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“School of the Future”

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SCIENCE 7-10

Definition of Science
I.
Science - comes from the Latin word ‘scientia’, which means 'knowledge'.
- is a way of obtaining knowledge about nature through systematic experimentation and
methodology. The search for truth and knowledge.
II. Nature of Science
● Science as a Product
Science is a systematized body of knowledge gained through the accumulation of facts,
concepts, theories and laws as well as advancements in technology.
● Science as a Process
Science process skills are the foundations of problem solving in science and the
scientific method. The logical way in which scientist solves a problem is referred to
as the scientific method.
● Science as a Way of Thinking
Science as a way of thinking is focused on discovering the truth about nature.
It means:
o Logical reasoning based on sound observations
o Critical analysis of data
o Empirical testing of ideas to obtain a reliable body of knowledge

product

process way of thinking

Sci
Science Process Skills
ence
● Science process skills govern the conduct of scientific investigation. It includes the basic and integrated
process skills, which are needed to gather and analyze information.
1. Basic Science Process Skills
o Observing - it means using your senses to find out about objects and events.
o Inferring – it means interpreting or explaining observations and formulating assumptions based
on observations.
o Measuring - it involves using proper measuring devices and techniques to describe
specific dimensions of an object or event.
o Classifying - it involves grouping or ordering objects or events according to
similarities or differences in properties or other defined criteria.
o Predicting – it involves forming an idea of the most likely outcome or expected
result based on present knowledge and understanding, observations and inferences.
o Communicating - it means transmitting information and ideas to others through written
or spoken words, symbols, or graphics.
o Using number relationships - it requires applying mathematics to show the relationship
between quantities.

2. Integrated Science Process Skills

o Making models - it means constructing a mental, verbal, or physical representation of
ideas, objects, or events to clarify explanations or show relationships.
o Collecting data – it involves systematically acquiring and recording information
(qualitative or quantitative data) about observations and measurements.
o Formulating hypothesis - it involves making an educated guess or proposing a solution
based on evidence that can be tested through experimentation.
o Interpreting data – it means organizing, analyzing, and synthesizing data using tables,
graphs, charts, and diagrams to find a pattern as the basis for inferences, predictions, and

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 formulation of a hypothesis. In interpreting data, two basic processes are combined: Using
numbers and Drawing conclusions
o Defining operationally – it involves creating a definition by describing what is done and
observed
o Identifying and controlling variables - it means identifying the factors that can affect
an experiment and manipulating only one factor at a time to find the outcome while the
other factors are held constant.
o Experimenting – it means designing and conducting an experiment to test the hypothesis.
The procedure should allow verification by repetition or replication.

● Scientific Attitudes
A person must possess certain attitudes to be successful in making scientific investigations.
1. Curiosity - it implies a desire to learn. A curious person constantly asks questions about the world
around him/her.
2. Objectivity – it means being able to distinguish true observations from hearsay. An objective
person is free from personal prejudices or biases.
3. Open-mindedness – it is the ability to accept new ideas and information. An open-minded
person is adaptable and flexible.
4. Perseverance - it is the ability to continue to work inspite of many obstacles. It involves
determination to finish one’s work.
5. Humility - it means being free of arrogance and pride.
6. Ability to accept failure - to a scientist, failure may actually be a kind of success. Failing in
one’s work may lead a scientist to find a new way to resolve a problem.
7. Skepticism – it is the ability to question the validity and authenticity of something considered
factual.
8. Scientific Method
Scientific method is a logical and rational order of steps of answering questions about the world
around us.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question/ identify a problem.
3. Gather information.
4. Formulate a hypothesis.
5. Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment.
6. Analyze data and draw a conclusion
7. Communicate results

III. Branches of Science

● Two Branches of Science
1. Social Science - is concerned with the study of social life of human groups and individuals.
- Sub-branches: anthropology, economics, education, geography, history, law, etc.

2. Natural Science - deals with the study of natural phenomena (including biological life).
● Four Branches of Natural Science
1. Life Science (Biological Science)- comprises the branches of science that involve the
scientific study of living organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings
o Biology- is the study of life or living matter in all its forms.
o Anatomy- is the study of the structure of animals and plants.
o Botany- is the study of plants.
o Ecology- is the study of relations and interactions between organisms and their
environment, including other organisms.
o Zoology- is the science that covers animals and animal life.

2. Physical Science – is the study of physics and chemistry of nature.

o Chemistry – is the science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions,
and the structure of matter.
o Physics – is the study of matter, energy, and the interactions between them.
Physicists study such subjects as gravity, light, and time.

3. Earth Science - any of various sciences that deal with the earth/space, its composition, or

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 any of its changing aspects.
o Geology- is the study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the
physical, chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is
experiencing.
o Meteorology- is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and
climate
o Paleontology- is the study of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic
periods.
4. Astronomy - the study of celestial objects in the universe.
o Astrobiology- studies the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe.
o Astrophysics – a branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and
behavior.

CHEMISTRY
- is the science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the structure of matter.

● Common Laboratory Techniques

1. Heating a Substance in a Test Tube
⮚ Always use a test tube holder.
⮚ Always hold the test tube at an angle.
⮚ Never look down directly at the mouth of the test tube or point its mouth to anyone.
⮚ Distribute the heat at the bottom of the test tube by passing the flame up and down the sides
of the test tubes.
2. Measuring Volume
⮚ The volume of a liquid is measured using a graduated cylinder. A graduated cylinder is
marked in millimeters. You may find a graduated cylinder that measures small amounts
like 10mL or large amounts like 100mL.
⮚ In reading the volume of liquid in a graduated cylinder, place the setup on a flat surface.
At eye level, read the lower meniscus (Y).
⮚ A meniscus is the curve on the surface of a liquid.
3. Filtering
⮚ This method is used when separating solids to liquids. A solution is passed through a
filter paper. The clear liquid that filters through is called filtrate. The solid that
remains in the filter paper is called the residue.
4. Decanting
⮚ If a solid has settled at the bottom of the liquid, the liquid can be poured off leaving the
solid at the bottom of the vessel. This is called decanting.

Laboratory Safety Measures

Safety and environmental consciousness are paramount in doing laboratory activities.
Always consider your own, your co-workers’, and the environment’s safety. You are
encouraged to carry out the following practices:

1. Regard all substances as hazardous unless there is definite information stating the contrary.
2. Regard all waste disposals as a potential safety and environmental risk. Dispose of solid
and liquid wastes properly. Ask your teacher how.
3. Know all emergency and fire procedures.
4. Demonstrate efficient work practice by keeping your area clean and tidy.
5. Take care of all equipment and apparatus. Clean them after use.
6. Wear appropriate protective apparel such as gloves, gowns, laboratory coats, and / or special
clothing or footwear, and protective eye gadgets such as safety glasses and goggles.
7. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
8. Avoid working alone in the laboratory.
9. REMEMBER - Knowledge + Common sense + Caution = Safety
10. Become familiar with safety signs and symbol

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Systems of Measurement

1. The English System of Units

⮚ There are several systems of units, each containing units for properties such as length,
volume, weight, and time. In theEnglish system the units are defined in an arbitrary way.

Length: inch (in), foot (ft), yard (yd), mile (mi)

12 in = 1 ft 5280 ft = 1
mi
3 ft = 1 yd 1760 yd = 1
mi
Volume: fluid ounce (oz), cup (c), pint (pt), quart (qt), gallon
(gal)
2 c = 1 pt 32 oz = 1 qt
2 pt = 1 qt 4 qt = 1 gal
Weight: ounce (oz), pound (lb), ton
16 oz = 1 lb 2000 lb = 1
ton
Time: second (s), minute (min), hour (h), day (d), year (y)

60 s = 1 min 24 h = 1 d
60 min = 1 h 3651/4 d = 1
y

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 2. The Metric System
⮚ The Metric System is based on the fundamental units of measure for length, volume, and mass.
Length: meter
(m)
Volume liter (L)
:
Mass : gram (g)

Metric System Prefixes

Prefix Symbo Meaning
l
femto- f x 1/1,000,000,000,000,000
(10-15)
pico- p x 1/1,000,000,000,000 (10-
12
)
nano- n x 1/1,000,000,000 (10-9)
micro- x 1/1,000,000 (10-6)
milli- m x 1/1,000 (10-3)
centi- c x 1/100 (10-2)
deci- d x l/10(10-1)
kilo- k x 1,000 (103)
mega- M x 1,000,000 (106)
giga- G x 1,000,000,000 (109)
tera- T x 1,000,000,000,000 (1012)

The base units of length and volume are linked in the metric system. By definition, a
liter is equal to the volume of a cube exactly 10 cm tall, 10 cm long, and 10 cm wide. Because
the volume of this cube is 1000 cubic centimeters and a liter contains 1000 milliliters, 1
milliliter is equivalent to 1 cubic centimeter.
1 mL = 1cm3
The base units of volume and weight are also linked. The gram was originally defined as
the mass of 1 mL of water at 4 degrees Celsius.
1g = 1mL H2O at 4 C

3. SI Units of Measure
In 1960 the International System of Units was proposed as a replacement for the Metric
System. The seven base units for the SI system are given below.

SI Base Units

Physical Name of Symb

Quantity Unit ol
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
electric current Ampere D
amount of Mole mol
substance
luminous Candela Cd
intensity

4. Scientific Notation – is a way of representing very large and small numbers. It consists of two main
parts:
1. Coefficient –it is any decimal number that is greater than or equal to 1 but less than ten
- It must have one and only one digit in front of the decimal point. This is followed
by the multiplication sign.

2. Base – it is always 10, and the number to which it is raised to is called exponent.
- the exponent most of the time is a whole number but it could also be in fraction form
in other disciplines.

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 For example,
6. 02 x 1023
6.02–coefficient
10 – base
23- exponent
5. Significant Figures
Significant figures indicate the accuracy of a measurement. There are guidelines in
finding the number of significant figures:
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
For example, 12.3 units - 3 significant figures
2. Zeros present problems. They may be significant or nonsignificant.
o Zeros between two other significant digits are
significant Ex. 5. 048 g - 4 significant figures
o Zeros that precede the first nonzero digit and tell the location of the decimal point are not
Ex. 0.053 g - 2 significant figures
3. Zeros at the end of a number may or may not be significant.
o Zeros at the end of a number are significant if they are to the right of
the decimal point Ex. 0.609 0 ml - 4 significant figures,
000 cm - 1 significant figure,
000.0 L - 5 significant figures

Matter – is anything that occupies space and has mass.

can be categorized m
Compoun ay be
ds Homogeneo Heterogeneo
Eleme has three states us called has us may be
can be c
classified as Solid Suspension
a namely
n
Coll
Nonmeta b
oid
e
ls
cl
as
si
fi
e
d
as

Acids

B i separated thr
Solvent Solute
a q Physical means

s u

e i

s d

S G

a a

L s

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States of Matter
a. Solids
-Solids have definite shape and volume.
-They are structurally rigid and resist the change of shape or volume.
- They have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
- Unlike liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container.
-The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged in an orderly
repeating pattern (crystalline solid) or irregularly (amorphous solid).
b. Liquids
- Liquids have no definite shape but have a definite volume.
- They take up the shape of a container in which they are kept.
- As liquids flow, they change shape and they are not rigid.
- In liquid, particles move freely and the space between each particle is greater than that in solid
state.
- Pure substances that are liquid under normal conditions include water, ethanol, etc.
- Density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than that of a gas.
c. Gasses
- In the gaseous state, particles have no order of arrangement.
- Gasses have no definite shape.
- In the gaseous state, particles move randomly and hit the walls of the vessel and exert
pressure on the walls of the container.
- Gasses are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids.
- Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of gas can be compressed into a small
cylinder and transported easily.

❖ CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
a. Pure substance – have constant composition and can only be separated by chemical reactions

TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

1. Elements – are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or
physical means.
- is made up of only one kind of atom. Elements can be classified into:
✔ Metals – the physical properties of metals are
o Lustrous o Good conductors of heat and
o Ductile electricity
o Malleable o Has high melting point,
usually solid (except
mercury) at room
temperature
✔ Nonmetals – the physical properties of nonmetals are
o Not lustrous o Poor conductors of heat and
o Non ductile electricity
o Brittle o May be solids, liquids, or gasses at
room temperature
✔ Metalloids – have properties between metals and nonmetals.
o For example, silicon appears lustrous but not malleable or ductile. Silicon is a
poorer conductor of heat and electricity than metal. Germanium – is a lustrous
and brittle solid. It has a high melting point. Germanium and silicon like
arsenic, antimony, and tellurium are semiconductors.
o Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity lies intermediate
between conductor and insulator.
b. Compounds – are substances with constant composition that can be broken down into
elements by chemical processes. Compounds can be:
✔ Acids - is a compound that exhibits the following properties:
o tastes sour
o reacts with some metals
o changes blue litmus to red
o reacts with base to form salt
o reacts with some metals, produce hydrogen gas

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 ✔ Bases - is a compound that exhibits the following properties:
o has a bitter taste
o has a slippery and soapy feeling
o changes red litmus paper to blue
o reacts with acids to form salt
o very few reacts with metals
✔ Salts – it is the product when an acid and base are chemically combined.

* pH scale - is used to describe the acidity and basicity of a substance.

o The pH scales range from 0 to 14.
o A neutral solution has a pH equal to 7
o A pH lower than 7 indicates the solution is acidic.
o A pH higher than 7 means the solution is basic.

2. Mixture – it consists of two or more components that are not chemically combined and
are not in any fixed proportion.
- may separate components through physical means like freezing, boiling, starining,
decanting, filtering, dissolving in water or other liquid, or using magnetic field.

KINDS OF MIXTURE
Heterogeneous – it consists of components that are not uniformly distributed throughout
the mixture and has sharp boundaries.

✔ Suspension – a heterogeneous mixture consisting of solid particles that

remain momentarily suspended or dispersed throughout the
liquid phase.
- can able to show Tyndall Effect
✔ Colloid (Colloidal Dispersions)
– it is a solution that has particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometers in
diameter, yet is still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the solution.
- may appear homogeneous but are actually heterogeneous.
- do show Tyndall Effect

*TYNDALL EFFECT – is seen when a mixture makes a beam of light visible

Homogeneous – it consists of components that are spread out uniformly and looks
similar throughout the mixture.
- exhibits only one phase.
✔ Solution – a homogeneous mixture consisting of solute and solvent.
✔ Solvent – it is generally the component in a mixture that is present in larger amounts.
It determines the physical state of solution.
-these are the substance that does the dissolving
✔ Solute – it is generally the component in a mixture that is present in a smaller amount.
It may also be the component that dissolves in a solvent.
- are the substance that are being dissolve
Methods of separating components of solutions
o Distillation – is a process of separating a mixture by differences in boiling point.
o Filtration – is a process of separating a solid and a liquid.
o Sublimation- is a process of transition of a substance from the solid to the
gaseous state without passing through the liquid state.
o Evaporation – is a technique used to separate salt from the filtrate.

Periodic Table of Elements

– It is a tool that aids you in identifying the physical and chemical properties of elements. It
helps you remember the chemical symbols of elements, their atomic size, and their metallic and
nonmetallic properties.
o Periods or Series – the horizontal rows
o Groups or Family – the vertical columns. A group is often called a family because
elements in it have similar chemical properties.

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Below is a complete list of families and their special names

Group Special Name

Group IA Alkali metals
Group IIA Alkaline earth
metals
Group Boron family
IIIA
Group IVA Carbon family
Group VA Nitrogen family
Group VIA Oxygen family
Group Halogen family
VIIA
Group Noble gases
VIIIA

3. The Mole Concept

o Allows us to count minute particles such as atoms and molecules.

MOLE
o Is the atomic counting unit used in chemistry which comes from a Latin word that means “heap”
or “huge pile”
o A 1 mole is always equivalent to 6.02 x 1023 particles of any substance.

Avogadro’s Number (6.02X1023 particles)

o Used to indicate very small pieces like atoms, ions, or molecules that make up matter.
o Named after Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro
o Avogadro’s number has a symbol N.
*The symbol N indicates the number of carbon atoms in 12.000 000 g of C-12

Molar Mass
o The mass of one mole of any substance
o SI unit: “amu” or “atomic mass unit”

The Formula Mass or Molecular Mass

o The sum of the atomic masses of the elements in a chemical formula.
o Expressed in the unit g/mol
o Can be determined from the number of atoms and the atomic mass (in g) of each
element indicated by a chemical formula.
*FORMULA MASS – used for ionic compound
*MOLECULAR MASS – used for compounds that are composed of
molecules or covalent compounds.
4. Chemical Bonding

Why and How Atoms Combine: Electron Transfer

*Lewis Theory – proposed by Gilbert Lewis, Irving Langmuir and Walther Kossel to explain
chemical bonding.
* Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS) – is a special representation developed by Lewis
that consists of the chemical symbol of an element surrounded by a number of dots.
● CHEMICAL SYMBOL – represents the nucleus of the atom and the inner
electrons.
● DOTS – represent the valence electron. It is placed one at a time (top, right,
bottom left) of the symbol.
*A negative ion is called an Anion
*Positive charge is called Cation
*Ionic Bond – refers to the bond that is electrostatic in nature, meaning two oppositely
charged particles (positive and negative) will attract one another to form a
chemical bond.

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 Why and How Atoms Combine: Electron Sharing
* Sharing electrons in the valence shell is another way by which atoms acquire a stable
configuration. The bond that is formed by this sharing of electrons is called
COVALENT BOND.Normally hydrogen and elements in groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A
form covalent bonds.

COVALENT BONDS are represented by dashes between the atoms.

o A single dash (-) represents a single bond where a single pair of electrons is being shared.
o Two dashes ( = ) represents a double covalent bond that is formed when two pairs of
electrons are shared between two atoms.
o Three dashes ( = ) represents triple bond forms when three pairs of electrons are shared
between two atoms.

*Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a

functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself.

Living Things and Their Environment

1. Human Respiratory System
⮚ functions as the initial passageway for gas entrance in the body.
⮚ This system, which generally comprises the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and the
lungs, allows filtration, humidification, and warming of the air intake.

Division of Respiratory Tract

a. The Upper Respiratory Tract
1. Nose
● Varying in shapes and sizes, is the only part of the respiratory system visible extrinsically.
● Without our nose, a lot of physiologic activity in the body will be impaired.
● We enjoy the appetizing smell of our favorite food, and the cologne or perfumes we
desire to put on because of our nose.
● Most importantly, without our nose, we cannot breathe normally.
● Our nose serves as the main entry for air flow in the body.
● Aside from air entrance, our nose also serves as the exit for carbon dioxide.
2. Pharynx
● Also known as the throat and serves as the pathway of air and food.

How does the flow of air and food occur in the pharynx?
● Air enters the nasopharynx, from the nasal cavity and then travels down through the
oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter the larynx below. Food comes in through the
mouth that passes along with air through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx. The food,
however, heads towards the esophagus posteriorly rather than arriving at the larynx.

● TONSILS – is another kind of tissue present in the pharynx.

- consist of three types:
a. Pharyngeal - Often referred to as the adenoid, lies high in the nasopharynx.
b. Palatine - Located in the oropharynx at the end portion of the soft palate.
c. Lingual tonsils - Situated at the base of the tongue.

3. Larynx
● Also known as the voice box.
● Leads air and food into appropriate channels and functions mainly in speech.
● Situated inferior to the pharynx
● It is made up of eight hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped elastic cartilage, the epiglottis.
● The thyroid cartilage, which projects anteriorly and is often referred to as an
Adam's apple, is the biggest of the hyaline cartilages.
● The epiglottis in our larynx functions as a protective barrier for lungs as it
prevents food from reaching the lungs.

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 b. The Lower Respiratory Tract
1. Trachea
● Main purposes of trachea for the respiratory system.
✔ The trachea’s structure adjoins the esophagus enabling it to extend anteriorly when we
swallow.
✔ It plays an important role in normalizing the function of epiglottis and permitting
food passage to the esophagus.
✔ The trachea also consists of ciliated mucosa that transports mucus
contaminated with foreign particles away from the lungs towards the throat,
where it can be swallowed or ejected through spitting.

2. Main Bronchi
● The left and right main bronchi are formed by the division of trachea.
● The left bronchus is narrower, longer, and less straight than the right, which makes the
tendency higher for the foreign object to be placed on the right main bronchus.

3. Lungs
● Divided into two portions, the lungs constitute two lobes.
✔ The left lung is made up of two lobes while the right lung, three.
● The lungs almost cover the entire thoracic cavity, and this organ holds the respiratory zone,
the only place where gas exchange happens, and this zone includes respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
● The alveoli are air sacs that provide the surface for gas exchange.

Physiology of Respiration

In order to supply the body with oxygen, the respiratory system carries out four major actions:

1. Pulmonary ventilation - also known as breathing, is the process which air moves in and out of the
lungs
2. External respiration - this is the process in which carbon dioxide from the cells is expelled
from the lungs as the blood picks up a fresh load of oxygen
3. Respiratory gas transport - oxygen and carbon dioxide must circulate the bloodstream to
reach the lungs and tissues.
4. Internal respiration - gas exchanges must occur between the tissue cells and the blood in systemic
capillaries.

2. Circulatory System
⮚ Also called the transport system of the body.

a. Functions of the Circulatory System

1. Regulation of body temperature.
o The faster the blood flows, the higher the body temperature
2. Transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues; of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs.
3. Protection of the body from harmful bacteria and viruses by circulating antibodies and white
blood cells.
4. Distribution of nutrients that come from the digestive system to all the body cells.
5. Transport of waste products to the liver, then to the kidney for excretion or release
6. Distribution of hormones from the organs that produce them to the tissues.
o Hormones are chemicals synthesized by one group of cells and carried in the
bloodstream to other cells
7. Prevention of blood loss by means of clotting

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 b. Major Parts of the Circulatory System
1. Blood
● A fluid that serves as medium of transport.
● It is a body tissue that carries oxygen, hormones, and cell-building materials to the
different parts of the body.
● It also picks carbon dioxide and waste materials and takes them away from body tissues.

Blood components
✔ Red blood cells
- also called as erythrocytes
- carries oxygen to the body cells
- most abundant among all the blood cells (around 5, 000, 000 RBC in one drop of
blood)
- are red color because they contain hemoglobin
*HEMOGLOBIN – contains the iron (Fe) making it an excellent transporter of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.

✔ White blood cells (leukocytes)

- battle infection and attack and destroy germs or foreign proteins that enter the body.

Several Types of WBC

1. Neutrophil – combats bacterial and fungal infection
2. Eosinophil – defends against parasitic infections
3. Basophil – functions during allergic and antigen (foreign protein)reactions
4. Lymphocytes – consists of B cell and T cell. B cells make
antibodies to fight the foreign protein, and T cells function in the
immune response.
5. Monocytes – remove dead cell debris and clean up the “crime
scene” where the body’s soldiers battle infection.

✔ Plasma
o Is the pale, yellow fluid where the blood cells are suspended.
o Makes up more than half of the total blood volume, roughly 55%
o BLOOD SERUM – is blood plasma without the blood cells and the clotting
factors.

✔ Platelets (thrombocytes)
o They help your blood clot when you have a cut or wound.
o Lifespan is from five to nine days only.
o Used as a temporary solution for bleeding.
o PLASMIN – is an enzyme that eventually dissolved the clot
o 150, 000 to 450, 000 per milliliter of blood – is the normal platelet count of a
healthy individual.

2. Blood vessels
● Pathways through which blood flows and carries food to the parts of the body.

Types of Blood vessels

✔ Arteries – are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the lungs or
to the rest of the body.
▪ Aorta - The largest artery in the body, and proceeds to other arteries.
✔ Capillaries
o The smallest and the most numerous of the blood vessels.
o It is where the exchange of materials takes place.
Veins
● the blood vessels where capillaries connect the blood vessels (arteries) that carry
blood away from the heart and return blood to the heart

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 3. Heart
● It is a highly vascular organ and is the size of our fist.
● It pumps blood throughout the body by way of involuntary contractions of the cardiac
muscle.
● It is located in the center of the thoracic or chest cavity, slightly toward the left.
● Consists of four chambers: right atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle.
● It has four valves also in which it includes tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve,
bicuspid or mitral valve and the aortic valve. These valves help the heart to
maintain the proper blood flow of it.
● The heart used passageways to distribute the blood throughout the body, these are
the arteries, veins, and capillaries.

3. Photosynthesis
- is the process by which green plants use the energy of the sun to convert CO2 and H20 into
organic compounds that may be used by plants to build up cells and power other energy-requiring
processes.
- is important not only for food production but also for the makeup of our present day atmosphere.
Two Stages of Photosynthesis
1. Light - dependent reaction – light energy is used to excite electrons in the chlorophyll and causes the
raw material water to split releasing oxygen as a by-product and which ends in the formation of ATP
and NADPH2
2. Light-independent reaction – stage that does not require the presence of sunlight. It is also
known as the Clavin- BensonCycle.

Photosynthesis
6 CO + 12 H O + light energy → C
H O + 6O
2 2 6 12 6 2

4. Cellular respiration
⮚ A biological process that keeps the organism alive by breaking down the food molecules to produce
ATP.
▪ ATP - A complex high energy molecule with three phosphate groups attached to it.

Respiration
C H O + O → ATP + CO + H O
6 12 6 2 2 2
▪ Fermentation
o A form of respiration that releases energy from glucose when oxygen is insufficient or absent.

*BREATHING – is a mechanical process that pumps air in and out of the body. Organisms
with lungs or gills are the only ones capable of breathing.
*RESPIRATION – is a biological process that helps keep the organism alive by breaking the
food molecules.

Four Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis
2. Preparation of Acetyl-Coenzyme A
3. Citric acid cycle
4. Electron Transport Chain

5. Life Processes
All the different living things that an organism does to live are called life processes. The life processes
include:
o Respond to stimuli
▪ A stimulus is any change in the environment, and/or surroundings of an

13
 organism. Stimuli can be things, such as chemicals, gravity, darkness,
light, sound, and temperature.
▪ A response is a form of action or movement of an organism.
▪ Tropism is the growth in response to stimuli. Tropisms either positive or
negative, depending on whether the plant grows toward or away from the
stimulus.
✔ Positive tropism - plant growth toward a stimulus.
✔ Negative tropism - plants growth away from a stimulus.
Kind of Tropisms
a. Phototropism – is the response to light.
b. Positive phototropism - the plant will grow towards the source of light.
c. Geotropism - is the response to earth’s gravity.
▪ This tropism keeps the roots of a plant growing downward
and the stems growing upward.
▪ The roots of plants show negative phototropism and positive
geotropism.
o Metabolism - includes breaking down of food, building body parts, releasing energy, and
removing wastes.
o Adaptation – is special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or
habitat.
6. Growth - refers to a positive change in size, often over a period of time.
7. Reproduction - a process by which living things produce the same type of living things.
Reproduction can be in two ways:
a. Asexual reproduction - a single parent produces offspring that are identical to
the parent. Asexual reproduction can be as simple as a bacteria dividing into two.
b. Sexual reproduction - is the formation of a new individual following the union of two
gametes.

1. Levels of Organization
a. Atoms – are the smallest part of the cell that is studied in biology.
b. Molecules - are made of two or more atoms bonded together
c. Organelles - are composed of molecules, and carry out specific functions for each cell.
d. Cells - are the smallest functional unit of life. All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
e. Tissues - up the second level of organization they are formed by the joining of cells that have
similar function or structure.
f. Organs - group of tissues that perform a specific function or group of functions.
g. Organ systems - collection of organs that perform a specific function

Here is a list of human organ systems and the organs they are composed of:
o Circulatory system: the heart, blood, and blood vessels
o Digestive system: the salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas,
intestines, rectum, and anus
o Endocrine system: the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body, thyroid, parathyroids, and
adrenals
o Integumentary system: the skin, hair, and nails
o Lymphatic system: the leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen
o Muscular system: the muscles
o Nervous system: the nerves, brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
o Reproductive system: the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands,
testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis
o Respiratory system: the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm
o Skeletal system: the bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons
o Urinary system: the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
o Organisms – An organism is a being that is able to perform simple acts of survival.
h. Population - A population is a group of organisms of the same species.
i. Community - A community is a group of interacting organisms of multiple species
sharing a populated environment.
j. Ecosystem - has organisms but also includes the land, water, air, rocks, and other non-living things
in a given area.

14
 k. Biosphere – Biome is a major regional or global community of organisms. Biomes are usually
characterized by the climate in the given area.

Cell Structure and Functions

All living things are made of cells.
o Cells can be:
▪ Prokaryotic cells – cells that do not have nucleus, such as bacteria.
▪ Eukaryotic cells - cells that have nucleus, such as plant and animal cells. Most
eukaryotic cells have the following parts:
a. Cell membrane – it is also called plasma membrane. It forms the outermost layer
of the cell and encloses cytoplasm & the nucleus. It separates cells from each other
as well as from the surrounding medium. The cell membrane is porous and allows
the movement of substances in both inward & outward direction.
b. Cytoplasm – it is a jelly-like substance present between membrane and nucleus.
Various other cell components are also present in the cytoplasm.
c. Cell wall – it helps maintain the cell’s structure and shape. Found only in plant cells.
d. Nucleus – it is a very important component of the cell. It is located in the center of
the cell and is usually spherical. Nucleus is the control center of the activities of the
cell. It is separated from the cytoplasm by its membrane called the nuclear
membrane. Nucleus consists of the following components:
▪ A smaller spherical body called as Nucleus
▪ Thread-like structures called Chromosomes which carry genes and
help in transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring
e. Nuclear membrane - this membrane is porous and allows the movement of
substances both inward & outward.
f. Vacuoles – store food and other material needed by the cell. Found only in plant cell.
g. Lysosomes – are small, round structures involved in the digestive activities of the cell.
h. Mitochondria - supply most of the energy of the cell. Also known as “powerhouse of
the cell”
i. Ribosomes – are tiny grain-like organelles that make proteins, which are the
building blocks of all cells.
j. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - makes and transports proteins within the cell.
k. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - makes and transports lipids and other materials
within the cell.
l. Golgi complex - it processes and packages proteins and other substances produced in
the ER
m. Chloroplasts – these plastids are green in color and contain a green pigment called
Chlorophyll,
which is used to synthesize food during photosynthesis. Found only in plant cells.
n. Centrioles – is a small cylindrical structure in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotes.
They form aster rays and spindle fibers. Found only in animal cells.
o. Cytoskeleton - network of protein filaments that helps cells maintain its shape.

5. Cell Division and Cell Cycle

Cell division – is a process that cells go through to divide.

Importance of Cell Division

⮚ Cell divides and adds new cells in order to grow because there is a limit as to how big a
cell can become.
⮚ Cells divide to reproduce and increase population.

o Cell division has two types depending on the type of cells involved:
⮚ Mitosis – for body cells
⮚ Meiosis – for sex cells or gametes
o Cell cycle – it is an orderly set of events, which eukaryotic cells undergo, that culminates
in the production of new cells. It is divided into five distinct phases:

1. G1 (Gap 1) - primary growth phase, cell matures by making more cytoplasm &
organelles.

15
 -Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities.
2. S – synthesis phase, DNA is copied or replicated.

3. G2 (Gap 2) - secondary growth phase

- Occurs after DNA has been copied.
- All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles).
- Both organelles & proteins are synthesized.
● collectively these 3 stages are called interphase
4. Mitosis – it characterizes the division of the nucleus. Also called
karyokinesis. Only occurs in eukaryotes. Has four stages:

Mitotic phases Changes that take

place
o Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes.
o Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles
(animal).
o Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down.
o Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible.
Prophase o Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of each
chromosome.
o Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell.
o Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of
Metaphase the cell.
o Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator.
o Occurs rapidly.
Anaphase o Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by
kinetochore fibers.
o Sister chromatids at opposite poles
o Spindle disassembles
o Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids
Telophase o Nucleolus reappears

● After telophase, cytokinesis occurs and ends with two daughter

cells. Chromosomes reappear as chromatin

5. Cytokinesis – it means division of the cytoplasm.

- Division of cells into two, identical halves called daughter cells.
- In plant cells, a cell plate forms at the equator to divide cells.
- In animal cells, cleavage furrows form to split cells.

MEIOSIS – may be called gametogenesis because it is responsible for the formation of gametes, the egg
and the sperm.
*Spermatogenesis – a process of producing sperm cells.
*Oogenesis – a process of producing egg cells.

While mitosis and meiosis share similarities, they are different in two aspects:
1. Recombination of genetic materials occurs which results in variation.
2. Four haploid cells are produced at the end
of meiosis. Meiosis involves two divisions:
1. Meiosis I
2. Meiosis II

a. Meiosis I

Meiosis I Changes that take

phases place
Interphase I o Chromosomes replicate.

16
 o Chromatin condenses.
o Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs.
o Each chromosome consists of two chromatids.
o The nuclear membrane breaks down.
Prophase I o Spindles form.
o Crossing over produces exchange of genetic information.
▪ Crossing over—chromosomal segments are exchanged
between a pair
of homologous chromosomes.
o Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers.
Metaphase I o Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator.
Anaphase I o Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles
of the cell.
Telophase I o The spindles break down.
and o Chromosomes uncoil and form two nuclei.
Cytokinesis o The cell divides cytokinesis.

b. Meiosis II – do not have interphase II (or very short - no more DNA replication)
Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. Meiosis II begins with
prophase II.
Meiosis II phases Changes that take
place
o The nuclear membrane breaks up and spindle forms.
o The sister chromatids no longer replicate but begin migrating to
the equatorial plate.
o Chromatin in the nucleus condenses to form visible
Prophase II chromosomes.
o Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles
(animal).
o Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible.
o Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of
each chromosome.
o Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell.
o Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the
Metaphase II center of the cell.
o Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator.
Anaphase II o Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by
kinetochore fibers.
o Sister chromatids at opposite poles
o Spindle disassembles
Telophase II o Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids
and o Nucleolus reappears
Cytokinesis ● After telophase II, cytokinesis occurs and ends with four
daughter cells.

EARTH AND BEYOND

1. Weather and Climate
o Weather – is the condition of the atmosphere at any given time and place.

Elements of Weather
1. Temperature – is the degree of coldness and hotness of the atmosphere.
2. Air pressure – is the weight of the column of air about horizontal surface unit area such as
square meter.
3. Wind
o Wind speed- tells how fast the wind is blowing and is measured by an anemometer.
o Wind direction – tells where the wind is going and where it is coming from and
is determined by using a wind vane.
4. Humidity (Moisture) – it refers to the amount of water vapor in the air and is measured by

17
 a hygrometer.
5. Clouds
6. Precipitation – may be rain, snow, or sleet that condenses from the atmosphere and falls to
the Earth
.
o Meteorology - the science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena especially with weather
and weather forecasting.

Earth is divided into three zones based on temperature

1. Zone of tropical climate
2. Zone temperate climate
3. Zone of polar climate

2. Weather Patterns
o Clouds form when moisture in the air condenses on small particles of dust or other solid particles in
the air.
o Clouds are classified according to shapes and altitude.

Main Types of Clouds

1. Cirrus clouds – are fair-weather clouds that appear thin and curly; cirrus means ‘feathery’.
2. Cumulus clouds – means ‘piled’ or ‘heaped-up’, appearing like cauliflower heads with flat
bottoms.
3. Stratus clouds – means ‘spread-out’ or ‘stretched in layers’; stratus clouds are only a
few hundred meters thick but may extend over thousands of square kilometers.
4. Nimbus clouds – nimbus means ‘rainy’; any cloud that produces precipitate is called
nimbus.

Air Masses
- It is the changes in weather which are caused by movements of air.
- When two masses meet, a front forms.
- Front – is the boundary between air masses that differ in temperatures and humidity.

Four Different Types of Front

1. Cold front – forms when a mass of cold air meets and replaces a mass opf warm air.
2. Warm front – forms when a mass of warm air overtakes over cold air mass and moves
over it.
3. Occluded front – it occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front and it
rushes upward. It produces less extreme weather than a cold front or warm
front.
4. Stationary front – when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass and no movement
occurs.
Storms and Typhoons
o When a cold front moves in and meets a warm front, cumulonimbus clouds produce thunderstorms.
o Thunderstorms – are heavy storms with thunder and lightning, and can be violent.
o Lightning - is a sudden discharge or spark of electricity between a cloud and the ground,
causing the air to heat and expand explosively; this expansion results in thunder.
o Coriolis Effect – is the apparent shift in the path of any object moving above the surface of
Earth due to the rotation of the Earth.
o Intertropical Convergence Zone – is an area where winds from Northern and Southern
Hemispheres come together.
o Monsoon winds – are seasonal winds that blow over the northern part of the Indian Ocean
and flow over most of the surrounding areas.
o Storms – are often produced where warm and cold air meet along a front.
o Hurricanes – when storms are formed over the Atlantic
o Typhoons - when storms are formed over the Pacific
o In the Philippines, due to its location, tropical cyclones are characterized by the
counterclockwise movement of the winds over low-pressure areas. Tropical cyclones, which
affect the Philippines during the months of June to November, may be classified into three
categories depending on the wind speed;

18
 1. Tropical depression – has a maximum speed of less than 63 kilometers per hour (kph)
2. Tropical storm – has a maximum wind speed of 63 to 118 kph
3. Typhoons – have a maximum wind speed exceeding 118 kph.

o The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA) warns the people of approaching typhoons by the use of typhoon signals.
o The table below shows the typhoon signals

Typhoon Signal Wind Velocity (in kph)

No.
1 30-60
2 61-100
3 101-184 within 18 hours
4 Greater than 185 within 12
hours
3. Atmosphere
⮚ A thick blanket of gas which covers the Earth

Five Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere

1. Troposphere
⮚ It is the layer nearest Earth and contains 75% of the gasses of the atmosphere as
well as dust and water vapor.
⮚ This layer is the zone where weather occurs; temperature decreases with
increasing height in the troposphere.
⮚ Tropopause - it acts as a ceiling to the weather zone. The tropopause contains
stormy winds called jet streams.
2. Stratosphere
⮚ It contains a layer of ozone, which keeps most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation from
reaching Earth’s surface.
⮚ Ozone is formed when three atoms of oxygen form one molecule (O3).
⮚ Stratopause – is the zone in which the temperature is at its highest.
3. Mesosphere
⮚ It is the coldest zone of the atmosphere.
⮚ Near the top of the mesosphere, at the zone called the mesopause, temperature decreases
to about -8
0
C.
4. Thermosphere
⮚It extends from about 80 km upward to about 500 km.
⮚Due to the absorption of solar energy in this layer, the temperature increases rapidly with
altitude.
⮚ Within this layer is the ionosphere.
⮚ Ionosphere - it is a layer of electrically charged particles.
⮚ It contains the ions that are formed due to the bombardment of the atmospheric
particles by the energy of the sun.
5. Exosphere
⮚ Above the thermosphere, from about 500 km to around 3 000 km above the earth is the
exosphere.
⮚ Van Allen belt – a radiation layer formed by the concentration of particles of solar
winds that are held in place by Earth’s magnetic field.

Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere

o The atmosphere contains mostly nitrogen and oxygen.
o The table below shows which gas is the most abundant in the atmosphere.

Gas Chemic Percent Uses

al by
Symbo Volum

19
 l e
Nitrogen N2 78.0 Fertilizers, amino acids, nitroglycerin
9
Oxygen O2 20.9 Animal respiration, rocket fuel
5
Argon Ar 0.93 Electric light bulbs, welding
Carbon CO 0.03 Photosynthesis
dioxide 2
Water vapor H2 0- Component of all life forms, absorbs the earth’s heat
O 4.0
Neon Ne Trac Advertising signs
e
Helium He Trac Aqualungs, welding,, lighter-than-aircraft
e
Methane CH Trac Home heating and cooking
4 e
Krypton Kr Trac Used in fluorescent lights
e
Xenon Xe Trac Electronic flash bulbs
e
Hydrogen H2 Trac Welding torch fuel, production of ammonia
e
Ozone O3 Trac Bleach, disinfectant, provides protection against
e ultraviolet radiation

4. The Moon, Earth, and Sun

*Phases of the Moon
- Once every month, you must observe changes in the appearance of the moon.
- These changes are known as the moon’s phases, which depend on the moon’s position
relative to the Sun and Earth.
*Phases of the Moon
a. First quarter – occurs when the sun, Earth, and sun are at a 900 angle.
b. Waxing phase – when the moon appears half bright and half dark.
c. Full moon – when the sun, Earth, and moon align with Earth in the middle, the moon’s
entire side is seen on Earth.
d. Third quarter phase – the side facing the Earth is again half bright and half dark.
e. Waning phase – the visible part becomes smaller.
f. New Moon phase – when the moon is no longer visible in the sky.
g. Crescent moon – it appears when you can see less than half of the moon.
h. Gibbous moon – it appears when you can see more than half of the moon.

Eclipses
*Lunar eclipse (eclipse of the moon) – occurs when Earth passes between the moon and the
sun and its shadow obscures the moon.

Sun – Earth - Moon

*Solar eclipse – occurs when the moon passes between Earth and the sun and its shadow falls on
Earth.

Sun – Moon - Earth

*Total eclipse - A total eclipse of the sun or the moon occurs when either of the two bodies
becomes completely obscured.

Tides – are caused by gravitational pull.

a. High tide – the rise in water level due to the pull of the moon and it usually happens every 12
hours.
b. Low tide – occurs when water falls to its lowest level
c. Spring tides – during the new moon and full moon, the lunar and solar tides together produce

20
 the larger
spring tides.
d. Neap tides – at the first and last quarters of the moon, lunar and solar tides produce the smaller
tides called
neap tides.

PHYSICS
I. WORK, POWER and ENERGY

A. WORK - it is the product of the force and object’s displacement. This can be expressed using the
mathematical equation: W = Fxd
- SI unit for work is Joule (J)
- In order for work to be done on an object, the object must be put into motion by the force
applied on it. No work is done if there is no motion involved.

B. ENERGY – is simply the capacity to do work.

Major forms of energy:

✔ Heat Energy – is a thermal energy that transfers due to difference in temperature.
✔ Mechanical Energy – it is the energy used to lift or move things
✔ Chemical Energy -
✔ Nuclear Energy – refers to the energy within released during nuclear reactions,
fission and fusion
✔ Electromagnetic Energy – a form of energy that is reflected from objects in the
form of electrical and magnetic waves that can travel through a space
Types of Energy
a. KINETIC ENERGY – energy in motion. SI unit is always equal to J (Joule)
- can be calculated using the equation:
KE = 1
mv²
2
Where: m = mass (kg)
v = speed (m/s)

b. POTENTIAL ENERGY – is the energy stored in a body.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (GPE)
- Potential energy of an object due to its position above the Earth’s surface.
- Formula used:
GPE = m (mass) x g (acceleration due to gravity) x h
(height) or GPE = W (weight) x h (height)
- SI unit: J (Joule)

*WORK-ENERGY THEOREM – states that when work is done on an object, the result is a change
in kinetic energy.
*LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY – states that an energy can not be created nor destroy,
but it can be
transform from one form to another.
C. POWER – is the amount of work done in a unit of time. It is represented by the equation:
P (Power) = W (Work) or P
(Power) = F (Force) x d
- SI unit: J/s or W (Watts) (displacement) t (time) t (time)

II. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

WAVE – is any periodic disturbance in a medium that carries energy from one point to another.

21
 TYPE OF WAVE:
*TRANSVERSE WAVE – a moving wave that consists of oscillation occurring perpendicular
to the direction of energy transfer.
*LONGITUDINAL WAVE – the particle displacement is parallel to the propagation of the wave.
- the only thing that is common to all EM waves as they travel in a vacuum.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Used to represent the family of EM waves.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
- Refers to the train of invisible waves of electrical and magnetic fields that could propagate even in an
empty space.

Heinrich Hertz (1887)

- first person to generate and experimentally detect EM waves.
- classified EM waves as transverse waves.

ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
- also called to the EM waves because it carries energy called radiation.

CLASSIFICATION OF EM WAVES: LOW FREQUENCY AND HIGH FREQUENCY OF EM

WAVES
LOW FREQUENCIES OF EM WAVES

1. RADIO WAVES
⮚ Have the lowest frequency (approximately 103-1010 Hz) but the longest wavelength (approximately
10-3-105 m)
⮚ Can travel long distances.
⮚ Used mainly for communication.

2. MICROWAVES
⮚ contains higher frequency than RW.
⮚ are produced by the various types of transmitter.
⮚ used in satellite communication, mobile phones, and radar for weather monitoring and navigation in
air and sea.
⮚ In cooking food, metallic objects reflect MW that is why they are not used in microwave
ovens. But non-metallic objects like glass and plastics are used in microwave ovens because
they absorb MW.
❖ MAGNETRON
- A transmitter that converts electrical energy into microwave radiation.
3. INFRARED WAVES
⮚ have wavelengths between that of microwaves and visible light in the EM spectrum.
⮚ Most emitted thermal radiation by the objects near room temperature which are invisible to the
naked eye.
⮚ The Sun is the major source of infrared radiation.
o Infrared lamps, stoves, flat irons, burning coal and oven toasters are other examples of objects
that give off infrared radiation.

22
 4. VISIBLE LIGHT
⮚ A form of EM waves that enables us to see the physical world around us.
⮚ One of the raw materials in the process is called photosynthesis.
⮚ SOURCES OF LIGHT:
✔ The Sun is the main source of light on Earth.
✔ Light bulb – used as a source of light in the absence of sunlight.
✔ Laser – a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification (increasing
power).
❖ DISPERSION–separation of visible light into its different color (ROYGBIV)

HIGH FREQUENCIES OF EM WAVES

1. ULTRAVIOLET RAYS (UV RAYS)

⮚ Sunlight is the main source of UV rays. Absorption of UV rays in small doses by the
human body is important because UV rays play an important role in the production of
vitamin D, which helps in the production and absorption of calcium that makes your bones
healthy and strong.
SPF (Sunscreen Protection Factor)
- a measure of how well a sunscreen product can protect the skin from the damaging effects of UV
rays, more specifically the UVB rays.
2. X-RAYS
⮚ Are EM waves that have higher frequency than UV rays.
⮚ Are emitted by the machines used for medical diagnosis and industrial machines that are
used to measure tiny objects and detect flaws in products.
⮚ Carries energy that is strong enough to cause the ionization of atoms and disruption of molecular
bonds.
⮚ Can pass through many materials like the skin.
⮚ APPLICATION: Transportation and Medical purposes

3. GAMMA RAYS
⮚ are EM waves that have 10000 times as much energy as the energy carried by visible light.
⮚ It has the shortest wavelength and the highest frequency. It has a very high penetrating power also.
⮚ RADIOACTIVE DECAY: refers to the spontaneous release of gamma rays to certain heavy
nuclides of radioactive materials.
⮚ Can kill cells including cancerous cells (EX. Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137). Can also be used to
sterilize medical equipment in hospitals, and pasteurize food, drinks and medicines.
4. FORCE AND MOTION
FORCE –is a push or pull
- causes change in motion of an object

Types of Contact Forces

Frictional Force or friction – it is the force exerted by a surface to oppose the motion of an object
*STATIC FRICTION – occurs if there is no relative motion between two bodies.
*KINETIC FRICTION – friction that opposes sliding motion..
*ROLLING FRICTION – friction that exists in rolling motion. It has the weakest frictional force.
Applied Force – force that is directed to an object by a person or another object. It involves pushing, pulling
or twisting.
Normal Force – refers to the perpendicular force in which two objects push each other.
Example: Book on a table experiences a normal force provided by the table.
Types of Non Contact Force
Gravitational Force – is a force exerted by gravity to pull objects towards the center of the Earth. It is always
attractive, never repulsive. This is the main reason why the moon and planets are kept in their orbits.
*ISAAC NEWTON – discovered the force of gravity

23
Electromagnetic Force – refers to the force exerted due to the interaction of positive negative electrical charges
along the magnetic field. It can be attractive or repulsive. It works also greater than gravity because it works an
infinite range.
Nuclear Force – force that holds protons and neutrons within the nucleus. It is known to be the strongest
force.
*Nuclear Fusion – combining together nuclei of the lightweight elements resulting in production of huge
amounts of energy.
*Nuclear Fission – breaking apart heavy nuclei producing huge amounts of energy.
Weak Nuclear Force – responsible for radioactive decay or the process of breaking down heavy atomic
particles with the release of energy.
● It is used to generate sunlight and medical diagnosis and treatment.
● It is used in determining the age of organic materials or even the Earth through carbon or uranium
isotope abundances.
MOTION – is simply the change in position of an object with respect to a fixed reference point.
- it is described in terms of speed, velocity, acceleration, displacement and time.
Speed – it is the distance traveled per unit time.
Can be expressed using the equation: S (speed) = d (distance)
t (time)
*Speedometer – it is an instrument used to show the speed of a moving object.
*Instantaneous Speed – it is a reading of how fast is the speed of a moving object at a particular time.
*Average Speed – rate of movement during the entire time of the travel throughout the entire distance
traveled.
Can be computed: Average Speed = total distance traveled or V (average speed) = d
Total time traveled t
Acceleration – the rate of change of velocity over a period of time.
- Can be computed: a = vf - vi
t
2
- SI unit of measurement: m/s
*Uniformly Accelerated Motion – constant acceleration throughout the motion.
*Positive Acceleration – obtain when the speed increases
- it occurs when the acceleration of an object is opposite in the direction of its
velocity.
*Negative Acceleration – obtained when the speed decreases.
- it occurs when the acceleration of an object and the velocity is the same.
LAWS OF MOTION
*Isaac Newton – built the three great laws of motion
First Law of Motion
- Law of Inertia
- states that “an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will continue unless there is
an external force that will act on to this object”.
*INERTIA – signifies the resistance of matter to change its state of rest or in its straight-line motion.

Second Law of Motion

- Law of Acceleration
- unbalanced forces between two objects in contact causes objects to accelerate
- states that “acceleration is directly proportional to the net force but inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.”
* The bigger the mass, the greater the acceleration, the greater the net force
* The lower the mass, the slower the acceleration for bodies, the smaller the net force can be computed:
F (force) = m (mass) x a (acceleration)
* SI unit: N (Newton)
Third Law of Motion
* Law of Interaction- states that “for every action, there is an always equal but opposite reaction”
MASS AND WEIGHT
*MASS – the quantity of matter present to any object.
*WEIGHT – it is the gravitational attraction between the mass of an object and gravitational force.
- it is a vector, and the direction is toward the center of the Earth
- can be computed: W = m (mass) x g (gravity)
- SI unit: N (Newton) or kg.m/s2

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