CELL BEGINNING

King Charles II of England

● Commissioned a microscopic examination of the natural world in 1661. The focus of the
royal interest at that time was on insect anatomy

How and why did King Charles II commissioned a microscopic examination of the natural
world?
● Because he is the sponsor of the Royal Society of London, now the Royal Society for
Improving Natural Knowledge, a learned society and the United Kingdom’s national
academy of sciences
● He was very interested in science that he liked the images of microscopic creatures that
Sir Christopher Wren had given to him and asked for more. This is the reason why he
commissioned a microscopic examination of the natural world
● In order to win favor with King Charles II, the royal patron of the Royal Society, the
Society decided to publish a book showcasing the exciting microscopic science that was
starting to be explored. But sir Wren was too busy with other projects so he asked
Robert Hooke to do it instead. The result of Hooke’s efforts was a beautiful illustrated
volume, worthy of a king, the Micrographia published in 1665
● Hooke’s most commemorative work came from a thin slice of cork from the bark of an
oak tree. He describes it as having a perforated and porous surface like a honeycomb.
He called these porous structures as cellulae, using the latin word for a small room
because it reminded him of the empty barren rooms, where monks spent most of their
life

Robert Hooke
● Hooke was the first to be credited in publishing of seeing a cell in 1666, but he
cannot fully define what he saw
● Today modern biologists regard cells as the basic structural unit of every life form.
However, those hollow chambers drawn by Hooke were actually not living. They were
just the walls left behind the plant cells that already have died

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

● A dutch naturalist, was credited to be the 1st to study magnified cells. His interest
came when he got to hold of a copy of Hooke’s Micrographia,and from then on, devised
his own microscope to study biological specimens
● Through his crude microscope. He discovered living creatures in the pond water.
Though he did not use the word “cell”, he gave the name animalcules. Meaning little
animals, because he saw them moving around in the pond
● Because of his ability to see microscopic cells through his invention of the microscope,
he was the first to observe living cells
CELL THEORY

The cell theory

● Hooke’s discovery about the cell from a dead cork did not create an immediate impact
during his time. Hooke and Leeuwenhoek continued to make observations nevertheless.
But it had taken 200 more years before it became generally accepted that all living
things are made of cells, which can reproduce themselves to perpetuate life

The 3 postulates

Matthias Jakob Schleiden

● 1838
● Focused interes in the study of plants
● All organisms are composed of one or more cells

Theodor Schwann
● 1839
● Examined animal cells
● Cells are the smallest and basic units of structure and function in organisms

Rudolf Carl Virchew

● 1858
● Proposed the 3rd tenet in the cell theory
● Pre existing cells produce other cells
● Cells arise only from previously existing cell (omnis cellula-e cellula)

The three postulates of the cell theory explained

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Every person is made of trillions of animal cells

A. Endomembrane System
a. The endomembrane system (endo=”within”) is a group of membranes and
organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package and
transport lipids and proteins

B. Lipids
a. Are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that are souluble in organic solvents and
insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Lipids include fats and oils
(triglycerides) phospholipids

C. Compounds
a. A material formed by chemically bonding 2 or more chemical elements. The
type of bond keeping elements in a compound together may vary: covalent
bonds and ionic bonds are 2 common types.

CELL STRUCTURES FOR PROTECTION

A. Plasma membrane or Cell membrane
a. Completely surround cells separating them from their environment
b. Semi permeable or selectively permeable. Acts as barrier regulating what gets in
and out of the cells
c. Made of double layered phospholipid molecules composed of: phosphate,
glycerol, and 2 fatty acids
d. The head composed of phosphate and glycerol - they are hydrophilic
(attracted to water) - polar (have charge)
e. The tail composed of the 2 fatty acids - they are hydrophilic (repel water) - do
not have charge
f. Carbohydrates
i. Involved in cell identification. Blood types for example, are the result of
membrane carbohydrates attached to proteins
g. Cholesterol
i. Help strengthen the cell membrane, making it more flexible but less
fluid, which makes the membrane less permeable to water-soluble
substances
h. Proteins
i. Its most important function is to transport materials across the
membrane especially materials having a hard time passing through the
phospholipid layer
i. Fluid mosaic model
 i. The membrane’s flexibility is attributed to the phospholipids ability to
move side to side and slide past each other within each layer, and the
variety of different textures and patterns making up a mosaic.
B. Cell wall
a. Surrounds the cell membrane in plant cell
b. Rigid layer that gives protection from insects and pathogens, prevent loss of
water, prevent overexpansion of the cell caused by too much water, rigid support
and shape to the cell
C. Cytoplasm
a. Jell-like fluid found in cells and where the organelles are suspended
b. The fluid of the cytoplasm is called cytosol
c. Along with the cytoskeleton, the cytoplasm helps give the cell its shape
d. Important molecules are dissolved in the cytoplasm: enzymes, glucose, fatty
acids, sugars, amino acids that are used to keep the cell working. And water acts
as a natural solvent. This suggest that water is necessary for maintaining cell
structure

GENETIC CONTROL ORGANELLES

A. Nucleus
a. The storehouse of genetic information in the form of DNA inside the cells
b. The nucleus is the control center of the cell; it also houses the genetic
information
c. The DNA is a long chain of molecule, which can be segmented into portions
called genes that contain instructions for making proteins
d. The DNA is packaged by a special group of proteins called histones, forming a
complex structure called chromatin. The chromatin further condense (become
compact) to form tightly coiled structures referred to as chromosomes
e. The structure of the nucleus facilitates the protein accessing the DNA at a certain
times through a special membrane called nuclear envelope that encloses the
DNA
f. The nuclear envelope is filled with holes called nuclear pores that allow
large molecules to pass between the nucleus and cytoplasm
g. The nucleus also has nucleolus, a spherical structure whose primary function
is to produce and assemble the cell’s ribosomes
h. Ribosomes
i. are small organelles essential for making proteins
ii. After the ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus, they pass through the
nuclear pores into the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs.

MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION AND BREAKDOWN ORGANELLES

A. Endoplasmic reticulum
 a. Are arranged like a maze of enclosed spaces with many creases and folds.
The interior of this maze is called its lumen. The lumen and its surfaces are the
sites for many processes such as the production of proteins and lipids
b. In some regions of the ER, it is dotted with ribosomes that join amino acids
together to form proteins. The surface of the Er covered by ribosomes is called
rough endoplasmic reticulum because of the bumpy look under the
microscope
c. Surfaces of the ER that are not studded with ribosomes are called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth ER is responsible for the production of
lipids and performance of other specialized functions, such as breaking
down drugs and alcohol. Large amount of SER are found in liver cells
B. Golgi apparatus
a. From the ER, processed proteins are transported into layered stacks of
membrane-enclosed spaces called Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex where
proteins are processed, sorted and delivered. It has enzymes that further modify
the proteins
C. Vesicles
a. After a protein has been manufactured, part of the ER pinches off to form
small, membrane-bound sacs called vesicles enclosing the protein. The
protein being protected by the vesicle can now be transported to the golgi
apparatus, where further modifications can be made
b. A new vesicle will again formed at the end of the golgi apparatus for storage,
transport or secretion
D. Vacuoles
a. A vacuole is a fluid-filled sac for the storage of the materials needed by the
cell that includes water, food, molecules, inorganic ions, and enzymes
b. Most animal cells contain many small vacuoles, while plants have a central
vacuole that is uniquely only to them.
E. Lysosomes
a. Are round-shape, membrane-bound structures containing chemicals that
can break down materials in the cell. They contains powerful enzymes, known
as lysozyme, which can defend a cell from invading bacteria and viruses
F. Peroxisomes
a. Similar to lysosomes, peroxisomes also exist as small vesicles around the
cell. They are surrounded by a single membrane, containing digestive
enzymes for breaking down toxic materials

ENERGY PROCESSING ORGANELLES

A. Mitochondria
a. Supply energy to the cell. They are bean-shaped and have 2 membranes.
Within these inner folds and compartments, a series of chemical reactions
converts molecules from the food you eat into usable energy
 B. Chloroplasts
a. Is a plastid. Or pivotal (important) subcellular organelles that have evolved
to perform specialized functions in plant cells, including photosynthesis and
the production and storage of metabolites
b. They carry out photosynthesis, which is a series of complex chemical reactions
that transform solar energy into energy-rich molecules the cell can use
c. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are highly compartmentalized. They have both
an outer and inner membrane
d. Thylakoids
i. are the sacs in the chloroplast membrane. Thylakoids contain
chlorophyll, a light-absorbing molecule that gives plants their green color
and plays a role in photosynthesis. The thylakoids are organized into a
stack called garnum. Stroma is the liquid portion of the chloroplast
e. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own ribosomes and DNA.w both
are present in plant cells, where they work together to capture and convert
energy

ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND COMMUNICATION

BETWEEN CELLS

A. Centrosome and centrioles

a. A centrosome is an organelle that consists of 2 centrioles. A centriole is a
structure made of microtubule proteins arranged in a particular way. A
centriole is always smaller than a centrosome and also forms flagella and
cilia. Both centrosomes and centrioles are found in animal cells and some
protists.
B. Cilia and flagella
a. Cilia and flagella are 2 locomotory projections in eukaryotes. They allow the
cell to move like an oar or whip
b. Cilia
i. Look like a little hairs with much shorter length and move with
coordinated fashion like the motion of oars in a rowing team
c. Flagella
i. On the other hand, look like a whip or a tail
C. Cytoskeletons
a. Removing the cell membrane will not cause the cell to collapse and ooze out its
content. The answer to this lies in the presence of its flexible network of
framework called cytoskeletons
b. It is made up of a small protein subunit, forming long threads of fibers that
can crisscross the entire cell, thus, providing sturdy mechanical support
c. There are 3 flexible networks of proteins that provide structural support to the
cell with specific range of functions: microtubules, intermediate filaments and
microfilaments
d. Microtubules
 i. Lengthy and the thickest among the filaments
ii. Give the cell shape and serve as anchorage for the membrane-bound
organelles
iii. Serve as tracks for the movement of vesicles and other cell components
iv. Involved in mitosis and form whiplike flagellum
e. Intermediate filaments
i. Smaller than microtubules and ropelike in appearance
ii. Give the cell tensile strength and the ability to stretch without breaking
apart
iii. Prominently present in skin cells and other body sites subject to
mechanical stress
iv. Ensures the strength of claws hairs, and feathers of animals
f. Microfilaments
i. The thinnest among 3 and also known as actin filaments
ii. They are flexible filaments that provide protective meshwork under
the plasma membrane
iii. Important particularly in cell movement, as they allow muscles to contract
and relax
D. Cell surfaces and junctions
a. Cells do not live solitary lives and usually work as part of a larger goal-forming
tissues. In fact, all cells are joined together by structures called junctions.
b. Plasmodesmata (singular=plasmodesma) are small channels that directly
connect to the cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing
living bridges between cells
c. Extracellular matrix
i. Acts as a glue to bind the cells together in tissues and provide
mechanical strength