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The chemistry of tea flavonoids

a b b
Douglas A. Balentine , Sheila A. Wiseman & Liesbeth C. M. Bouwens
a
LIPTON, 800 Sylvan Avenue, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: 201–894–7338 Fax:
201–894–7338 E-mail:
b
Unilever Research Laboratorium, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Available online: 29 Sep 2009

To cite this article: Douglas A. Balentine, Sheila A. Wiseman & Liesbeth C. M. Bouwens (1997): The chemistry of tea
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 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 37(8):693-704 (1997)

The Chemistry of Tea Flavonoids

Douglas A. Balentine,1* Sheila A. Wiseman,2 and Liesbeth C. M. Bouwens3
1
Lipton, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; 2Unilever Research Laboratorium Vlaardingen, The Netherlands;
3
Unilever Research Laboratorium Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

* Address for correspondence: Douglas A. Balentine, Ph.D., LIPTON, 800 Sylvan Avenue, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632. Tel: 201-
894-7338; Fax: 201-894-7017; E-mail: douglas.balentine@unilever.com

I. TEA that contribute to the organoleptic profile of the

beverage and are being studied to determine their
Tea is the fragrant brew prepared from the leaves potential role in prevention of chronic diseases such
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of two varieties of the plant Camellia sinensis: assa-
mica and sinensis. Originating in China and South-
east Asia, tea has been cultivated and consumed for
more than 2000 years.1 The Chinese value tea for
its pleasant flavor and medicinal benefits, some of
which have scientific merit today (Table I).2-3
Tea was first introduced into continental Europe
by the Dutch at the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury and reached England and North America by
the mid-1600s. Tea has become an important com-
mercial product throughout the world with annual
production of 2,610,569 metric tons in 1996 (Fig-
ure I). 4 A comprehensive overview of the history
and agriculture of tea is available in "Tea: Cultiva-
tion to Consumption".5
The distinctive color, flavor, and aroma of tea
result from chemical changes that occur during leaf
processing. Tea leaf contains flavonoids and methyl-
xanthines (Table 2), unique bioactive compounds
as cancer and cardiovascular disease. The physio-
logical activity of tea flavonoids is in part due to
antioxidant function characterized by redox chem-
istry and the ability to scavenge reactive oxygen
species (ROS). The bioactivity of flavonoids also
appears to be mediated by nonantioxidant mecha-
nisms such as modulation of signal transduction
pathways,6 proliferation at Gl phase of the cell
cycle,7 and the immune response.8 However, the
mechanisms of tea bioactivity and their relevance
to human health remain to be established.
II. COMPOSITION OF FRESH TEA
AND BIOSYNTHESIS
OF TEA FLAVONOIDS
Flavonoids are 2-phenyl benzopyran (Figure 2)-
based compounds that are subdivided into six class-

TABLE 1
Traditional Health Claims for Tea

Traditional claims Possible scientific basis

Improved blood flow Vassodialation and decrease platelet activity

Elimination of alcohol and toxins Increased activity of phase I and phase II enzymes
Clear urine and improve flow Diuretic effects
Relieves joint pain Antiinflammatory activity
Improved resistance to diseases Prevention of cancer and coronary heart disease

Adapted from Ref. 2.

1040-8398/97/$.50
© 1997 by CRC Press LLC
693
 <D
4
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CIS(Former USSR)
BpS— 8,000

Turkey " " " * ^ 1

114,540 Japan
\ 88,709
South America^
56,500 " * ^ ^ China
/ / \ 593,386
-
Kenya *~~ X / - \
Bangladesh \ \
257,162 Sri Lanka 55,129 • \
India 258,427 Indonesia Australia and
779,996 144,000 Papua New Ginea
8,100

FIGURE 1. World tea production 1996 (metric tons).

 TABLE 2 (-)-epigallocatechin and (-)-epigallocatechin gal-
Composition of the Tea Leaf late (Figure 3), colorless, water-soluble compounds
that contribute bitterness and astringency to green
Component Percentage of tea. Flavonols such as quercetin, kaempferol, my-
dry weight
ricitin, and their glycosides, which are character-
Flavanols 25.0 ized by a 4-oxo 3-hydroxy C ring, are found in tea
Flavonols and flavonol glycosides 3.0 (Figure 4). Flavonol glycosides make up 2 to 3%
Phenolic acids and depsides 5.0 of the water-soluble extract solids of tea. The fla-
Other polyphenols 3.0 vonol aglycones are not found in significant quan-
Caffeine 3.0 tities in tea beverage due to their poor solubility
Theobromine 0.2
Amino acids 4.0
in water.9-10
Organic acids 0.5
Monosaccharides 4.0
Polysaccharides 13.0
Cellulose 7.0 OH
Protein 15.0
Lignin 6.0
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Lipids 3.0
Chlorophyll and other pigments 0.5
Ash 5.0
Volatiles 0.1

Adapted from Refs. 9, 10, 16.g

FIGURE 3. Major tea catechins.

es: flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavonols, fla-
vanols, and anthocyanins.
Flavanols and flavonols, the main classes found
in tea, are 30% of the dry weight of fresh leaf. Cat- Epicatechin EC H H
Epicatechin gallate ECG Gallate H
echins (flavan-3-ols), the predominate form, are char-
Epigallocatechin EGC H OH
acterized by di- or tri-hydroxyl group substitution Epigallocatechin gallate EGCG Gallate OH
of the B ring and the meta-5,7-dihydroxy substitu-
tion of the A ring. Fresh tea leaf contains four major
catechins: (-)-epicatechin, (-)-epicatechin gallate,

OGlycoside
5' OH O
1
6
FIGURE 4. Major tea flavonols.

5 4
Kaempferol glycoside KaG H H
FIGURE 2. Basic flavonoid structure (2-phenyl Quercitin glycoside QuG OH H
benzopyran). Myricitin glycoside MyG OH OH

695
 A. Biosynthesis of Tea Flavonoids
The pathways for the de novo biosynthesis of
flavonoids in both soft and woody plants have been
elucidated and reviewed in detail.11 Flavonoids are
formed from condensation reactions of cinnamic
acids and acetic acid. Involved with the biosynthe-
sis of tea flavonoids are the enzymes of the shiki-
mate/arogenate pathway, especially 5-dehydroshUri-
mate reductase, a key regulatory enzyme. Cinnamic
acid biosynthesis is controlled by phenylalanine
ammonia lyase. The regulation of flavonoid bio-
synthesis in tea has not been well characterized.
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B. Methylxanthines
Tea leaf contains 2.5 to 4.0% caffeine (dry weight
basis) and much smaller quantities of the related
methylxanthine theobromine. Theophylline has been
reported as a tea constituent;12 however, it has not
been detected in tea beverage using current analyt-
ical techniques13 and is not formed by the biosyn-
thetic pathway for methylxanthines in tea.14 A
180 ml serving (6 ounces) of tea contains -60 mg
of caffeine, compared with —100 mg of caffeine in
a 180-ml serving of freshly brewed coffee. Black,
green, and oolong tea beverages contain about the
same amount of caffeine when prepared using the
same amount of leaves. The amount of caffeine in
tea beverage is determined by the brewing condi-
tions of time, temperature, leaf size, and amount of
tea. Decaffeinated teas are available and contain
less than 5 mg of caffeine in a 180-ml serving.
C. Minor Phenolic Compounds
and Minerals
Tea beverage contains phenolic acids, gallic
acid, and its quinic acid ester theogallin that are
easily detected by HPLC.15 Potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium, and aluminum are the predominant miner-
als found in the ash (10 to 15% w/w) portion of the
water-soluble extract solids of tea.16-17 Tea beverage
is a significant source of fluoride at - 1 mg/serving.
696
Proteins and Amino Acids
Tea beverage is —17% w/w nitrogenous ma-
terials as protein (-6% w/w) and amino and nucleic
acids (-1.0% w/w). Theanine (y-n-ethyl glutamine)
(-3% w/w) is one of the 19 amino acids in green
and black tea16-18 and is unique to tea. Amino acid
degradation is involved with biogenesis of aroma.
The distinctive flavor of Japanese green tea is in
part due to amino acids.
E. Enzymes
The enzymes most important to the chemistry
and manufacturing of tea are those responsible for
the biosynthesis of tea flavonoids and those in-
volved in the conversion of fresh leaf into manu-
factured commercial teas.
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) (EC 1.14.18.1;
monophenol monooxygenase [tyrosinase] or EC
1.10.3.2; O-diphenol: O2 oxidoreductase) is one
of the more important enzymes involved with the
formation of black tea polyphenols.16-19 The en-
zyme is a metallo-protein thought to contain a bi-
nuclear copper active site. Reviews of PPO are avail-
able.19-21 Tea PPO reacts effectively with both 3'
to 4' and 3' to 4' to 5-hydroxylated catechins with
specificity for the o-diphenol. PPO has good func-
tionality in the pH range 4.6 to 5.6.9
Peroxidase (POD) (EC 1.11.1.7) is found in
fresh green leaf.22-23 It is a haemin-based enzyme
that catalyzes the reductive decomposition of hy-
drogen peroxide to water and organic peroxide
species to the corresponding alcohol. PPO is
thought to produce peroxide, which activates the
POD system. However, catalase is quite active in
tea and rapidly removes peroxides as they form,
thereby limiting the role of POD in fermentation
reactions.9-10
F. Analytical Methods
Methods are available to quantify many fla-
vonoid phytochemicals in vegetables, fruit,24 and
teas.25
 The total polyphenolic content of teas and other
polyphenol-rich foods is best estimated using colori-
metric techniques such as the Folin-Denis or Pruss-
ian Blue assays that are based on redox reactions
mostly specific to phenolic groups.26 These nonspe-
cific methods are useful for estimating the amounts
of undefined polyphenols in tea beverage.
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLQ
techniques typically use reverse-phase C-18 meth-
ods based on a gradient of acetonitrile and water to
quantify the flavonoids in tea. These methods often
permit the simultaneous determination of flavonoids
and caffeine. Accurate HPLC methods for analy-
sis of catechins,25-27 the flavonols—either as glyco-
sides28 or hydrolyzed into free form,29 the theafla-
vins25 and caffeine30 — are available. Gallic acid,
theogallin, and the chlorogenic acids31 can also be
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analyzed using HPLC methods. Methods are also
available to estimate the level of catechins32-33 and
total catechins34 in biological fluids.
Quantitative analysis of the undefined condensed
flavonoids in black tea is not currently possible.
One useful method of estimating the undefined poly-
phenols in tea is to express these constituents as the
difference between known polyphenols determined
through quantitative methods such as HPLC and the
total polyphenols estimated using the Folin-Denis
or Prussian Blues assays. The latter assays can be
made more quantitative if defined polyphenolic mix-
tures from tea are used as standards in lieu of gallic
acid.
III. MANUFACTURING
Freshly harvested tea leaves require manufac-
turing to be converted into green, oolong, and black
teas (Figure 5). Green tea is processed in a man-
ner designed to prevent the enzymatic oxidation
of catechins. Green tea consumption is increasing
worldwide, but Japan, the People's Republic of
China, North Africa, and the Middle East are tradi-
tionally the sites of greatest consumption. Oolong
tea is partially oxidized tea manufactured primarily
in the People's Republic of China and Taiwan. Black
tea is the dominantly manufactured tea product world-
wide made through a polyphenol oxidase-catalyzed
oxidation of fresh leaf catechins. Detailed reviews
of the manufacturing of tea are available.5-9
A. Chemistry of Tea Fermentation:
Oxidation
Chemical reactions during the manufacture of
green, oolong, and black teas are responsible for
the development of their respective colors and fla-
vors. During tea fermentation the colorless catechins
of green tea are converted to a range of products of
orange-yellow to red-brown color through a series of
oxidative condensation reactions and numerous vola-
tile flavor constituents are formed. These changes are
reflected in the red-amber color, reduced astringency,
and more complex flavor of black tea beverage.9-35
B. Flavanol Oxidation
The fermentation process is initiated by the
oxidation of catechins to reactive quinones, a pro-
cess catalyzed by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase.
While the gallocatechins, epigallocatechin, and epi-
gallocatechin gallate are preferred, polyphenol oxi-
dase can use any catechin as a substrate to form the
complex polyphenolic constituents found in black
and oolong teas.9-35
C. Theaflavins (TFs)
Theaflavins are a well-defined group of flavo-
noid biopolymers produced through fermentation.
Exhibiting a bright orange-red color in solution,
they are important contributors of "brightness" and
astringency, desirable attributes of tea beverage.36
Common to black tea are four main TFs that
vary in degree of gallation and several minor TFs,
including the isotheaflavins and neotheaflavins (Fig-
ure 6).10-35 The total TF content of black tea leaves
does not usually exceed 2% and can be as low as
0.3%. TF content can be readily determined by di-
rect HPLC analysis of tea beverages.25 The quantity
of TFs in black tea beverage is about one third the
level of remaining catechins.
D. Theaflavic Acids and Theaflagallins
Gallic acid (GA) is not directly oxidized by
polyphenol oxidase but can be directly oxidized
697
 O)

00
Fresh Leaf

\
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iijiii iiiiiii iiliiiiSHi

iiiiiii iiiiiii::: ill iiiiiii iijl:
::::
iiiiiii iiiiiii:::
iiiiiti iiiiiiiii!
III ::::;:;
iiiiiii
i• •ilii:; ii:
pPr.: ::::
:;::
iiiiiii ill iiiiiii ..;:i:i::::::ii:tt: :i:i:ii:iiii iiiiiii!:
I::::::!::::::::::::::: "•ii:i;;:S!
iiiiiii ii:::::::; iii iijiii: !::: .;::::::..
I:-;:::-::-:!::::!::::: ;:::::;::;
::::::;:::::;::::t:::;:

Green Tea Oolong Tea Black Tea

FIGURE 5. Tea manufacturing process.

 OH
OR, OH

OH
HOOC
O

OH

FIGURE 6. Theaflavins.
Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 09:25 16 June 2012

R2

Theaflavin TF H H
Theaflavin 3-gallate TF3G Gallate H ''•OH OH
Theaflavin 3'-gallate TF3'G H Gallate
Theaflavin 3,3'-digallate TFDG Gallate Gallate OH

FIGURE 7. Epitheaflavlc acid and Epitheaflagallin.

to a gallic acid quinone.9'35 GA reacts with cat-
echin quinones to form a group of compounds called
theaflavic acids or with gallocatechin quinones to
form theaflagallins such as epitheaflagallin (Fig-
ure 7).37 The theaflavic acids are bright red, acidic
substances present only in small quantities in black
tea.35
E. Bisflavanols (Theasinensins)
The paired condensation of two gallocatechins
form a group of colorless substances called bisfla-
vanols (Figure 8).10-35 Reclassified as theasinesins38
and found in green and oolong teas,39 bisflavonols
are reactive compounds and are thought to rearrange
to form other undefined black tea flavonoids.
F. Condensed Tea Flavonoids
Catechins are reduced by ~85% during black
tea manufacturing, yet only ~10% can be account-
ed for as theaflavins and theaflavic acids. The bal-
ance of catechins form undefined, water-soluble
polyphenolic substances thought to be the brown
to black pigments of tea. These compounds have
historically been termed "thearubigens", based on
the early work of Roberts.935 One subgroup of these
undefined flavonoids has been classified as proan-
thocyandin polymers and form cyanidin and del-
phinidin on acid hydrolysis.16 Recent attempts to
separate and purify the condensed flavonoids via
chromatography and reverse phase HPLC have not
led to further elucidation of these flavonoid conden-
sation products.40-41 Black tea fractions defined as
theafulvin40 and oolongtheanin39 have been isolated.
G. Consumption and Composition
of Tea Beverage
Hot black tea is most commonly consumed
worldwide. Iced tea, however, accounts for 80% of
tea consumption in the U.S. Tea is usually pre-
pared from tea bags infused in hot water in a pro-
portion of 1 g leaf to 100 ml water. The resulting

699
 TABLE 3
Principal Components of Green and Black
Tea Beverages (% wt/wt Solids)

Flavonoid Green tea Black t

Catechins 30-42 3-10

Theaflavins 2-6
Simple polyphenols 2 3
Flavonols 2 1
Other polyphenols 6 23
Theanine 3 3
Amino acids 3 3
Peptides/protein 6 6
Organic acids 2 2
Sugars 7 7
Other carbohydrates 4 4
Caffeine 3-6 3-6
Potassium 5 5
Other minerals/ash 5-8 5-8
Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 09:25 16 June 2012

Adapted from Refs. 9, 10, 16.

0 H nisms, including delocalization of electrons, for-

OGallate]
OH OH
FIGURE 8. Bisflavonol A, or Theasinensin A
and Theassinensin F.
beverage typically has a solids concentration of
~O.35% for a 3-min brew. A typical tea beverage
contains 2500 to 3500 ppm solids. Black and green
tea beverages contain different polyphenols con-
stituents due to the changes that occur during man-
ufacturing (Table 3).
Green tea is most commonly used in Asia, espe-
cially in Japan and China. The numerous reports of
health benefits associated with green tea drinking
have increased the awareness of green tea in the U.S.
Sugar, lemon, herbs, fruit flavors, and spices
are commonly added to tea beverages as flavoring
agents.
IV. REDOX PROPERTIES OF TEA
ANTIOXIDANTS
Catechins and flavonols scavenge ROS and
free radicals42-43 through several proposed media-
mation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds,44 and re-
arrangement of their molecular structure.45-46 These
tea polyphenols may also prevent oxidative reac-
tions by chelating free copper and iron, which may
catalyze formation of ROS in vivo.47'49 The redox
chemistry of tea flavonoids provides a chemical
basis for describing chemical reactivitiy as an elec-
tron donor and, thus, antioxidant functionality.
The structural features thought to be responsible
for flavonoid antioxidant activity are an o-dihydroxy
catechol (3',4'-OH) arrangement on the B ring, ei-
ther di- or tri-hydroxy-substituted catechins or fla-
vonols, and the C2-C3 double bond in the C ring
conjugated with a C4 carbonyl group found in fla-
vonols.44-50-51 Antioxidant function is also thought
to be promoted by C5, C7 dihydroxylation on the
A ring.52 The antioxidant activity of catechins' is
determined by the B ring catechol structure and is
further enhanced in gallocatechins by the 5' hy-
droxy group on the B ring.
The reduction potential of a compound pro-
vides an estimate of the energy required to donate
an electron; the lower the reduction potential, the
less energy required to donate an electron and the
higher the expected antioxidant activity. The reduc-
tion potentials of catechins, gallocatechins, querce-
tin, and rutin for donation of a single electron were

700
 determined using differential pulse voltammetry with
reference to a saturated calomel electrode (SCE).
The measurements were made at 20°C and pH 6.15
using 1 xaM aqueous solutions of the catechins and
gallocatechins and 0.5 mM solutions of quercetin
and rutin in 50% methanol (Table 4). Gallocatechins
had lower redox potentials than the simple catechins.
The 5'-OH group in the B ring of the gallocatechins
is thought to allow for easier electron donation and
thus better antioxidant activity.
Comparison of the redox potentials of catechins
and catechin gallates demonstrates that introduction
of a gallate ester into the B ring of the catechin
molecule increases the energy required for electron
donation. The redox potential of EGC was lower
than that of EGCG (0.09 V vs. 0.14 V). Differenc-
es in redox potential between the catechin and epi-
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catechins were also observed with all epi forms
having significantly lower values. The difference
was most evident between EGC and GC, which have
redox values of 0.09 V and 0.13 V, respectively.
The redox potentials of the simple catechins, EC,
C, and EGC were similar. The redox potential of
quercetin was similar to the non-gallated epicat-
echins, while the quercetin glycoside rutin has a
redox potential higher than the catechin gallates.
The redox potentials do not fully predict the rank-
ing of these flavonoids as antioxidants in biologi-
cally based systems.42-53154 Other mechanisms im-
portant to determination of overall antioxidant
functionality are delocalization of electrons, forma-
tion of intramolecular hydrogen bonds,44 rearrange-
TABLE 4
Redox Potentials of Catechins, Gallocatechins, Quercetin,
and Rutin
Component
Epigallocatechin (EGC)
Quercetin (Q)
Gallocatechin (GC)
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)
Gallocatechin gallate (GCG)
Epicatechin (EC)
Epicatechin gallate (ECG)
Catechin (C)
Rutin (R)
Gallic acid (GA)
ment of molecular structure,4546 reactivity with
other antioxdants, and chain termination events.
The redox potential of catechins and gallocat-
echins was also determined using pulse radiolysis
relative to the hydrogen electrode (NHE) at pH
7.43 All values relative to the NHE electrode have
been corrected to the equivalent SCE value by sub-
tracting a factor of 0.19 V to allow for comparison
of results. The same ranking of catechin redox poten-
tial was found using both methods, but the values
found relative to the NHE electrode were clearly
higher (possibly due to differences in pH): EGC
0.23 V, EGCG 0.24 V, C 0.38 V, and EC 0.38 V.
Determinations using the NHE show that EGC and
EGCG have lower redox potentials than the redox
standards Trolox (0.29 vs. SCE),55 rutin (0.41 vs.
SCE),45 and 4-methoxyphenol (0.55 v.s SCE).56
Due to the lower redox potential of the EGC and
EGCG radicals compared with the vitamin E radi-
cal (~D 0.06 V), it is feasible that electron transfer
from the gallocatechins to the vitamin E radical (i.e.,
regeneration of vitamin E) would occur in biolog-
ical systems. The gallocatechins are potentially rel-
evant biological antioxidants based on their redox
properties.
The redox potential of theaflavins have been
determined using both pulse voltammetry, with ref-
erence to a SCE, and pulse radiolysis, with refer-
ence to the NHE.57 At pH 6.15 relative to the SCE,
the first redox potentials of the theaflavins are the-
aflavin (TF) 0.16 V, theaflavin di-gallate (TFdG)
0.19 V, theaflavin-3'-gallate (TF3'-G) 0.19 V, and
1 st redox potential vs. SCE (V)
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.19
0.20
0.20
0.23
0.25
701
 theaflavin-3-gallate (TF3-G) 0.20 V; these values
are similar to those of simple catechins and higher
than those of the gallocatechins. The reduction poten-
tials of theaflavin radicals induced by pulse radioly-
sis in neutral media (E, vs. SCE) are: TF = 0.32V
and TFdG = 0.35V;57 these values are higher than
those of the gallocatechins and Trolox. The redox
potentials of the theaflavins were similar, although
gallate esterification tended to increase the redox
value. TF had the lowest first reduction potential;
however, the TF gallates have higher antioxidant
activity than TF in the lipid phase,48 demonstrat-
ing that redox potential is not a perfect indicator
of antioxidant activity.
Reduction potentials of the tea flavonoid radi-
cals are also lower than those of the alkylperoxyl
(E? = 0.86 V vs. SCE)58 and superoxide (E, = 0.75
Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 09:25 16 June 2012
vs. SCE)59 radicals and therefore have the potential
to neutralize these reactive species based on redox
properties. A good quantitative correlation was not
observed between the redox potential and ability
to inhibit lipid peroxidation,44 but a good qualita-
tive relationship was found. Flavonoid compounds
with reduction potentials up to 0.2 V (vs. SCE)
possess good antioxidant activity and flavonoids
with higher values are moderate antioxidants. Com-
pounds that could not be oxidized at 1 V are very
weak or even inactive antioxidants. Flavonoids with
redox potentials less than 0.06 V are able to redox
cycle under physiological conditions60 and are po-
tentially prooxidant. None of the tea catechins dem-
onstrated such a low reduction potential, although
Hodnick et al. determined the redox potential of
quercetin to be 0.06 V.
A. Protein Binding
Flavonoids readily bind to proteins through hy-
drophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding.61 At
high in vitro concentrations, tea flavonoids bind to
proline-rich proteins and can readily inhibit enzy-
matic activity accounting for many of the report-
ed effects of tea on enzyme inhibition. However,
at low concentrations binding of flavonoids to pro-
teins appears to be more specific and may involve
receptor sites, and chemical structures suggest that
tea flavonoids can function specifically modulate
receptors, enzymes, or regulatory proteins in vivo.
702
Tea flavonoids are competitive inhibitors of micro-
somal glucuronidase,62 slow cell proliferation through
modulation of API activation,6 and decrease growth
of tumors cell lines at the Gl phase of the cell cycle.7
These properties of tea flavonoids suggest that the
physiological effects of tea on processes involved
with chronic diseases such as cancer and coronary
heart disease involve more than simple antioxidant
mechanisms. A better understanding of the physi-
ological effects of tea and potential mechanisms
requires much more research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Michael Albano for his edi-
torial and technical assistance in the preparation of
this manuscript.
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3. Segal, M. 1996. Tea: a story of serendipity. FDA Con-
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4. International Tea Committee Ltd. 1996. Supplement to
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