucleophilic substitution reaction 2. Reaction with Mg 3. Elimination Reaction
1. Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction:

Substitution Reaction: A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule is replaced by
another atom or group. The substitution of hydrogen in an alkane by a chlorine atom is an example of substitution
reaction.
Nucleophile: An atom or group atoms which is electron rich and having tendency to react or attack the electrophile
is called Nucleophile.
When alkyl halides react with a nucleophile the old bond between the carbon atom and halogen is broken and a
new bond between the carbon and attacking nucleophile is formed. Thus the reaction in which one nucleophile is
substituted by another nucleophile are called as Nucleophile substitution reaction or S N reaction.
A general representation of SN reaction is:
H H
N u + R C+s X R C Nu + X-
Attacking
(Nucleophile) Substrate
H H
Leaving
Nucleophile
Where:
R – X = Sabstrate
Nu = Attacking Nucleophile
X- = leaving nucleophile or leaving group.
Nucleophile may be an anion like OH-, CH3 COO-, or neutral molecule bearing a lone pair of electrons like NH2 and
NH3.
Types of SN Reaction:
On the basis of mechanism it is divided into two categories.
1. Mechanism SN2 Reaction 2. Mechanism SN1 reaction

1. Mechanism SN2 Reaction (Bimolecular): When alkyl halid reacts with nucleophile the product is formed in one
step. Mechanism of SN2 reaction is completed in one step. The breaking of carbon – halogen bond and the
formation of new bond between carbon atom attacking nucleophile takes place at the same time. Intermediate
stage is formed which is called as transition stage.
H H H H
N u + R Cs+ Xs- 

 Nus- ………C………Xs Slow
 Nu C H + X-
H N H
Transition state
Since slow step is a rate determining step, so we can write as follows:
Rate = K [R – X] [N u ] K = rate constant
Where K is called rate constant for reaction. Since the rate of reaction depends the concentration fo two reactants.
So it is also called bimolecular reaction (SN2 reaction)
Properties of SN2 Reaction:
1. They complete in only one step which is slow
2. Mostly primary alkyl halides give SN2 reactions.
3. Rate of reaction depends on the concentration of two molecules
1. Mechanism of SN1 Reaction or Unimolecular Reaction:
These are unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions and complete in two seps.
First Step:
In the first step alkyl halide dissociate into a positively charged carbonium ion and negatively charged halide ion.
This step is slow.
R R

R C X Slow
 R C+ X-
Halide ion
H R
Carbonium ion
Second Step:
In the second step nucleophile reacts with carbonium ion to give the final product. The second step is fast.
R R
R C+ + N u  R
Fast
C Nu
R R
New compound
First step is a slow step and rate-determining step:
Rate  [R3 C – X]
Rate = K [R3 C – X]
Since the rate of reaction depends the concentration of one reactants so it is also called unimolecular reaction
Properties of SN1 Reaction:
1. These reactions complete in two steps
2. First step is slow, but second one is very fast
3. Generally tertiary alkyl halides gives SN1 reaction
4. Rate of reaction depends on only one molecule
Stability of Carbonium Ion:

Organic ion which contains a positively charged carbon atom is called carbonium ion. There are formed by heterolytic bond
fission. The stability of carbonium ions from tertiary to primary is follow.
R R H H
R C+ > R C+ > R C+ > H C+
R H H H
Stability dicreases
The stability of carbonium ion depends upon inductive and reasomee effects. The tertiary carbonium ion is more stable
than secondary carbonium ion and secondary is more stable than primary carbonium ion due to the presence of more
electron releasing group which are decreases the electropositive character of alkyl radical.
Comparison for SN1 and SN2 Reactions:
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SN1 AND SN2 REACTIONS
SN1 – Reactions SN2 - Reactions
1. It is a unimolecular SN – reaction. 1. It is a bimolecular SN – reaction.
2. It completes in two steps. 2. It completes in one step.
3. Attacking group replaces the leaving group in the 3. Attacking group replaces the leaving group in the
same direction. opposite direction forming a mirror mage
product.
4. The rate of this reaction depends upon the 4. The rate of this reaction depends upon the
concentration of only one molecule. concentration of two molecules.
Thus: Thus:
Rate = k [R – X] Rate = k [R – x] [Nu-]
5. Tertiary alkyl halides generally give SN1-reaction. 5. Primary alkyl halides generally give SN2 reactions.
6. Secondary alkyl halides may also give SN 1 – 6. Secondary alkyl halides may also give SN2
reactions depending upon their structures and reactions depending upon their structures and the
the solvents used (Polar solvent). solvents used (No polar solvent).
GRIGNARD REAGENT

A French Chemist Victor Grignard discovered a very important reagent. This compound is named after his name as Grignard
reagent.
R – Mg – X
It is formed from the reaction of Mg metal with an alkyl halide or alkyl halide in ether.
RX + Mg   RMgX
Ether
Anhydrous
CH3l + Mg   CH3Mgl
Ether
Anhydrous
Grignard reagent prepared under dry conditions because in the presence of water it decomposes to produce a
hydrocarbon.
Reaction of Grignard Reagent:
Grignard reagent is a very reactive substance because carbon-magnesium bond is polar in nature due to difference of
electronegativity. Magnesium is a more electropositive element and C is a electronegative element so carbon atom bears
a partial negative charge and magnesium atom partial positive charge.
 
R – Mg – l
Due to this polarity carbon atom behaves as a nucleophile, it will react with elechophilic reagents to make new bond. This
make grignard reagent as one of the important synthetic reagent they can be used to prepare a variety of organic
compounds. Some important reactions of grignard’s reagent are given below.
i. Hydrolysis of Grignard’s Reagents or Formation of alkane: Alkanes are formed by the hydrolysis of grignards
reagent, for example methyl magnesium iodide on hydrolysis gives methane.
– 
CH3 OH
+ + – 

Mg + H OH CH4 + Mg
Methane
I I
ii. Reaction with Alcohol (Formation of Alkane): Grignard’s reagent reacts with alcohol to give alkane. Ethane is
formed by the action of ethyl magnesium chloride with methyl alcohol.
– 
C2H5 OH
+ –  +
Mg + CH3 OH C2H6 + Mg
Ethane
Cl Cl
iii. Reaction with Ammonia (Formation of Alkane): Ammonia reacts with grignard’s reagent and forms alkane.
– 
CH3 NH2
+
Mg + NH3 CH4 + Mg
Methane
Br Br
iv. Reaction with Amine (Formation of Alkane): Alkane forms by the action of grignard’s reagent with amine.
– 
CH3 NH2
+ + – 
Mg + CH3 – NH2 CH3 – CH3 + Mg
Methane

Br I
Methyl magnesium bromide
Secondary amins would react similarly whereas tertiary amines do not reacts.
v. Reaction with Alkyl halide (Formation of Alkane): Alkyl halide reacts with grignard’s reagent and forms alkane.
– 
C2H5
+
+ – 
Mg + CH3 Cl C2H5 – CH3 + MgCl2
Propane
Cl
vi. Reaction with Carbondioxide (Formation of Carboxylic Acid): Dry carbon dioxide is passed through grignard’s
reagent in the presence of ether and forms addition product which is decomposed with dil HCl into carboxylic
acid.
– 
CH3 O O OH
+ + – 
CH3 – C – OMgl   CH3 – C – OH + Mg

H O
Mg +O=C=O 2
diHCl
Acetic acid
l I
Methyl magnesium iodide
vii. Reaction with Formaldehyde (Formation of Primary Alcohol): Grignard’s reagent add to the carbonyl group of
formaldehyde forming and additioncomplex, which on hydrolysis with dil HCl and gives primary alcohol.
– 
CH3 H OH
+ + –  –+

Mg +H–C=O CH3 – C – OMgBr  CH3 – C H2 – OH + Mg
H 2O
H+
(Ethyl Alcohol)
Br H H Br
viii. Reaction with Aldehydes Formation of Secondary (20o) Alcohol: Grignard’s reagent add to the carboncyl group
of aldehyde other than formaldehyde forming an addition complex, which on hydrolysis with HCl gives secondary
alcohol.
CH3 CH3 OH
+  –  –  + – + +
 CH3 – C – O M gCl 
CH3 – C = O + C H3 – Mg – Cl    CH3 – C – OH + Mg
3 HO
H H H Cl
Isopropyl alcohol
ix. Reaction with Ketone (Formation of Tertiary Alcohol): Grignard’s reagent add to the carbonyl group of ketone
forming an addition complex, which gives tertiary (3o) alcohol in acidic medium.
CH3 CH3 CH3 OH
– + – +
 CH3 – C – O Mgl 
C H3 – M g – Cl + CH3 – C = O    CH3 – C – OH + Mg
3 HO
H+
CH3 CH3 l
Ter-butyl alcohol

ELIMINATION REACTION
Elimination Reaction define as:
“Elimination Reaction are those reaction which involve the removal of two atoms or groups from adjacent carbon atoms
of the molecule to form a multiple bond. These reaction are also known as  -elimination reaction and denoted by E.
The mechanism of this reaction consist on three steps:
i. Removal of  -hydrogen
ii. Removal of halogen atom as halide ion
iii. Formation of double bond between  -carbon and  -carbon
-carbon: The carbon atom bonded to the halogen atom directly in alkyl halid is called  -carbon.
-carbon: The carbon atom bonded to the  -carbon atom directly is called  -carbon.
-Hydrogen: The hydrogen atom bonded to  -carbon atom directly is called  -hydrogen.
Carbon-halogen bond is polar in nature due to difference of electronegativity between carbon and halogen. Halogen atom
has partial negative change and  -carbon has partial positive charge. This partial charge transfer to  -carbon, so  -
carbon gain partial positive charge resultant  -hydrogen gains partial positive charge.
H H H H H H
    +  + -
R–C–C–C–X R–C–C–C–X
+
H H H H H H

 -hydrogen is slightly acidic in the nature  -hydrogen is removed when a base reacts with alkyl halide in other side
halogen is removed in the form of halide ion. The free valencies of  and  carbons make another bond and the compound
becomes unsaturated.
+
H H
– + + –
B+R C C X 
 R C C H + HB + X
H H H H
Mechanism of Elimination Reaction:
According to Highes and Ingold (1941), the elimination reaction between alkyl halide and strong base occur by two
mechanism.
There are two types of Elimination reaction:
i. Unimolecular Elimination (E1) Reaction ii. Bimolecular Elimination (E2) Reaction
i. Unimolecular Elimination (E1) Reaction:
This types of reaction is occurs in two steps.
First Step: In this step alkyl halide is ionized into carbonium ion and halide ion this step is slow step.
CH3 CH3
Slow
+ +
CH3 C X CH3 C+ + X-
CH3 CH3
Ter-carbonium ion

Second Step: Formation of double bond: In the second step base attack on the carbonium ion resultant proton
(H+) removes from the  -carbon in the same time a double bond formed between  -carbon and  -carbon. This
is a fast reaction:
+
H CH3 H CH3
OH- + H C C+ 
Fast
C=C + H2O
H CH3 H CH3
The first step is slow and it is rate determining step. According to law of Mass Action.
R = K [(CH3) C – X]
Since the rate of reaction depends on the concentration of only one molecule (alkyl halide) so this type of reaction
is known as “Unimolecular Elimination reaction” and denoted by E1. Tertiary alkyl halides gives E1 type of reaction.
Bimolecular Elimination (E2) Reaction: It is one step reaction. In this reaction  -hydrogen removed when base (OH-) reacts
with  -hydrogen in the same time halide ion removed from  -carbon, resultant a new bond formed between  and 
carbon. An intermediate state is formed which is called as Transition State.
H H HO H H R H
X 
 R C …… X 

slow
OH + R C C C C=C + H2O + X
H H H H H H
Primary Alkyl halid Transition state Alkene

It is one step reaction and therefore is a rate determining step. According to the Law of Mass Action.
K = [R – CH2 – CH2X] [OH]
Rate of reaction depends on the concentration of two molecules (substrate and attacking base) are called “Bimolecular
elimination Reaction” denoted as, “E2”.

CHAPTER 8
ALKYL HALIDES
1. Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons are known as
A. Alcohol B. Alkyl halide
C. Aldehyde D. Ethers
2. General formula of Alky halide is
A. CnH2n+1 X B. CnH2n X
C. CnH2n-2 X D. CnH2n-1 X
3. If X group is linked to a primary carbon atom, such an alkyl halide is classified as
A. 1o alkyl halide B. 2o alkyl halide
C. 3o alkyl halide D. None of these
4. Chemical name of Grignard’s reagent is
A. Alkyl sodium halide B. Alkyl potassium halide
C. Alkyl magnesium halide D. None of these
5. General formula of Grignard reagent is
A. Mg – R – X B. R – Mg – X
C. Mg – X – R D. Mg – R – OH

6. Grignard reagent may be prepared by reacting Mg metal with
A. Methyl amine B. Ethyl amine
C. Ethyloidide D. Ehtyl alcohol
7. A nucleophile is
A. electron pair donor B. electron pair acceptor
C. positive charge panticles D. None of these
8. Alkyl halide prepared
A. from alcohols B. from alkenes
C. from alkynes D. all of these
9. Substitution reactions of alkyl halide are
A. nucleophilic substitution reactions B. electrophilic substitution reactions
C. free radical substitution reactions D. photochemical reactions
10. In a reaction rate determining step is
A. fast step B. slow step
C. very fast step D. last step
11. SN1 reactions in alkyl halide occurs in
A. Four steps B. Three steps
C. Two steps D. One step

12. Mechanism of SN1 reactions in alkyl halide depends on the
A. concentration of nucleophile only
B. concentration of alkyl halide only
C. concentration of both nucleophilic and alkyl halide
D. Concentration of solvent
13. Tertiary alkyl halides generally react by
A. SN1 mechanism B. SN2 mechanism
C. both SN1 and SN2 mechanism D. Depends on conditions
14. Which one is more reactive carbonium ion
A. R3C+ B. R2C+H
C. RC+H2 D. all ions have equal reactivity
15. Which one is more stable carbonium ion
A. C+H3 B. RC+H2
C. R2C+H D. R3C+
16. 1o alkyl halide generally react by
C. both SN2 and SN1 D. None of these
17. In secondary alkyl halide polar solvent favour

C. both SN1 and SN2 mechanism D. None of these
18. By the hydrolysis of grignard reagent which one product is obtained
A. Alcohol B. Aldehyde
C. Alkyl halide D. Alkane
19. Grignard reagent forms carboxylic acid when reacts
A. Ammonia B. Aldehyde
C. Ketone D. Carbon dioxide
20. When grignard reagent reacts with acctaldehyde which one product is obtained
A. Ethyl alcohol B. Isoprophy alcohol
C. Ter-butyl alcohol D. Carboxylic acid
21. Grignard reagent react with Ketone which one product is obtained
A. Ethyl alcohol B. Isopropyl alcohol
C. Accetic acid D. Ter-butyl alcohol
22. Those reactions which involve the removal of two atoms or groups from adjacent carbon atoms of the molecule
to form a multiple bond are known as
A. Substitution Reactions B. Addition Reactions
C. Elimination Reaction D. Oxidation Reactions

23. An Electrophile has
A. Negative charge B. Positive charge
C. No charge D. Lone pair of electron
24. Grignard reagent is prepared when alkyl halide reacts with magnesium metal in the presence of
A. anhydrous ether B. anhydrous alcohol
C. H2SO4 D. K2Cr2O7
25. Which one reaction is an example of elimination reaction
A. oxidation of alcohol B. Halogenation of methane
C. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide D. Hydrogenation of Ethyne
26. Elimination reaction of Primary alkylahide is
A. Single step reaction B. Two steps reaction
C. Three steps reactions D. Photochemical reactions
27. Compounds derived from alkanes by the replacement of hydrogen atom by halogen atom are known as
A. Aldehyde B. Alcohols
C. Halo-alkene D. Halo-alkane
28. Ethyl chloride reacts with aqucous KOH to form
A. Potassium alkoxide B. Acetaldehyde
C. Ethanoic acid D. Ethene
29. In alkyl halide the carbon atom bonded to the halogen atom directly is called as

A.  - carbon B.  - carbon
C.  - carbon D. Carbonium ion
30. I.U.P.A.C name of the following compound is (CH3)2 CH – CH2 – I
A. 3 – iodo – propane B. 2 – methyl – 1 – iodo propane
C. 1 – iodo – 2 – methyl propane D. 1 – iodo butane
31. In SN2 mechanism the transition state
A. in which bond making and bond breaking process occurs simultaneously
B. in which only bond making occurs
C. in which only bond breaking processes occur
D. in which carbonium ion is formed
32. Bimolecular elimination reactions in alkyl halide consist of
A. one step B. two steps
C. three steps D. depends on conditions
33. The rate of an SN2 reaction depends on the concentration of
A. alkyl halide only B. nucleophile only
C. both alkyl halide and nucleophile D. depends on conditions
34. In secondary alkyl halide non polar solvent favour
A. Unimolecular Elimination Reaction B. Bimolecular Elimination Reaction

C. Unimolecular Substitution Reaction D. All of these
35. Molecular formula of thionyl chloride is
A. SOCl2 B. SOCl
C. SO2Cl2 D. SOCl2
36. Which one is an example of tertiary alkyl halide
A. 2 – bromo propane B. 2 - chlorobutane
C. 1 – iodo propane D. 2 – bromo – 2 methyl propane
37. In substittion reaction carbon of alkyl halide act as
A. Nucleophile B. Electrophile
C. Lewis base D. None of these
38. In the first step of SN1 mechanism
A. nucleophile attack on alkyl halide B. carbonium ion is formed
C. transition state is formed D. product is obtained
39. Unimolecular elimination reaction mechanism depends on the
A. concentration of alkyl halide B. concentration of nucleophile
C. concentration of solvent D. concentration of both alkyl halide and nucleophile
40. General formula of cyanides are
A. RSH B. ROR
C. RCN D. RNH2

Chapter # 09
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING OXYGEN ASFUNCTIONAL GROUP
INTRODUCTION
Many organic compounds contain oxygen along with carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen containing
organic compounds play a vital role in our daily life such as Glucose (C6H12O6)which is a good source
of energy for a human body, Sucrose (C12H22O11) which is an important part of our life it is used as
sweetener and Acetic acid (CH3 – COOH) which is used in our daily life. All these compounds contain
oxygen in their structure.
In this chapter we will discuss some of the families of organic compounds which contain oxygenin their
structure. The details about these families are given below.
ALCOHOL FAMILY
DEFINITION:
That family of organic compounds in which a hydroxyl group (OH−) is attached with the alkyl group
(R―) is called alcohol family.
OR
That family of organic compounds in which one oxygen atom is attached with one hydrogen atom and
one alkyl group is called alcohol family.
IDENTITY FORMULA: R―OH
GENERAL FORMULA: CnH2n+1―OH
CLASSIFICATION: Alcohols are classified by two methods which are given below:
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF “-OH”GROUPS:

There are four classes of alcohols according to the number of “-OH” group which are given below:
1- MONOHYDRIC ALCOHOLS
Those classes of alcohols which contain only one -OH group are called monohydric alcohols.
Example:
(a) CH3 ― OH
(b) C2H5 ― OH
2- DIHYDRIC ALCOHOLS
Those classes of alcohols which contain two OH− group are called di – hydric alcohols.
Example:
HOOH
| |
H2C ―CH2
3- TRIHYDRIC ALCOHOLS
Those classes of alcohols which contain three OH− group are called tri hydric alcohols.
Example:
HO OH OH
| | |
H2C ―CH ―CH2

4- POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS
Those classes of alcohols which contain more than three OH− group are called polyhydric
alcohols.
Example:
OH OH OH OH
H2C CH CH CH2
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE ATTACHMENT OF OH− GROUP

There are three classes of alcohols according to the attachment of OH− group to the carbon atom which
are given below.
1- PRIMARY ALOCHOLS (1O)

That class of alcohols in which the OH− group is attached with primary carbon atom is called
Primary alcohols.
Example:
(a) CH3 ― OH, (b) CH3 ― CH2 ― OH
2- SECONDARY ALCOHOLS (2O)

That class of alcohols in which the OH− group is attached with secondary carbon atom is called
secondary alcohols.
Example:
OH
CH3 ― CH ― CH3
3- Tertiary Alcohols (3o)

That class of alcohols in which the OH− group is attached with tertiary carbon atom is called tertiary
alcohols.
Example: (H3C)3 C ―OH
(NOTE: The term primary, secondary and tertiary carbons have been explained in the previous chapter.)
METHYL ALCOHOL (CH3―OH)

INTRODUCTION
It is also called wood alcohol or wood spirit because it was obtained from wood many years ago.
FROM WATER GAS
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. It is obtained by red hot carbon and
steam as shown below.
1000
  CO + H2
0
Equation: C + H2O C
water gas
This water gas is mixed with more hydrogen under a pressure of 200atm and 450oC and in the presence
of ZnO and Cr2O3 catalysts as a result methyl alcohol is formed.
Equation:
ZnO Cr2O3
CO + H2 + H2   CH3 ― OH
200 atm + 450 C
o

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1- REACTION WITH SODIUM

When methanol is reacted with sodium metal as a result sodium methoxide is formed.
Equation:
2H3C ― OH + 2Na  2H3C ― O-Na+ + H2
2- REACTION WITH NaOH

When methanol is reacted with NaOH, as a result sodium methoxide is formed.
Equation:
H3C ― OH + NaOH  H3C ― O-Na+ + H2O
3- OXIDATION
Methanol when oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4 as a result formaldehyde forms.
Equation:
OH O
H―C―H + [O] K2Cr

   H ― C ―H + H2O
2O7 / H 2SO 4
4- DEHYDROGENATION
When methanol is dehydrogenated in the presence of Ni / Cu at 200oC as a result formaldehyde is
formed.
Equation:
OH O
H―C―H  
Ni / Cu
H ― C ―H + H2
200 C
o
5- REACTION WITH HCl

When methanol is reacted with HCl as a result Methyl chloride is formed.
Equation: H3C ― OH + HCl  H3C ― Cl + H2O
6- REACTION WITH PCl3

When methanol is reacted with PCl3 as a result Methyl chloride is formed.
Equation:
Cl Cl OH OH
3H3C ― OH + P  3H3C ― Cl + P
Cl OH
7- ESTRIFICATION
When methanol is reacted with any member of carboxylic acids in the presence of H2SO4(concentrated)
at 80oC as a result an ester is formed.

Equation:
O O
CH3―C―O H + HO―CH3  CH3―C―O―CH3 + H2O
8- ETHER FORMATION
When methanol is reacted with H2SO4 at 80oC as a result Methoxy methane (dimethylether)is formed.
Equation:
CH ― OH + H ― SO H  H O + CH ― SO H + H―O―CH  CH ― O ― CH + H SO
3 4 2 3 4 3 3 3 2 4
ETHYL ALCOHOL
INTRODUCTION
Ethyl alcohol is also called Wine Alcohol because this alcohol is used in wines. It is also calledGrain
alcohol (because it is produced from grains) or simply alcohol.
MANUFACTURE
Ethyl alcohol is manufactured by the following methods.
(a)BY THE FERMENTATION OF STARCH

Starch is actually a polymer of  ― D glucose and all the glucose molecules are linked with each
other by glycosidic bond. The sources of obtaining the starch are Rice, Potato, Sweet potato etc.
Starch has chemical formula (C6H10O5)n
FERMENTATION
A solution of glucose (or sugar) in water remains unchanged. If however, to this solution some yeast is
added then after sometimes the solution begins to look like boiling. If this solution is tested, it is found
that glucose (or sugar) has been converted into ethyl alcohol. This process of the formation of ethyl
alcohol is called “Fermentation”
NOTE: The boiling appearance of the solution is because of the escape of “CO2”.
PROCESS
1. First of all starch is mixed with a large amount of water.
2. Now some germinated barley is added to the above mixture. Barley contains an enzyme diastase
which converts starch into Maltose as shown below.
2 (C6H10O5)n + H2O Diastase
 C12H22O11 (Maltose)
3. To this maltose solution some yeast is mixed which secrets an enzyme „Maltase “which converts
maltose into two molecules of glucose.
C12H22O11 + H2O Maltase
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Glucose) (Glucose)
4. Now yeast secrets an enzyme zymase which convert glucose into ethyl alcohol and CO2.
C6H12O6 Zymase
 2C2H5―OH + 2CO2
(b)BY THE FERMENTATION OF MOLASSES

The thick, dark brown heavy syrup left after the crystallization of sugar is called Molasses. It contains
some amount of sugar in it so it is a very good source of ethyl alcohol. The details of the conversion of
molasses into ethyl alcohol are given below.

PROCESS
1. First of all molasses is taken from sugar industries.
2. A large amount of water is added to the molasses which is necessary for the germination of yeast.
3. Some yeast is added to this solution of molasses which secrets an enzyme Sucrase that coverts
sucrose into glucose and fructose.
C12H22O11 + H2O Sucrase
 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Glucose) (Fructose)
4. Now yeast secrets an enzyme zymase which converts glucose and fructose into ethyl alcohol.
C6H12O6 Zymase
 2C2H5―OH + 2CO2
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1- DEHYDRATION
When ethyl alcohol is heated at 180oC in the presence of H2SO4 (concentrated) as a result it is dehydrated
and ethylene is formed.
Equation:
CH3-CH2-OH   
H 2 SO4 ( Conc)
CH2=CH2 + H2O
o
180 C
2- REACTION WITH SODIUM METAL

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with sodium metal as a result sodium ethoxide is formed.
Equation: 2C2H5 ― OH + 2Na   2C2H5 ― O-Na+ + H2
3- REACTION WITH NaOH

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with NaOH, as a result sodium ethoxide is formed.
Equation: C2H5―OH + NaOH   C2H5―O-Na+ + H2O
4- REACTION WITH HALOGEN ACIDS (HX)

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with halogen acids as a result ethyl halides are produced.
Equation: C2H5―OH + HX   C2H5―X + H2O

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with PCl3 as a result ethyl chloride is formed.
Equation: Cl Cl OH OH
3C2H5―OH + P 
 3C2H5―Cl + P
Cl OH

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with PCl5 as a result ethyl chloride is formed.
Equation: C2H5 ― OH + PCl5  C2H5 ― Cl + HCl + POCl3
7- REACTION WITH SOCl2

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with SOCl2, as a result ethyl chloride is formed.
Equation: C2H5 ― OH + SOCl2  C2H5 ― Cl + HCl + SO2
8- OXIDATION
When ethyl alcohol is oxidized with K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4 as a result acetaldehyde (ethanol) is formed.

Equation:
OH O
CH3 ― C ― H + [ O ] 
 CH3 ― C ―H + H2 O
9- DEHYDROGENATION
When ethyl alcohol is dehydrogenated with Ni / Cu at 200oC as a result acetaldehyde is formed.
Equation:
OH O
CH3 ― C ― H Ni
/Cu
 CH3 ― C ―H + H2
200oC
H
10-ESTER FORMATION (ESTRIFICATION)

When ethyl alcohol is reacted with acetic acid in the presence of H2SO4 (concentrated) as are sult ethyl
acetate (an ester) is formed.
Equation:
O O
CH3 ― C ― O H + HO― C2H5 H   CH3 ― C ― O ― C2H5 + H2O

2 SO4 ( Conc)
80oC
NOTE: When any member of carboxylic acids and alcohols are reacted with each other as a result esters
are formed (esters are a class of compounds having fruity smell)
11-ETHER FORMATION
When ethyl alcohol is heated with H2SO4 at about 80oC as a result diethyl ether (an ether) is formed.
Equations:
C2H5 ―OH + H― SO4H 
 C2H5 ― SO4H + H2O
C2H5―SO4H + H―OC2H5 
 C2H5 ― O ― C2H5 + H2SO4
PHENOL
DEFINITION
That organic compound in which (—OH) group is directly attached with Benzene ring is called
“Phenol”.
CLASSIFICATION
Just like alcohols, phenols are also classified according to the number of (—OH) groups attached with
benzene ring. Their types are given below.
MONOHYDRIC PHENOLS
DEFINITION
That class of phenols in which only one —group is attached with benzene ring is called monohydric
phenols. Example: OH

DIHYDRIC PHENOLS
DEFINITION
That class of phenols in which two —OH groups is attached with benzene ring is called dihydric phenols
Example
OH OH OH
OH
OH OH
(Catechol) (Resorcinol) (Hydroquinone)
TRIHYDRIC PHENOLS
DEFINITION
That class of phenols in which three —OH groups is attached with benzene ring is called trihydric
phenols.
Example
OH
OH
Pyrogallol
OH
1. FROM CHLOROBENZENE
When chlorobenzene is reacted with 10% solution of NaOH at 3000C and 200 atom pressure as a
result Phenol is formed.
O-Na+
Cl
(10%) 300
 
0
C
+ NaOH + HCl
(Sodium phenoxide)
OH
O-Na+
+ HCl  + NaCl
2. FROM BENZENE SODIUM SULPHONATE

When benzene sodium sulphonate is reacted with NaOH at 250C as a result Phenol is formed.
Equation
SO3Na O-Na+
+ 2NaOH 
 + + Na2SO3+ H2O
O-Na+ OH

+ HCl  + NaCl
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. REACTION WITH NAOH
When phenol is reacted with NaOH as a result Sodium Phenoxide is formed.
OH O-Na+
+ NaOH  + H2O
2. REACTION WITH ZINC DUST

When phenol is reacted with red hot zinc as a result Benzene is formed.
Equation
OH
+ Zn Re 
d. Hot
+ ZnO
3. HYDROGENATION (ADDITION OF HYDROGEN)

When phenol is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of Ni at 1500C as a result Cyclohexanol is
formed:
OH OH
H
H H
H
 

Ni H
+ 3H2 H H
+ ZnO
H H
H H
Cyclohexanol
4. HALOGENATION (REACTION WITH BROMINE WATER)

Phenol rapidly reacts with bromine water to form 2,4,6-tribromo phenol.
OH OH
Br Br
+ 3Br2 150
 0 
C
+ 3HBr
Br
2,4,6-tribromo phenol
5. REACTION WITH DILUTE HNO3

When phenol is reacted with dilute nitric acid as a result Ortho–nitrophnol and para-nitrophenol are
formed.

OH OH OH
NO2
2 + 2HO — NO2   + + 2H2O
Nitric acid
NO2
Ortho–nitrophnol para-nitrophenol
6. REACTION WITH CONCENTRATED HNO3

When phenol is reacted with concentrated HNO3 as a result 2, 4, 6 – trinitro phenol is formed
OH OH
NO2 NO2
+ 3HO — NO2   + 3H2O
(Nitric acid)
NO2
7. REACTION WITH SULPHURIC ACID (at 20oC)

When phenol is reacted with H2SP4 at 200C as a result ortho–hydroxyl sulphonic acid is formed
as major product.
Equation OH OH OH
SO3H
2 + 2H2O—SO3H 
 200 C
+ + 2H2O
Major product SO3H

Minor product
8. REACTION WITH SULPHURIC ACID (AT 100oC)

When phenol is reacted with H2SO4 at 1000C as a result Para – Hydroxyl Sulphonic acid is formed.
Equation
OH OH OH
SO3H
+ 2HO—SO3H 100  
0
C
2 + + + 2H2O
Minor product SO3H

Major Product
ETHER FAMILY
That family of organic compounds in which one oxygen atom is attached with
two alkyl groups is called ether family.
IDENTITY FORMULA R―O―R
GENERAL FORMULA (CnH2n+1) O

DIETHYL ETHER(Ethoxy ethane)

1. FROM ETHYL ALCOHOL USING H2SO4

When ethyl alcohol is heated with H2SO4 at about 80oC, as a result diethyl ether is formed.
Equations: C2H5 ―OH + H―SO4H  C2H5 ― SO4H + H2O

C2H5―SO4H + H― O ― C2H5  C2H5 ― O ― C2H5 + H2SO4
2. FROM ETHYL ALCOHOL USING NaOH
When ethyl alcohol is reacted with NaOH as a result sodium ethoxide is formed which reacts with ethyl
chloride to form diethyl ether.
Equation:
C2H5 ― OH + NaOH 
 C2H5―O-Na+ + H2O
C2H5 ―O-Na+ + Cl― C2H5 

 C2H5 ― O ― C2H5+ NaCl
3. FROM ETHYL CHLORIDE USING Ag2O

When ethyl chloride is reacted with silver oxide as a result diethyl ether is formed.
Equation:
2C2H5Cl + Ag2O   C2H5―O―C2H5 + 2AgCl
Or may be written as:

C2H5 ―Cl + Ag―O―Ag + Cl―C2H5 
 C2H5 ― O ― C2H5 + 2AgCl
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. REACTION WITH HI
When diethyl ether is reacted with HI, as a result oxonium ion is formed which reacts with iodide ion to
form ethyl alcohol and ethyl iodide.
Equation:
C2H5 ― Ö ― C2H5 + H―I 

 C2H5 ― O+― C2H5 + I-
H
(Oxonium ion)
C2H5 ― O+― C2H5 + I- 

 C2H5 ― OH + C2H5 ― Cl
ALDEHYDE FAMILY
DEFINITION
That family of organic compounds in which Carbonyl carbon atom (―C―) is attached with one
hydrogen atom and one Alkyl group is called “Aldehydes”
IDENTITY FORMULA R ―CHO
GENERAL FORMULA CnH2n+1 — CHO
FORMALDEHYDE

1. By the oxidation of Methanol
When methanol is oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 as a result Formaldehyde is formed:
Equation
OH O
H—C—H + [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H—C—H + H2O
H
2. By the dehydrogenation of methanol
When methanol is dehydrogenated in the presence of Ni / Cu at 2000C as a result formaldehyde is
formed.
OH O
H—C—H 200
 C
Ni / Cu
0 H—C—H + H2
3. BY THE THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM FORMAT

When calcium formate is heated at 7000C, as a result formaldehyde is formed.
O
O
H—C—O
700
 
0
C
Ca H—C—H + CaCO3
H—C—O (Calcium carbonate)
O
(Calcium formate)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. OXIDATION
When formaldehyde is oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 as a result formic acid forms.
O O
H—C—H + [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H—C—OH
NOTE: By the oxidation of aldehydes, carboxylic acids forms.
2. REDUCTION
When formaldehyde is reduced in the presence of C2H5OH/Na, as a result methyl alcohol forms.
O OH
H—C—H + 2[H] C   H—C—H

2 H 5OH / Na
3. REACTION WITH FEHLING’S SOLUTION

When formaldehyde (or any other aldehyde) is reacted with Fehling’s solution, as a result red
precipitates of Cu2O are formed.
O O
H—C—H + 2Cu (OH)2 + NaOH 

 H—C—ONa + 3H2O + Cu2O 
NOTE: This reaction is used to differentiate between aldehydes and ketones.
4. REACTION WITH TOLLEN’S REAGENT

When formaldehyde (or any other aldehyde) is reacted with Tollen’s reagent, as a result Silver is
deposited on the wall of the test tube in which the reaction takes place.
Equation
O O
H—C—H + [Ag(NH3)2]+   H—C—Na 4 + NH3 + Ag 

(Tollen’s Reagent)
ADDITION REACTIONS
5. ADDITION OF HCN
When HCN is added to formaldehyde, as a result “Cyanohydrin” (an addition product) forms.
O  OH
H—C  —H + H —CN 
 H—C—Na 4 + NH3 + Ag
CN
6. ADDITION OF HYDROXYL AMMINE (NH2OH)

When NH2OH is added to formaldehyde as a result “Oxime” (an addition product) is formed.
O  OH
H—C  —H + H —NH—OH 
 H—C—H 
 H—C—H + H2O
NH—OH N—OH
(Oxime)
7. ADDITION OF PHENYL HYDRAZINE (H2N—NH—C6H5)

When phenyl hydrazine (NH2-NH-C6H5) is added to formaldehyde as a result phenyl hydrazone
(H2C=N-NH-C6H5) is formed.
O  OH H
H—C  —H + H  —NH  —NH—C6H5 

 H—C—N—NH—C6H5 
 H—C N—NH
-H2O
H H H5C6
(phenyl hydrazine)
8. ADDITION OF ETHYL ALCOHOL

When ethyl alcohol is added to formaldehyde as a result Hemiacetal is formed first and then acetal
forms.
O  OH O—C2H5
H—C  —H + H  —O  —C2H5 
 H—C—H + H—O—C2H5 
 H—C—H + H2O
O—C2H5 O—C2H5
(Hemiacetal) (Acetal)
9. POLYMERIZATION (TRIMERIZATION)
When formaldehyde is heated in the presence of H2SO4 as a result its three molecules are joined
together to form Meta formaldehyde.
H H
O C
O O
3H—C—H  H
H 2 SO4
H
C C
H O H
(Meta formaldehyde)
KETONE FAMILY
That family of organic compounds in which Carbonyl carbon atom (—CO—) is attached with two
alkyl groups is called Ketone family.
Identity Formula R—CO—R
General Formula (CnH2n+1) CO
ACETONE
1. BY THE OXIDATION OF 2-PROPANOL

When secondary propyl alcohol is oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 as a result acetone is
formed.
OH O
H3C—C—CH3 + [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H3C—C—CH3 + H2O
H
2. BY DEHYDROGENATION OF 2–PROPANOL
When secondary propyl alcohol is dehydrogenated in the presence of Ni / Cu at 2000C as a result
acetone forms.
OH O
H3C—C—CH3 200

Ni / Cu
0C
 H3C—C—CH3 + H2
3. BY THE PYROLYSIS OF ACETIC ACID

When acetic acid is heated at 5000C in the presence of MnO2 as a result acetone forms.

O O O
CH3—C—OH + HO —C—CH3 MnO

2  CH3—C—CH3 + CO2 + H2O
4. BY THE THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM FORMAT
When calcium acetate is heated at 7000C in the absence of Oxygen, as a result acetone forms.
O
O
CH3—C—O
Ca 700  
0
C
CH3—C—CH3 + CaCO3
CH3—C—O
O
(Calcium acetate)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. OXIDATION
When acetone is oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 as a result Acetic acid is formed:
O O
H3C—C—CH3 + 4 [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H3C—C—CH3 + CO2 + H2O
2. REDUCTION
When acetone is reduced in the presence of “Pd” catalysts, as a result 2 –propanol is formed.
O OH
CH3—C—CH3 + 2[H] 

Pd
CH3—C—CH3
3. FORMATION OF IODOFORM
When acetone is reacted with Iodine in the presence of Sodium Carbonate, as a result Iodoform
(CHI3) is formed.
O O
CH3—C—CH3 + 3I2 + 2Na2CO3 

 CH3I + CH3—C +O-Na+ + 3NaI + 2 CO2 + H2O
(iodoform)
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
DEFINITION
That family of organic compounds in which carbonyl carbon (—C—) is attached with one alkyl group
(—R) and one (—OH) group is called Carboxylic acid.
Identity formula R —COOH
General Formula CnH2n+1 COOH
1. BY THE OXIDATION OF ETHYL ALCOHOL

When ethyl alcohol is oxidized in the presence of K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4, as a result acetaldehyde is
formed first and further oxidation of Acetaldehyde produces acetic acid.
OH O
H3C—C—H + [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H3C—C—H + H2O
O O
H3C—C—H + [O] K  

2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
H3C—C—OH
2. BY THE HYDROLYSIS OF ACETYLENE

When acetone is hydrolyzed in the presence of H2SO4/ HgSO4 at 700C, as a result Acetaldehyde is
formed and when Acetaldehyde is oxidized as a result Acetic acid is formed.
OH H O
H—CH  C —H + H —OH HgSO

  H—C  C—H 
4 / H 2 SO4
 H—C—C—H
O H H
(Acetaldehyde)
H3C—CHO+ [O] HgSO
 
4 / H 2 SO4
H3C—C—OH
(Acetic acid)
CHEMICAL PRPERTIES
1. REACTION WITH NAOH

When Acetic acid is reacted with NaOH, as result Sodium acetate is formed.
Equation:
O O
a)
CH3—C—OH + NaOH  CH3—C—ONa + H2O
2. Reaction with HCl, PCl3, PCl5 and SOCl2

When acetic acid is reacted with the above mentioned compounds as a result Acetyl chloride is
formed:
Equation O O
a)
CH3—C—OH + HCl  CH3—C—Cl + H2O
O O
b)
3CH3—C—OH + PCl3  3CH3—C—Cl + H3PO3
O O
c)
CH3—C—OH + PCl5 
 CH3—C—Cl + HCl + POCl3
O O

d)
CH3—C—OH + SOCl2 
 CH3—C—Cl + HCl + SO2
3. ESTRIFICATION
When Acetic Acid is reacted with Ethyl alcohol as a result Ethyl acetate (An ester) is formed.
O O
CH3—C—OH + OH + C2H5 H  CH3—C—O—C2H5 + H2O

2 SO4 Concentrated
4. FORMATION OF ACETIC ANHYDRIDE

When Acetic acid is heated at high temperature and pressure as a result Acetic anhydride is formed.
O O O O
CH3—C—OH + H—O—C—CH3 
 CH3—C—O—C—CH3 + H2O
(Acetic anhydride)
ESTER FAMILY
DEFINITION
That family of organic compounds which is formed by the reaction between a Carboxylic acid and an
alcohol is called Ester family.
Identity formula O
R—C—O—R
General Formula Cn H2n+1 COOR
ETHYL ACETATE
1. By the reaction between acetic acid and ethyl alcohol
When ethyl alcohol is reacted with Acetic acid as a result Ethyl acetate is formed.
O O
CH3—C—OH + HO—C2H5 H  CH3—C—O— C2H5+ H2O

2 SO4 ( Conc)
NOTE: Esters are formed by the reaction between any member of Carboxylic acids and alcohols.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. REACTION WITH NAOH (BASE HYDROLYSIS)
When ethyl acetate is reacted with H2O in the presence of H2SO4 as a result Acetic acid and Ethyl
alcohol is formed
Equation
O O
CH3—C—O—C2H5 + H —OH H  CH3—C—OH

2 SO4 ( Conc)
+ C2H5—HO
2. REACTION WITH NAOH (BASE HYDROLYSIS)
When ethyl acetate is reacted with 10% NaOH as result ethyl alcohol and sodium acetate are
formed
Equation
O O
CH3—C—O—C2H5 + NaOH (10%) 

 CH3—C—O-Na+— C2H5—HO

CHAPTER 10
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
“Chemistry of life or Biochemistry deals with the study of chemical process taking place in the living organism such as
plants and animals.”
FOOD AND NUTRITION
All living matter takes food and releases waste products. Food is the group of chemical reagents take part in the life
sustaining process. The components of food are called nutrients. Food is classified on the basis of nutrients presents. A
complete food must contain the following nutrients.
i. Carbohydrates
i. Proteins
iii. Lipids and fats
iv. Vitamins
v. Minerals
vi. Water
There are three major nutrients carbohydrates, fats and proteins which are provided energy for the physiological activities
of body by the break down.
1. Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are efficient source of energy for animals. Carbohydrates furnish 60 – 80% of the total calories
intake.
The main sources of carbohydrates are cereals of grains – wheat, maize, rice etc.
2. Fats:

Fats are important components of our diet it provide double energy than that of proteins or carbohydrates. The
minimum daily requirement of appropriate fats varies from 15 – 25g per day.
Main Source of Fats:
i. Animal Sources Butter
ii. Vegetable Source
Oils from seeds of all kinds of sunflower cotton seed, concuts, soyabean and mustards.
Proteins:
It is most important nutrient. Proteins provide energy to the body for maintenance of body growth and repair of tissues.
The main sources of protein are:
i. Meat
ii. Milk and Eggs
iii. Pulses, Beans, Peas, Lentil.
Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic in nature. They are necessary food factors. They are classified according to their solubility as fat-
soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.
Mineral:
Inorganic elements present in diet do not supply any energy but their role in the diet is equally important for maintenance,
building and rebuilding of tissues. Only 23 elements have been observed to be essential for life, in which eleven are non-
metals and rest are metal. Bones and teeth require calcium and phosphorus. Iron is needed for the production of
haemoglobin and cytochrome system of body.

Fe2+, Na1+, K1+, Mg2+, PO 34 , Cl1–
Water:
Water is a most important item of diet. About 70% of the body weight is water, and weight remains constant from day to
day.
CARBOHYDRATES
“Hydrates of carbon is known as carbohydrates.” OR
“Poly hydroxyl aldehyde or ketons are called as carbohydrates.”
They produce such substance upon acid hydrolysis. They also called aldoses and ketoses. Carbohydrates are important class
of naturally occurring compounds. Empirical formula of carbohydrates is Cx (H 2O)y.
Carbohydrates are the major constituents of most plants. Plants manufacture carbohydrates from CO 2 and H2O in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll by photosynthesis process.
6CO2 + 6H2O 

 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Sunlight
Chlorophyll
Animals take carbohydrates from plants which provide energy for the maintenance of life by oxidation.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Classification of Carbohydrates:
They are divided into three groups:
i. Monosaccharides
ii. Disaccharides
iii. Polysaccharides

i. Monosaccharides:
They cannot be broken down into simple molecule upon hydrolysis. They are also called simple sugars. They
contain 3 to 10 carbon atoms. They are triose, tetrose, pentose and hexose depending upon the number of carbon
atoms. Those carbohydrates which have aldehydic functional groups are called aldose and those carbohydrates
which contains Ketons are called Ketoses.
Glucose:
Glucose is an aldohexose. Glucose is a sweet, white crystalline compound. It is prepared by the acid hydrolysis of starh. It
is a reducing sugar.
Fructose:
Fructose is a Ketohexose. It is sweetest sugar and reducing sugar. Fructose is crystalline and soluble in water. It is found in
honey. Structure of Fructose is:

ii. Disaccharides:
These carbohydrates produce 2 – 10 monosaccharides molecules upon hydrolysis. A disaccharide is formed by the
joining of two monosaccharide units. Such as sucrose is the condensation product of glucose and fructose. Other
examples of disaccharides are Maltose and Lactose.
SUCROSE: Sucrose formed by the linkage of glucose and fructose units. It is a white, crystalline sweet non-reducing
sugar. It is soluble in water.
C12H22O11 + H2O 

 C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
iii. Polysaccharides:
These carbohydrates on hydrolysis produce more than 10 monosaccharide units. They are non – sugars,
amorphous and insoluble in water. They are of two types:
a. Animal Polysaccharides:
They are found in animals. Example is ring in muscles and liver. It is called “animals starch”. It is a polymer of
glucose.
b. Plants Polysaccharides:

They are the reserve carbohydrates of plants. Examples are starch and cellulose.
Starch:
It is found in cerels such as wheat, rice, barley. Structurally it is mixture of two polysaccharides.
i. Amylose ii. Amylopectin
Cellulose:
It is found in the cell walls of plants, hence it is main structural material of plants.
PROTEINS
Proteins are macromolecules or polymers of a amino acids. They are the most characteristic naturally occurring complex
compounds found in living cells. Proteins are the building blocks of animal tissues. Many common substances such as hair,
skin, nails and feather are common proteins. Egg, meat, fish, milk and pulses are major source of proteins. Proteins are
light molecular weight compounds ranging from several thousand to millions. It ranges in between 34000-50,000,000
a.m.u. When proteins are hydrolyzed with dilute acids, a mixture of  -amino acid is obtained.
Classification of Protein:
Proteins can be sub-divided into two large groups simple proteins and conjugated proteins.
Simple Proteins:
All those proteins which on hydrolysis yield only amino acids are called simple proteins or the simple proteins are composed
of chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Simple proteins are further classified according to their differences in
solubility. For example, Albumin, Globulin, glutelins and Albuminoids.

Conjugated Proteins:
Conjugated proteins are composed of simple proteins combine with non-proteinous substance. The non-proteinsous
substance is called prosthetic group. Examples of conjugated proteins are nucleo-proteins, glycoproteins, phosphor-
protein, and chromo-proteins.
AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are the chemical substances which contain at least one basic amino (NH 2) group and one acidic carboxyl (–
COOH) group. The amino group is bonded to the  -carbon atom. Amino acids are soluble in water aqueous solution amino
acids exist in dipolar form known as ‘Zwitter ion’.
H H
R C COOH R C COO–
NH2 NH3
Amino acid Zwitter ion
Zwitter ion is formed when the acidic carboxyl group donates a proton (H +) to the basic amino group. There aer twenty
amino acids present in naturally occurring proteins.
Classification of Amino Acids:
Amino acids are classified on the basis of number of acidic – COOH group and basic – NH2 group, present in their structure.
Thus there are three types of amino acids.
i. Neutral
ii. Acidic and
iii. Basic
i. Neutral:

These amino acids contain one basic (–NH2) group and one acidic (–COOH) group. Most of naturally occurring
amino acid belongs to this class. Examples of few neutral amino acids and their structures:
1. Glycine H3C COOH
NH2
2. Alanine H3C CH COOH
NH2
Other neutral amino acids are phenyl alamine, tryptophan, praline, serine, threonine, systine etc.
ii. Acidic Amino Acids:
Acidic amino acids contain two carboxyl (–COOH) groups and one amino (NH2) group. There are two acidic amino
acids:
1. Aspartic acid HOOC H2 CH COOH
NH2
2. Glutanic acid HOOC CH2 CH2 CH COOH
NH2
iii. Basic Amino Acids:
These compounds contain two basic (NH2) group and one acidic (–COOH) group. There are three basic amino acids.
1. Lysine CH2 CH2 CH2 CH COOH

NH2 NH2
Peptide Bond or Peptide Linkage:
The amino acids in protein molecules are present in long chains in which the amino acids are joined together by an acid –
amide type bond, called peptide bond. This bond or linkage is formed between the amino group of one acid and the
 O 
 
 II 
carboxyl group of another acid,  C  N   linkage is called peptide bond. A protein contains large number of peptide

 
 II 
 
 H 
bonds is called polypeptide. For example, insulin has polypeptide chains.
H O CH3 H O CH3
H C C OH + H N C COOH  H C C N C COOH + H2O
NH2 H H NH2 H H
Glycine Alamine Glycylalanine
The heterogeneous group of organic compounds which are dissolved in Bloor’s reagent are called lipids. Lipids are the fat
and fat like substances which occur in plants and animals. Butter, edible oils, waxes and steroids are lipids.
Bloor’s reagent is a mixture of diethyl ether and ethyl alcohol mixed in the ratio of 2:1 respectively. All lipids are insoluble
in water and are generally soluble in organic solvents, benzene, ether, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride etc.
The diet of an average person constitutes about 25 – 28% edible lipids. Lipids serve as energy storage compounds in
animals. They also protect vital body organ and help in maintaining body temperature.
Classification of Lipids:
Lipids are classified on the basis of their chemical structure.
i. Simple Lipids
ii. Compound Lipids

iii. Steroids
i. Simple Lipids:
Simple lipids include fats, cooking oils and waxes. Fats are the esters of fatty acids are glyceron. Their general
formula is:
CH2 O C R1
CH2 O C R2
CH2 O C R3
The long chain fatty acids tacking part in ester formation are palmitic acid (C 15H31COOH). Stearic acid (C17 H35 COOH) and
oleic acid (C17H33COOH)
Vegetable Ghee & Margarine:
Vegetable oils contain unsaturated acid e.g. oleic acid. Which on hydrogenation in the presence of Ni catalyst is converted
into saturated acid known as banaspati ghee or margarine.
CH2 COO C17 H33 CH2 COO C17 H35
CH COO C17 H33 + H2 Ni

 CH COO C17 H35
CH2 COO C17 H33 CH2 COO C17 H35
Olein (Vegetable oil) Stearine (Veg. Ghee)
Specification:

An important chemical reaction of fats is their hydrolysis with NaOH or KOH to produce sodium or potassium salt of fatty
acids (Soaps) and glycerol. This process is known as saponification.
CH2 COO C15 H31 CH2 OH
CH COO C15 H31 + 3NaOH 

 3C15 H31 COONa + CH OH
CH2 COO C15 H31 Sodium Palmitate CH2 OH
Tri Palmitin (a soap) Glycerol
(a fat)
Rancidity:
Fats and oils develop unpleasant smell when left exposed to the air due to oxidation. This process is called rancidity.
Waxes:
Waxes are the esters of long chain mono hydroxyl alcohol and long chain carboxylic acid. For example Bee’s wax is an ester
of palmitic acid and myricyl alcohol and its chemical name is myricyl palmitate.
CH3 – (CH2)14 COO (CH2)29 – CH3
Waxes are found as protective coatings on skin, fur, feather, leaves, petals and fruit skins. Waxes are water repellant and
non-reactive. Waxes are used in cosmetics, floor polishes, car polishes, ointments and creams.
ii. Compounds Lipids:
The common examples of compound lipids are phospholipids or phosphoglycerides such as lecithir and cephalin.
Phosphoglycerides are the derivatives of phosphatilic acid. They also contain glycerol, two fatty acids (saturated
and unsaturated), phosphate group and nitrogen containing compound.
iii. Steroids:

One of the important class of lipids is steroids. Steroids are high molecular weight, tetracyclic (four rings) organic
compounds. Most common example of steroids are cholesterol, vitamin D and cortisone. All steroids have a basic
structure of per hydrocyclopentanophenanthrene which consists of three six numbered rings and one five
member ring.
Cholesterol:
It is abundantly found in brain, spinal cord and egg yolk, It is the principal constituent of gallstones. Its molecular formula
is C27H45OH. Cholesterol is an important starting material for biosynthesis of sex hormones, cortisone. If the level of
cholesterol in blood becomes high, plaque like deposit is formed on the inner walls of arteries which causes high blood
pressure and heart diseases.
ENZYMES
A class of proteins which catalyze all types of biochemical reactions such as digestion, respiration and metabolism taking
place in the living organism, are called Enzymes. Or the complex organic compounds which catalyze bio chemical reactions
are called Enzymes.
Enzymes are formed by the living cells an are specific in their action. Each enzyme acts on one substrate only.
Nomenclature of Enzyme:

The substance on which the enzyme acts is called substrate. The suffix – ase is added to the name of the substrate. For
example sucrase for sucrose, lactase for lactose and urease for urea. Some enzymes have their trival names such as ptylin,
pepsin and tripsin.
Enzymes are also named according to the type of action. They bring about. For example, dehydrogenase catalyse the
dehydrogenation of their substrate and oxidase catalyese oxidation.
2H2O2 oxidase
  2H2O+O2
Mechanism of Enzyme Activity:
A Swedish chemist Arrhenius explained the mechanism of enzyme activity in 1888. He suggested the formation of
intermediate complex by the combination of the enzyme and the substrate.
S + E 
 S – E 
 P + E
Complex
S is the substrate, E, the enzyme, S – E is the intermediate substrate. Enzyme complex and P is the product e.g.
Sucrose + Sucrose 
 Sucrose – sucrase complex
Blucose + Fractose
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
1. Concentration:
The rate of reaction increase with the increase in the concentration of the substrate and the concentration of
enzyme.
2. Temeprature:

The rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction is maximum at the optimum temperature. Their maximum activity is in
between 36o – 50oC. At lower temperatures, enzymes lose their activity but at higher temperatures (100 oC). They
are completely destroyed.
3. pH:
The rate of enzyme activity is also influenced by pH. Every enzyme has its won optimum pH. e.g. pepsin has
optimum pH 1.4 and trypsin shows optimum activity at pH 8.2.
4. Other Factors:
The other factors which influence enzyme activity are co-enzyme, inhibitors (Ag+, Hg2+) activators (Mg+) and
radiations (   rays,   rays,   rays ).
VITAMINS
The necessity of carbonhydrates, proteins, fats and minerals in our diet has been recognized room early times. However in
early twentieth century (in 1912), a polish biochemist casimir Funk, discovered the first amine. “Thiamin” meaning vital
amine from rice husk which cured the Beriberi disease. After that vitamin A and D were discovered. So far, 13 vitamins
have been isolated.
Vitamins are the organic compounds required in minute quantity for proper maintenance and growth of cells or metabolic
process of the body.
Vitamins usually oceur in natural food. E.g. fruits and vegetables. Vitamins are named as vitamin A, B, C, D, E and K.
Classification of Vitamins:
Vitamins are divided into two groups, i.e. water-soluble and fat-soluble:
i. Water Soluble Vitamins:
Vitamin B and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins. Most water soluble vitamins act as co-enzymes. These
vitamins are not stored in the body, they are easily excreted by the body and have no toxic effects even if taken
in excess quantity.

ii. Fat Soluble Vitamins:
These vitamins are soluble in fat or oil. They include vitamins A, D, E and K. These vitamins are found associated
with lipids of natural food.
Daily
Vitamin Sources Deficiency Symptoms
Requirement
Vitamin A Fish liver oil, liver, carrot, Night blindness 0.7 mg

tomatoes & green vegetables
(Fat soluble)
Vitamin B – Complex Cereal grains, nuts, legumes, Berry – Berry 0.8 mg

and liver.
B1 (Thiamine)
B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, egg, liver meat Tongue inflammation anaemia 1.5 – 2 mg
B6 (Pyridoxine) Milk, egg, peas, beans, Skin disorder, 2.2 mg
B12 Liver, meat and fish Amaemia, retarded growth 3 mg
Nicotinic Acid Meat, liver turnip, fish egg and Pellagra mental disturbances 1.4 – 1.9 mg
peanuts.
Folic Acid Liver, mushroom, green leafy Anaemia, gastro instestinal 0.15 – 3 mg
vegetable. disturbances
Biotin Beaf liver, kidney, peanuts and Dermatitis ?

milk.

CHAPTER 10
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. The components of food are called
A. Nutrients B. Macromolecules
C. Micromolecules D. Polymers
2. A complete food must contain
A. 5 nutrients B. 8 nutrients
C. 6 nutrients D. 7 nutrients
3. _______________ elements have been absorbed to be essential for life.
A. 10 B. 23
C. 27 D. 35
4. The food is required by the body to achieve
A. Energy
B. Growth and maintenance of tissues
C. Regulation of body processes and for the sake of simplicity
D. All of these
5. _______________ an efficient source of energy for animals.

A. Proteins B. Fats
C. Carbohydrates D. Lipids
6. Carbohydrates gives _______________ calories per gram.
A. 4 B. 9
C. 15 D. 20
7. About _______________ of the body weight is water.
A. 50% B. 70%
C. 30% D. 60%
8. Polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy Ketone are known as
A. Hydrocarbons B. Carbohydrates
C. Carbide D. Bicarbonate
9. Those carbohydrates which are tasteless are known as
A. Oligosacchrides B. Reducing sugar
C. Non sugar D. Monosaccharide
10. Which one is non reducing sugar
A. Glucose B. Fructose
C. Mattore D. Sucrose
11. Those carbohydrates which cannot be further hdyrolysed into simpler carbohydrate units are known as
A. Sugar B. Non reducing sugar
C. Oligosaccharide D. Monosacchride

12. Which one example of monosacchride is
A. Glucose B. Fructose
C. Galactose D. All of these
13. Aldehyde is a/an
A. Aldehexose B. Ketohexose
C. Aldopontose D. Ketopentose
14. Ketone is a/an
A. Aldohexose B. Ketohexose
C. Aldepentose D. Ketopentose
15. Glucose and fructose are
A. Functional Isomers B. Chain Isomers
C. Position Isomers D. Metamers
16. Which one example of disacchride
A. Sucrose B. Maltose
C. Lactose D. All of these
17. Closed chain forms of glucose are also represented in hexagonal forms called
A. Pyranose structure B. Homocyclic structure
C. Oligosacchride D. None of these

18. The sucrose is the condensation product of
A. glucose an glucose B. glucose and fructose
C. glucose and galactose D. glucose and galactose
19. Lactose is composed of
A. glucose and glucose B. glucose and fructose
C. glucose and galactose D. fructose and galactose
A. Sucrose is a disacchride B. Sucrose is a non reducing sugar
C. Sucrose has 1, 2 Glycosidic Linkage D. All of these
21. Those carbohydrates which gives on hydrolysis more than 10 monosaccharide units are known as
A. Oligosacchrides B. Polysacchrides
C. Disacchrides D. Trisacchrides
22. Which one is an example of polysaccharide
A. Glycogen B. Starch
C. Cellulose D. All of these
23. Amino acids containing two functional groups
A. Carboxyl group and Amino group B. Carbonyl group and Amino group
C. Ester group and Amino group D. Ether group and Amino group
24. Dipolar ion of Amino acid is known as

A. Zwitter ion B. Oxonium ion
C. Carbonium ion D. Carbon ion
25. Amino acid are the monomers of
A. Carbohydrate B. Proteins
C. Fats D. Lipids
26. Which one of the following element is present in all proteins
A. Carbon B. Hydrogen
C. Nitrogen D. All of these
27. The hydrolysis of fats with strong alkali is known as
A. Esterification B. Fermentation
C. Hydration D. Saponification
28. The Linkage between amino acid present in proteins is know as
A. Glucoside Linkage B. Peptide Linkage
C. Amino Linkage D. Protein Linkage
29. The class of proteins which catalyze all types of biochemical reactions are called as
A. Inhabitors B. Monomers
C. Enzyme D. Catalyst
30. Lipids are
A. fats and fats like substance B. polysaccharides

C. essential fally acids D. polymers of amono acids
31. Esters of glycerol with saturated fatty acids are known as
A. Fats B. Oil
C. Woxes D. Steriods
32. Non-saponifiable lipids are known as
A. Waxes B. Steroids
C. Complex lipids D. Glycerol
33. Fats soluble vitamin is
A. A B. D
C. E D. All of these
34. Water soluble vitamin is
A. A complex B. D complex
C. B complex D. E complex
35. A deficiency of vitamin A causes
A. Night blindness B. Berry-Berry
C. Anaemia D. None of these

CHAPTER 11
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN PAKISTAN
FERTILIZERS
Definition:
Those chemical substances which contain N.P.S. K,Na etc., and are essential for the growth of crops are called fertilizers.
The main purposes of fertilizers are:
a. To make up the deficiency of the elements taken up by the plants.
b. To give an addition supply of food.
c. To maintain pH of soil.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are the major nutrients supplied to the plants through soil.
Classification of Fertilizers:
Fertilizers have been classified into two groups depending upon their sources:
1. Natural Fertilizers
2. Artificial Fertilizers
1. Natural Fertilizers:
Plants, animal manure and naturally occurring nitrates, have been used for providing nutrition to plants through
soil. Although in small amounts, they provide more nutrients than synthetic fertilizers.

For example:
A ton of manure provides about 22 kg of P2O5, 4.5 Kg of K2O and 4.5 kg of nitrogen.
2. Synthetic Fertilizers:
These are nitrates, sulphates of ammonium, sodium and potassium.
NaNO3 Na2SO4
KNO3 K2SO4
NH4NO3 (NH4)2 SO4
3. Nitrogen Fertilizers:
Nitrogen is required in the early stages of growth of plants. It helps in the development of roots, leaves and steams.
Examples:
i. Ammonia NH3 O
ii. Urea NH2 C NH2
iii. NH4NO3
iv. Ca(NO3)2
v. NaNO3
vi. KNO3
Ammonium nitrate and urea make the soil acidic. However, it controlled by the use of lime.

UREA
It is white crystalline solid and is water soluble. It contains 46% nitrogen. It is the most important sources of nitrogen. It is
manufactured as under:
Chemistry of the Process:
There are four stages in this process:
1. Natural gas (CH4) is used in Pakistan as a source of hydrogen. A mixture of natural gas and steam is passed over Ni
at 900oC.
o
CH4 + 2H2O   CO2 + 4H2
900 C
CO2 is absorbed in water under pressure to get pure H 2 gas.
2. Ammonia is prepared by Haber’s Process. For this purpose N 2 is obtained from liquid air at –180oC. The following
N2 + 3H2 2NH3  H = –ve
3. Liquid ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide at high temperature and pressure to form carbonate.
CO2 + 2NH3 
 NH2COONH4 (Ammonium Carbomate)
4. Carbamate dehydrates to urea:
NH4 COONH4 
 NH2 C NH2 + H2O
Urea Plant in Pakistan:

Urea plants are situated at Hazara, Multan, Dharki, Sadiqabad, Sheikhupura.
Other Nitrogen Fertilizers:
1. Ammonia (NH3):
About 30% of ammonia is used to make fertilizers. Ammonia contains 82% nitrogen. It is directly used as fertilizers
by injecting it 6 – 8 (inches) down the surface of earth.
Ammonia is manufactured by Haber’s process. Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen at high temp and high pressure.
Fe2O3 + MO2O3
N2 + 3H2 2NH3  H = –ve
450 – 500oC
250 atm
2. Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3):
Ammonium nitrate is an ideal nitrogen fertilizer. It has nitrogen content (33%) and is cheap to manufacture.
NH3 + HNO3 
 NH4NO3
It is an explosive material. Therefore, it is mixed with some limestone (CaCO3) to avoid explosion. It is not a useful
fertilizer for paddy rice, because its gentrification occurs in that climate.
3. Ammonium Sulphate [(NH4)2SO4]:
Ammonium sulphate is a favoured fertilizer because it is less hydroscopic and can be safely handed. It has less
nitrogen contents (21%). It is becoming less important. It has 25% sulphur. It can be made by passing ammonia
through H2SO4.
2NH3 + H2SO4 
 (NH4)2 SO4

It can be used as a fertilizer for paddy rice. In Pakistan it is prepared at Daud Khal.
Phosphorus Fertilizers:
Phosphorus is essential to accelerate fruit formation. It develops resistance of disease. Phosphate fertilizers of ammonium
and calcium are in common use:
1. Calcium Super Phosphate [Ca(H2PO4)2]:
It is prepared from phosphate rocks phosphates are available as under:
i. Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)2
ii. Appatite CaF2 Ca3(PO4)2
iii. Wavellite 2AIPO4.Al(OH)3.9H2O
These phosphates are not soluble in water. They cannot be taken up by the plants. Therefore, they are hanged to
water solubic phosphate by the use of various treatments. The common procedure is to decompose insoluble
phosphate with concentrated H2SO4.
2. Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate (NH4)2 HPO4:
For its manufacture ammonia is absorbed in phosphoric acid to form ammonium hydrogen phosphate.
2NH3 + H3PO4 
 (NH4)2HPO4  H = –ve
White crystals of the fertilizer are withdrawn after evaporation of water from the mixture. In Pakistan, it is
manufactured at Multan, Faisalabad, Jaranwala and haripur.
Potassium Fertilizers:

Potassium helps in the formation of starches, sugars and the fibrous material of the plant. It regulates the water economy
of the plant. The most common potassium fertilizers are as under:
1. Potassium Chloride:
As fertilizer it is named as marinate of potash. About 97% pure potassium chloride is used as fertilizers. Its
potassium content is measured as K2O and it varies from 60–63%.
2. Potassium Sulphate:
It is prepared by the chemical combination of KCI and sulphuric acid. Its potash content ranges from 48 – 52%. As
fertilizer, it is used for potato and tobacco crops an for citrus fruits.
2KCl + H2SO4 
 K2SO4 + HCl
3. Potassium Nitrate:
It is made by treating KCl with nitric acid. It is used for the tobacco and the plants which are affected by chloride
of the soil. It is a fertilizer with potash = 44% and N = 13%.
KCl + HNO3 
 NKO3 + HCl
DETERGENTS
Definition:
“Those cleaning agents which do not form a scum with hard water are called detergents.”
Actually hard water contains calcium magnesium and iron ions. These ions replace sodium ions of soap and make scum
with the soap. Consequently soap does not function well in hard water.
Types of Detergents:

The major types of detergents are:
i. The detergents for personal use.
ii. Laundering detergents.
iii. Detergents for hard surface cleaning.
iv. Detergents for specialized industrial cleaning.
1. ABS:
The surfactants used in these detergents are alkyl benzene suffocates.
2. LAS:
The surfactants sued in these detergents are linear a alkane ulphonates.
Therefore detergents behaves like a soap because one end is soluble in water, and the other end is oil soluble.
There are three types of detergents:
a. Granulated Detergents.
b. Paste Detergents.
c. Liquid Detergents
Composition of Detergents:
Detergents have different compositions. It depends upon their cleansing action and purpose of use. Their main constituents
are as under:
a. Surfactants of surface active agents (15 – 25%)
b. Builders (30.40%

c. Additives (30%)
Additives include:
i. Foam stabilizers
ii. Antideposition agent
iii. Optical brighteners
a. Surface Active Agents or Surfactants:
These are organic compounds that reduce surface tension of water. They reduce interfacial tension between two
liquids. The surfactants of both soap and detergents perform cleaning and washing action in the same way,
through the reduction of surface tension. Soaps and detergents increase the wetting ability of water so that it can
more easily penetrate and remove dirt. One end of a surfactant is water-loving and the other is dirt-loving.
Action of Surfactants:
Dirt – loving ends of a detergent are attracted to the dirt and surround it. At the same time the water – loving ends are
being pulled by the molecules of water and so dirt particles move away from the fibers, into wash water. This action enables
a soap or detergent to remove oil suspend it, and prevents its depositing on clothes.
b. Builders:
They are polyphosphates as sodium tripolyphosphate and tetra sodium phosphate. They boost up the detergent
power.
i. These are water softeners. They prevent deposition of dirt or grease particles from wash action.
ii. They reduce the overall cost and increase effectiveness of detergents.
iii. They reduce the corrosion of metal washing machine parts.
c. Additives (Auxiliary Agents):
They may be as follows:

i. Corrosion Inhibitor
ii. Fabric brighteners or optical brighteners
iii. Bluings
iv. Foam stabilizers
v. Antideposition agnets.
i. Corrosion Inhibitors: Sodium silicate protects metal parts, utensil and dishes from the action of
detergents and water.
ii. Fabric Brighteners: These are fluorescent dyes, which make fabrics look brighter because of their
ability to convert ultraviolet light to visible. These are organic in nature.
iii. Bluings: They improve the whiteness in appearance of fabrics by counter acting the natural
yellowing tendency.
iv. Foam Stabilizer: They stabilize the foam and thus regulate the working of detergents.
v. Antideposition Agent: It is an essential ingredient of laundering detergent. It inhibits the tendency of dirt
or grease particles to redeposit in washing action of a detergent.
GLASS
Definition:
It is defined in two ways:
1. Glass is rigid super cooled inorganic liquid having no definite melting point and having high viscosity to prevent
crystallization.
2. Chemically, it is a mixture of alkali and alkaline earth silicates having silicates and borates of other metals. It has
random structure.
3. Stabilizers or intermediates.

1. Formers:
Formers are principal constituents of glass because they constitute glassy structure. Mostly is applied in the form
o silica. It should be free from impurities as iron oxide or organic matter. Oxide of boron, phosphorus etc. are also
employed e.g., B2O3 is used in the manufacture of optical glass P2O5, As2O3 are used for the preparation of
opalescent glass.
2. Fluxes:
Fluxes are basic oxides:
a. Soda (Na2O) , it is added in the form of Na2CO3.NaNO3.
b. Lime (CaO), is introduced in the form of lime stone, CaCO3.
c. BaO, is employed as BaCO3
3. Stabilizers:
To increase the stability of glass, certain inorganic oxides as Al2O3, ZnO, CaO, etc., are required. These are called
stabilizers. They reduce the chemical reactivity towards acids or bases.
Manufacturing of Glass:
There are five major stages:
1. Mixing
2. Melting
3. Shaping or forming
4. Annealing
5. Finishing
1. Mixing:

In this state, NaCO3, CaCO3 sand cullet and other ingredients are ground to fine powder in grinding machines and
mixed thoroughly.
2. Melting:
The mixed material is fed to one end of large tank. This tan is built of refractoriness. The mass is heated to 1400 –
1550oC. Heating is continued until the evolution of CO2, SO2 and other gases cease. The mass would have melted
down to a clear liquid. It is allowed to cool down to 110 – 1300oC, so that the viscosity of the mass is suitable to
prepare different articles.
3. Forming or Shaping:
Molten glass is given the desired shape by:
a. Blowing
b. Casting in Moulds
c. Pressing between rollers
Forming is possible at a temperature at which glass is in liquid state. The choice of forming technique depends on
the shape of the article. Hollow glassware as bottles, bulbs, glass, tubing etc., are made by special method of
blowing. Headlight lenses of vehicles are made of pressed glass.
4. Annealing:
The process of slow cooling is known as annealing.
When the hot articles are cooled suddenly, they develop internal strain and the articles are likely to crack. To avoid
it, these must be cooled very very lowly.
Annealing is done in annealing oven. It is a heated chamber in which rate of cooling can be controlled. In an
annealing oven, the glassware is carried on travelling belts, which pass thorough the oven and causes annealing.
Types of Glass:
Commercial glass fall into numerous classes. A few are listed below:

1. Soda Lime Glass: It is ordinary glass It is used for making window glass and contains of all kinds of flat glass, i.e.,
tableware, bottles and mirrors. This glass is workable at reasonable temperature.
2. Sillica Glass: This glass is transparent in ultraviolet radiation. It is 100% silic. It is used for the
manufacturing of mercury vapour lamps, telescope mirrors and covers of solar cells. It
is highly resistant to heat shocks and elevated temperatures.
3. Borosilicate Glass: Borosilicate glass can stand temperature upto 800Co and is much more resistant to
attack buy chemicals such as alkalis. It is used for the manufacture of backing dishes.
Laboratory, glass wares, pipe lines, high tension insulators and washers. The most
common brand of borosilicates glass is pyrex.

CHAPTER 11
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN PAKISTAN
1. Those chemical substance which are essential for the growth of crops are called
A. Detergents B. Fertilizers
C. Plastic D. Paint
2. The main purpose of fertilizers are
A. To make up the deficiency of the elements taken up by the plants
B. To give an addition supply of food
C. To maintain pH of soil
D. All of these
3. Which of the following element is essential for plant life
A. N B. P
C. K D. All of these
4. Molecular formula of urea is
O O
A. NH2 C OH B. NH2 C CH3
O O

C. NH2 C NH2 D. NH2 C H
5. Which one of the following substance used as fertilizers
A. Urea B. Ammonium Nitrate
C. Ammonium Sulphate D. All of these
A. Detergents are soapless cleaning agent
B. Detergents are complex organic salts with long chain molecules
C. Detergents are made up of two parts hydrophobic and hydrophilic
D. All of these
7. Soda glass is a mixture of
A. Sodium silicate and calcium silicate B. Sodium silicate and calcium carbonate
C. Sodium silicate and calcium hydroxide D. Sodium silicate and calcium oxide
8. Soda glass is produced by
A. Na2CO3 B. SiO2
C. CaCO3 D. All of these
9. Glass is a
A. Crystalline solid B. Super cooled liquid
C. Volatile liquid D. Hot liquid

10. In etching process glass mixed with
A. Hydrochloric acid B. Hydrobromic acid
C. Hydroiodic acid D. Hydrofluoric acid
11. Starting raw material of Rayon fibre is
A. Starch B. Glycogen
C. Cellulose D. Glycol
12. Which one is synthetic fibrer
A. Nylon B. Rayon
C. Terylene D. All of these
13. Nylon is a type of polymer in which
A. amide linkage hold the chain together B. amino linkage hold the chain together
C. pephide linkage hold the chain together D. glucoside linkage hold the chain together
14. Nylon 6, 6 is a consensation polymer of
A. hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid B. hexamethylene diamine and formic acid
C. hexamethylene diamine and oxalic acid D. hexamethylene diamine and acetic acid
15. Which one is an example of polymers
A. Plastic B. PVA
C. Terylene D. All of these

16. Which one is an example of amorphous solid
A. Glass B. Plastic
C. Rubber D. All of these
17. Polyethene is a polymer of
A. Ethyne B. Acetylene
C. Ethylene D. Ethane
18. Poly vinyl chloride is the polymer of
A. Acetal chloride B. Vinyl chloride
C. Ethyl chloride D. None of these
19. Bakelite is a polymer of
A. Phenol and ethanol B. Phenol and ethanol
C. Phenol and formaldehyde D. Phenol and ketone
20. A paint composed of
A. Binder, Pigment and volalite solvent B. Binder, Pigment and crystal
C. Binder, Pigment and water vapours D. All of these

12th CHEMISTRY Notes

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Second Year Page |1 Chemistry

THE HISTORY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

DOBERIENER’S LAW OF TRIADS

NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES

23Na 24Mg 27Al 28Si 31P 32S 35.5Cl

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MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

23Na 24Mg 27Al 28Si 31P 32S 35.5Cl

MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

DEMERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

MODERN PERIODIC LAW

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TYPES OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO PERIODS

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INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

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6. HYDRATION ENERGY OF IONS

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MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM IN DOWN’S CELL

CHEMICAL MATERIALS / RAW MATERIALS

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OVER ALL REACTION

2Na+ + 2Cl-  2Na + Cl2

MANUFACTURE OF CAUSTIC SODA BY CASTNER–

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OVER ALL REACTION

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MANUFACTURE OF WASHING SODA BY AMMONIA

NH3 + HCl Solution

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CONVERSION TO SODIUM CARBONATE

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Al2O3 ∙ nH2O + Na2CO3  2NaAlO2 + CO2 + n H2 O

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ELECTROLYSIS OF PURIFIED Al2O3

Following reactions take place here.

REFINING OF ALUMINIUM (HOOP’S PROCESS)

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7. Aluminum as Reducing agent

ALUMS (POTASH ALUM = PHITKARI)

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BORIC ACID (H3BO3)

2. From Boron Nitride

BORAX (Na2B4O7 ∙ 10H2O) (SUHAGA)

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ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON

WHITE LEAD PIGMENT

1. By the reaction of Pb with CH3COOH

2. By the reaction of “PbO” with CO2

RED LEAD PIGMENT (SINDHUR)

1. From Lead Monoxide (PbO = Litharge)

CHROME YELLOW PIGMENT

1. From Lead Nitrate

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2. From Lead Acetate