Nature and Definition of Research

 What is Research?
- A. It is a “process of scientific thinking that leads to the discovery or establishment of new
knowledge or truth. It is not a subjective expression of ideas or opinions.” (Isidro & Malolos,
1979).

Scientific thinking:
1. It is based on facts.
2. It starts from a complex of problems.
3. It is free from personal bias or opinions.
4. It uses objective measurements.

- B. “Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena” (Kerlinger, 1973).

Descriptions of investigation:

1. Research is systematic

Stages/steps:

A. Identification of the problem

B. Relating of the problem with the existing theories

C. Collection of data

D. Analysis of data

E. Drawing of conclusions

F. Integration of these conclusions into the stream of knowledge

2. Research is controlled

a) Scientific research is so planned every step of the way that fancy and guess work do not set in.

b) The problem is identified thoroughly, variables identified and selected, instruments carefully selected
and constructed and conclusions drawn only from the data yielded.

c) Everything is controlled that any observer of the investigation will develop full confidence in the
results.
 3. As soon as the data have been collected, evidences are now on hand to confirm or refute the
hypothesis formulated at the start of the investigation.

4. After the researcher has completed the research, the whole work is ready for critical analysis by a
panel of judges/experts that passes judgment on the entire research.

Importance of Research

1. Research links theory, education, and practice. (Wood & Haber, 2002)

2. Research serves as a vehicle for mobility/continuing growth and progress

Purposes/Objectives of Research

1. To seek new knowledge

2. To provide useful information in the form of verifiable data, data which accuracy can be
determined or tested

3. To fill the gap between the existing and the unborn knowledge

4. To explain the causes or consequences of events

5. To describe existing status of individuals, groups, institutions, establishments

6. To liberate the student in some measure from the dominion of a single textbook and the viewpoint
of the instructor

7. To provide a beginning in independent study

8. To inculcate inductive thinking and the scientific method

9. To promote the development of logical habits of thinking and organization

10. To criticize or evaluate a theory or a belief.

 Characteristics of Research
Henson and Soriano (1999)
1. It is systematic
- In research, there is a need to conduct the investigation in a step by step procedure. The
procedure to be followed must be orderly, disciplined and organized.

2. It is controlled

- Observations must be controlled and not haphazardly done by making sure the research
instruments are carefully prepared and its validity and reliability properly established. The
research variables must be carefully measured while extraneous variables are kept to a minimum.

Research is an inquiry

 It is a process that investigates or searches for problems, possible solutions, theories, and relevant
studies to come up with reliable knowledge.

It is about solving problems

 The essence of research is to find answers to problems raised. Humankind is beset with varied
problems and situations that need improvement.

It is about adherence to a method

 Research is not just about gathering data for the sake of accumulating data. More than that, it is
concerned with the “how,” the right manner of which findings are arrived at through proper
methodology and procedure.

7. It concentrates on a specific subject/topic

- A particular broad subject/topic should be properly narrowed down to a specific research

subject/topic which means it must have a scope and limits in its inquiry or investigation.
 Types of Research According to Purpose
1. Basic or Pure Research

• In this type, the research or study is conducted to develop theories and principles, for intellectual
pursuit of knowledge and acquire learning.

• The inquiry is done for knowledge’s sake.

• An individual’s passion and desire to discover the unknown is essential in the discovery and
acquisition of knowledge.

2. Applied Research

• In this type, the results of basic research are used and/or utilized to address situations and or solve
problems.

• It happens when the theories and principles obtained from pure research are put to a test.

Three Central Components of Scientific or Critical Thinking

According to Schafersman

1. The Use of Empirical Evidence (Empiricism)

• Empirical Evidence is evidence that can be discerned by and or susceptible to the senses.

• It is something that can be experienced by others aside from the researcher.

• It is repeatable that it can be verified by others.

• It is the only type of evidence that is utilized by scientists and researchers to formulate conclusions and
make decisions.

2. The Practice of Logical Reasoning (Rationalism)

• Logic is the art of reasoning correctly.

• Logical reasoning is a skill and or discipline that is best learned in a formal educational environment where
people are encouraged to reason out freely.

• A scientific researcher must remember that emotions are not exactly evidence, feelings are not facts and
subjective beliefs are not substantive enough.

3. The Possession of a Skeptical Attitude (Skepticism)

• Skepticism is the constant evaluation of one’s beliefs and conclusions.

• Good scientists and researchers constantly examine the evidence, arguments and reasons for their beliefs.

• A skeptical scientist hold beliefs tentatively and is open to evidence and rational arguments about those
fields.
 Characteristics of a Good Researcher
1. Knowledge Oriented

• Any research endeavor is an attempt to acquire and contribute knowledge to a particular field of
specialization and a researcher must be prepared to do a lot of voluminous readings and frequent
long rips to the libraries and other places of information.

2. Open-minded

• A good researcher must be open to various ideas, views, criticisms, and feedbacks from other
people or fellow researchers.

• Being open minded means having a confident attitude to understand the views or ideas.

3. Hardworking

• In research, there is no easy path towards achieving meaningful things. It is a difficult challenge.
There is no substitute for hard work. One must be willing to make sacrifices in order to complete
what one must do to achieve success in life.

4. Resourceful

• One needs to make frequent trips to different places where information can be gathered. One
needs to acquire needed documents and references.

• Pursuing research requires a great deal of time, money, materials and other resources.

5. Scientific in attitude

• Research is a scientific undertaking therefore it requires a scientific attitude in acquiring data,

analyzing and interpreting such data to make it a part of the body of knowledge.

• Scientific attitude manifests in the processes involved in data gathering to analysis and
formulation of conclusions and recommendations.
 The Research Problem
(Calderon, J & Gonzales E, 1993)

Definition
 It is any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution of which requires
reflective thinking;

 It is a perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series of questions that help
determine the direction of subsequent inquiry. (the foregoing are according to Dewey)

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. (Why)

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. (What)

3. The place or locale the research is to be conducted. (Where)

4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. (When)

5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. (Who or From Whom)

Guidelines in the Selection of a R.T.

1. The research topic must be chosen by the researcher himself.

2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.

3. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.

4. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able to find funding
for his research.

5. It is researchable and manageable, that is …

a) Data are available and accessible

b) Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability

c) Answers to the specific questions can be found

d) The hypotheses formulated ate testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected.

e) Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable results.

6. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time.

7. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely, and of current
interest.

8. The results are practical and implementable.

9. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it.

10. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able to give
significant, valid, and reliable results and generalizations.

11. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of human
life.

12. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge.

13. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems to be solved.

14. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people.

15. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but by
peaceful means.

16. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the following, if the
research report is completed:

a) Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of the results in which there is some kind of
royalty.

b) Advancement of position, promotion.

c) Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work especially if the research
subject is related to the profession.

d) Enhanced prestige and reputation.

e) Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest, and being able to discover the truth.

18. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, either physical, social or legal.

Guidelines in Writing the Title

Criteria:

1. Subject matter

2. Locale of the study

3. Population involved

4. Period of the study

 Chapter 2 METHOD
 The chapter on methods presents the type of research, participants, sampling procedure, sources of
data, instruments, data gathering procedure, and data analysis.

Type of Research

 This section presents concisely the selected methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixed method
in nature and approach), and research method (descriptive, causal-comparative, correlational, etc.)
that will be used to carry out the investigation.

The description of the type of research, as specifically used to the study, is concisely and clearly
written. The rationale behind the choice of the research method/s is explained.

For experiments, the experimental design is also presented.

Participants

 This subsection presents:

a. The number of participants and their major demographic characteristics.

b. The reason for choosing them and how they were selected.

c. If animals are mentioned, use the term subjects. Never refer to human research participants as
subjects. For them, always use “participants”, “individuals”, “respondents” or similar terms.

Sampling Design

 This subsection describes briefly the sample and how the sampling was undertaken. Sampling is
the process of selecting the participants of the study.

 The sampling techniques and procedures should be concisely explained. For experimental
research, clear explanation on how bias is precluded should be included.

Sources of Data

 This subsection specifies the primary and secondary sources of the needed data for the study.
Sources may include existing documents and field notes, aside from the participants themselves,
and possibly, quantitative information from reviewed literature. If participants are the sole data
source, this section may be omitted.

Instrument

 This section identifies the instruments to be used and describes what the instruments contain and
how the respondents or participants will answer.
 Important:

a. If the instrument were a standardized one, its source should be specified. An overview should be
included on how it was refined, or pilot tested to its adoption.

b. If the researcher developed the instrument, a description of the development should be included
particularly on how the instrument’s validity and reliability indices were established.

*The research instrument is enclosed in the appendix, including the letter of request, and the
letter of approval by the agency/school for its administration to the group/s involved.

Data Gathering Procedure

 This subsection describes concisely the concrete steps to be undertaken (for a proposal), or that
were undertaken (for the finished paper) in gathering pertinent data to achieve the objectives of
the study.

 The procedure should be congruent with the research framework, stated problems and
hypothesis/es. It specifically covers more or less the following:

- Securing permission from authorities to conduct the study;

- Orienting participants about the objectives of the study and how they will accomplish the
instruments;
- Administering the research instruments with the specified time frame; and
- Retrieving the duly accomplished instruments.
 Description of the procedure should include how the researcher exerted effort to preclude the
possible sources or biases or errors, particularly in validating and administering the research
instruments (for descriptive studies), the experimental treatment (for experimental studies), or in
the implementation of an intervention (for action researches).
 Clear narration of the procedure in the conduct of the study will also guide future replications of
the study.

Data Analysis

- This section presents and describes the statistical tools and procedures that will be used to
organize, analyze and interpret the data gathered. In describing the tools, explain clearly the
more sophisticated statistical tests and present the purpose for which they are used. Computer-
aided data processing, using state-of-the-art statistical software, is preferred.

For Research Proposals:

The researcher will be required to present a summary of the data gathering procedure and data
analysis embodied in a table with the following parts:

1. Problem/Objective (follow the sequence as presented in chapter 1)

2. Sources of Data (identify from where the data needed will be derived to address the stated
problem. Identify also the specific items in the instruments from where the responses will be
taken.

Data Analysis/Statistical Tool

Specifically, identify here what statistical tool (quantitative data), or data analysis technique
(qualitative data) will need to be used to analyze and interpret gathered data.
 Review of Related Literature
• This section presents an adequate documentation of published and unpublished materials relevant
to the objectives or topic of the research. It primarily shows how the present research relates to
what other researchers have done. It ends with a synthesis.

• It is usually presented in a topical form, it provides reader with:

1. What is already known on the subject and what is not yet known on the subject and what is not yet
known that require further investigation;

2. A brief up-to-date account and discussion of literature on the issues relevant to the topic and;

3. Conceptual and theoretical context in which the topic for research can be situated.

• Establishing a link between the existing literature and he current investigation, the development of
the review of related literature and studies shall be in the form of:

1. Making concise critical comparisons, contrasts, and analogies as to the nature and other essentials
covering theories, concepts, facts/ideas of cited authorities on the subject; and

2. Expressing explicitly the reasons why the topic is of sufficient importance for it to be researched.

• Cited literature comes from primary and secondary sources: books of well-known authorities,
theorists, psychologists, experts, etc; official documents; scholarly publications such as those on
journals, etc. All cited literature and studies are similar to or different from the selected
topic/problem.

Conceptual Framework

• This section presents a picture on how the objectives of the study may be attained or how the
problem is to be solved/answered. Specifically:

• The conceptual framework contains a concise discussion of the relationship between and among
the major variables of the study.

• It presents the position of the researcher as regards the problem under study. It also presents and
explains the theories or models that the researcher chose from the reviewed related literature and
studies to serve as the basis of the current study.

• It is illustrated further in the form of a research paradigm that is usually placed at the close of the
conceptual framework discussion, serving as an illustrated summary of the framework
Statement of the Problem

• This portion presents the problem being investigated or the objectives of the study. It should be
stated in both general and specific terms. The general statement, which is written first, is usually a
repetition of the title of the study. The specific problems should be stated explicitly in concrete
measurable terms.

Hypothesis

• Hypotheses are intelligent tentative statements about a given problem, expressed in a declarative
from. As intelligent statements, they are products of empirical analysis and formulation by the
researcher, which have their primary basis on the stated problems/objectives of the study.

Significance of the Study

• This describes explicitly and concisely:

– What makes the study important and worth pursuing;

– The usefulness of the findings to the potential users or implementers of the findings, and

– The contribution of the results of the study in the researcher’s field of interest, and to the
existing body of knowledge.

Scope and Limitations

• The scope defines the boundaries of the study such as when and where the study was conducted,
who the respondents or participants are, and the variables that will be undertaken. The scope thus
sets the delimitation, that is, the limits which are deliberately fixed by the researcher.

• This section also defines the limitations of the study, which refer to those aspects of the
investigation or factors that may adversely affect the results but which are beyond the researcher’s
control.

Definition of Terms

• Significant terms or variables in the title, and unusual or technical terms found in the study are
defined conceptually and operationally.

• Conceptual definition refers to a definition is primarily based. Only professional dictionaries and
books are allowed as sources of conceptual definitions. The source is cited after the adopted
definition. This definition is followed by the operational definition, which refers to a statement of
the workable meaning of the terms or measurement of variables as actually applied in the study.
 The Introduction
 The Introduction is a group of paragraphs which is the start or chapter I. It must be carefully
written to create impact and generate interest and enthusiasm to read on the part of the reader.

 A good intro can motivate the reader to continue reading the entire study.

Parts of the Intro:

1. Presentation of the situation or problem.

2. Existence of an unsatisfactory condition, or problem that needs a solution.

3. Rationale of the study – why is it necessary to conduct the study.

4. A desire to have a clearer understanding of a situation, circumstances or phenomenon.

5. An attempt to find a better way of addressing a problem.

6. Can included ideas, phrases and sentences from published materials relevant to the study to give
the readers an overview of the study. Surnames of the authors and the years of publication should
be included in parentheses for proper documentation.

Sample Introduction:

Analysis:

1. What the research is about – the overview of the specific topic.

2. The variables of the study which were discussed in sequence to arrive at statements linking the
three variables.

3. The general reason why the researchers chose the topic- its importance.

4. The specific statements of people of established authority and or integrity (Ducker and Smith) to
support the main idea of the researchers.

5. Timeliness of the topic in today’s modern world.