Adama Science and Technology University

School of Humanities and Social Science

Dr. Ziyn Engdasew

March. 2020
 1.. Basic Concept of Research
1.1. Sources of knowledge

What is knowledge?

 Knowledge is familiarity, awareness, or

understanding of some one or something, such as
facts, information, description, which is acquired
through experience or education .
 Theoretical and practical understanding of a subject.
Source/….
 Human beings are the unique products of
their creation and evolution.
 Different from other animals, their more
highly developed nervous system has enabled
them to develop sounds and symbols that
makes possible communications, recordings of
their questions, observations, experiences and
ideas.
Sources….
• Human beings have always sought answer to
their questions through knowledge.
• Information for making decision on every day
life encounters has come from many sources,
which includes personal experience, expert
opinion, traditions, common sense and beliefs
about what is right and what is wrong.
Sources….
• Each of these sources may be in adequate if
we take it as the only basis for making
decisions.
• As a result these sources of knowledge are
complementary and overlapping.
Sources…
1. Experience: one of the most immediately
available at hand for all people,
 Accumulated body of knowledge and skills
can serve as a means of getting information.
 Although experience is a familiar and well
used sources of knowledge, it has its own
limitations as a sources of truth, for instance
it may not consistent with the recent reality.
Source…

• Have you ever solved problems based on your

own experience?
source..
2. Authority: another methods commonly used
to know facts is to consult some authority.
 Instead of simply holding on ones beliefs,
confirmation is sought from some experts in
the area concerned.
 It is using recognized experts in particular
fields as a sources of knowledge.
Sources….
3. Customs and Traditions:
 Custom and habitual approaches' have been a
traditional sources of knowledge.
 But one has to be careful that notions of the
past are not blindly idealized.
 It is wise to value customs and traditions, but
be open to examine their relevance in the
recent context.
Sources…
4. Reasoning:
 Reasoning is another method of knowing
about facts.
 Reasoning consist of two types:
Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning
 Both have made significant contribution
towards developing a systematic aproach to
establish truth.
sources..
• Integration of important aspects of both led
to the evolution of the scientific approach,
which is what we are mostly concerned with
in a research.
Sources….
• Deductive reasoning: is a thinking process one
proceeds from general to specific statements
through logical arguments

• Example: Human beings are mortal

Socratus is human being
therefore, socratus is moral
 Sources….
• Inductive reasoning: derives its arguments and
strength from the phenomena.
• Example :
Socrates is mortal
Socrates is human being

There fore, human beings are mortal

source…
• As both reasoning have their own limitations,
it was only a matter of time that scholars
integrated the most important aspects of both
methods to evolve a scientific approach.
 Source….
• Scientific approach: generally described as
process in which investigators move
inductively from their observations to
hypothesis and deductively from the
hypothesis to the logical implications of the
hypothesis.
• They deduce the consequences that would
follow if a hypothesized relation were true.
Source…
• If these deduced implications are compatible
with the organized body of accepted
knowledge, they are then further tested with
the help of empirical data.
• On the basis of the evidence, the hypothesis are
accepted or rejected.
• This approach has been increasingly used to
prepare strategies and arrive at definite
conclusions.
 Steps in scientific research
• Scientific methods differ from other methods
of acquiring knowledge on the basis of
generalizations from authority, traditions and
experience.
• It also differs from methods of chance, trial
and errors and intitutions.
• Commonly applied steps in the scientific
methods are:
…………..
1. Identification and definition of the problem:
 A scientific inquiry starts with the
identification of a problem that is in need of
solution.
 The problem identified must be defined in
such a manner that observation or
experimentation in the natural world can
provide a solution.
 …….
2. Formulation of hypothesis: once the problem is
defined, the next step is to formulate the hypothesis,
which provides an intelligent guess for the solution
of the problem.
3.Implication of hypothesis through deductive
reasoning:
 The next step after formulation of a hypothesis is to
deduce the implications of the suggested hypothesis
that is what would be observed of the hypothesis is
observed.
 ……..
4. Collection and analysis of evidences:
 The deduced implications of the hypothesis are
tested by collected relevant data related to them
through observation test and experimentations.
5. Verification, or rejection of hypothesis:
 Once the evident has been collected and
analyzed, the results are analyzed, in order to
verify whether the evidence supports the
hypothesis.
 What is research?
• Comes from French word-”recherche” which
means to” travel through” or “survey”.
• It gives the English meaning as” carful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge undertaken to
discover or establish facts or principles.
…..
• Different authorities have defined the term
“research” in different ways.
• Research is the activity of solving problems,
which leads to get knowledge using methods
of inquiry, which are currently accepted as
adequate by scholars in the field.
• Research is process/ tool/ which has utility of
additional knowledge.
……
• Research is defined as the systematic and
objective analysis and recording of controlled
observation that may lead to the development
of generalizations, principles or theories,
resulting in predicting and possible ultimate
control of events.
….
• The commonly used phrases to define the
concept of research are:
– An inquiry to obtain dependable and useful
information
– A scientific approach to study a problem and
arrive at a conclusion
– A systematic and objective search for reliable
knowledge.
 Characteristics of research
• Research is directed towards the solution of a
problem.
• Research emphasizes the development of
generalizations, principles or theories that will
be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
• Research is based up on observable
experiences or empirical evidences.
• Research demands accurate observation and
descriptions.
……
• Research demands accurate observation and
description
• Research involve gathering new data from
primary or first hand sources or using existing
data for anew purpose.
• Research is more often characterized by careful
designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
• Research requires expertise.
……….
• Research strives to be objective and logical
• Research involves the quest for answers to
unsolved problems
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
 Research Steps/process
1. Problem Identification and definition:
 This includes questions of which the answer is
not available or with questions partially
answered.
2. Review of literature: this is the stage that the
researcher should go though all the existing
literature relating to his problems
 This is essential to know whether the problem
has already been investigated before, If so, how
and to what extent.
Steps….
3.Selection of hypothesis and statement of basic
questions
 This is the formulation of tentative
explanation or solution of that problem in the
form of propositions that need to be tested.
Steps …
4.Defining the research methodology
 It refers to deciding all the strategies to be
followed and out lining all the steps that will
be taken to make the investigation.
5. Validation the data gathering tools:
 Ensuring the quality of instrument to measure
what is supposed to measure.
 ……..
6. Data Collection: it is gathering data in the field
through observation, survey, testing and
experimentation.
7.Analysis and interpretations of Data: It
includes the selection of appropriate statistical
and other techniques to be used for
processing the data collected.
……
7. Analysis and Interpretation of data: It includes
the selection of appropriate statistical and
other techniques to be used for processing.
8. Summarizing the findings: It is putting the
results of hypothesis or questions. It is the
stage at which findings identified and
summarized and confirming the hypothesis
made.
Steps…
9.Drawing conclusions and suggesting possible
recommendations to the problem which
concerned with making generalizations.
10. Taking Action: this is the final and important
art in the research process.
 It is the task of either to apply the
recommendation or look for an opportunity to
disseminate the research results.
Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions
through the application of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and has not been discovered yet.
• To gain familiarity with phenomenon or to achieve new
insight
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individuals situations, groups…
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables.
Motivation in research
What makes people to undertake research?
This is a question of fundamental importance.
The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following
 Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits
 …………
 Desire to face the challenge in solving
unresolved problems
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get respectability
 criteria of good research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defied and
common concepts to be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate, for
reliable conclusion.
 Home take assignment(10%)

• what is research in the field of

engineering(Importance, Nature,
characteristics, peculiar features…..) 3-5 pages
 Classification of Research
Different writers categorize the research types in various ways.

 Best and Khan (1998) stated that all studies fall under one, or a combination of the
following types:
i) Historical research,
ii) Descriptive(qualitative & quantitative) research, &
iii) Experimental research.

Gay, Mills & Airasian (2009) classified research types based on:

i) Method - (qualitative & quantitative research types) , and

ii) Purpose - (function(Applied & Basic/fundamental research types)

Some other writers also classifies research types based on:

i). Method -( Historical, Descriptive & Experimental research

ii). Purpose-(function(Applied & Basic research types), &
iii). Nature of data analysis -( qual. & quant. research types).
…….
 It could be said that an attempt to classify research types
posses a difficult problem and that there is no generally
accepted scheme.

 Basically, the classification system should take into account

the nature of the problem & the kind of data to be sought.

 Therefore, from the different approaches of classification

presented above, it seems convincing to see the different
research types based on the technique/ method of data
analysis and purpose/function
 Classification by Technique /Method
i. Quantitative Research

 Is the collection and analysis of numerical data to

describe, explain, predict phenomena .
 However, this method entails more than just the
use of numerical data.  
 Involves measuring traits, characteristics or
attributes of things/ phenomena.
 It is a type of research that describes phenomena
in numbers and measurements instead of words.
………..
 At the outset of the study the researchers state the
hypotheses to be examined and specify the
research procedures.
 They also maintain a control over contextual
factors that may interfere with the data collection
and identify a sample of participants large enough
to provide statistically meaning full data.
……..
 Many quantitative researchers have little personal
interaction with participants because they frequently collect
data using paper and pencil, non interactive instrument.

 Underlying quantitative research methods is the

philosophical belief or assumption that we inhabit a
relatively stable, uniform and coherent world that we can
measure, and understand .

 The world and the laws that govern it are somewhat

predictable.
ii. Qualitative Research
 Is a collection, analysis and interpretation of comprehensive,
narrative and visual (i.e., Non numerical) data to gain
insights in to a particular phenomena of interest.

 Its methods are based on different beliefs and designed for

different purposes than quantitative method.
For example, qualitative researchers do not necessarily
accept the view of a stable, coherent, and uniform world.

 They argue that all meaning is situated in a particular

perspective or context.
 …..
 Qualitative research Problems and method tend to evolve as
understanding of the research context and participants deepens.
  Involves the meaning, concepts, definitions of characteristics and
description of things.
 Is a type of research that describes phenomena in terms of words
instead of number measures

 It involves three major kinds of data collection

 In depth open-ended interview
 Direct observation and
 Written documents
……..
 Qualitative research often avoid stating hypotheses before data are
collected and they commence their research with “foreshadowed
problems”.

 Quantitative research usually tests specific hypothesis; qualitative

research often does not.

 Additionally, in qualitative research context is not controlled or

manipulated by the researcher.

 He/she should interact extensively and intimately with participants

during the study, using a time intensive data collection methods such
as interviews and observations.
……..
 As the result, the number of participants tend to
be small, and
 qualitative researchers analyze the data
inductively by categorizing it in to patterns that
produce descriptive, narrative synthesis.

 Qualitative research often involves the

simultaneous collection of a wealth of narrative
and visual data over an extended period of time.
 ..…
• As qualitative researchers point out,
findings should be derived from research
conducted in a real-world settings to have
relevance to real-world settings.
 Types of Quantitative Approaches

 The quantitative approaches include: survey (describe the

current condition), correlation (investigate the relation
between two or more variables), experimental (provide
information about the cause-effect outcomes) as a result of
some intervention).
1. Survey Research
 It is a type of research where the researcher examines-
the beliefs or views of a large number of subjects on
certain behaviour or situation .
 Commonly conducted to collect detail description of
existing phenomenon with the aim of producing data
that justify current conditions and practices.
…………
Its major purpose is to describe the status of
phenomenon and compare it with the established
standards.
Are essentially studies of broad size than in depth studies.
It reports the way things are
Involves collecting numerical data to test hypothesis or
answer questions about the current status of the subject of
the study.
Survey R. data are often collected through a
questionnaire; interview and observations.
……………..
 Survey designs generally come in one of the following two
approaches
 Cross Sectional studies and
 Longitudinal studies
 The key difference b/n the two approaches is the number of
times the survey is administered.
 In a cross-sectional studies, a survey is administered to a
population once.
 In longitudinal studies, surveys are administered to a
population more than once with significant periods of time .
 
 A) Cross Sectional Survey

 Is one in which data are collected from selected

individuals at a single point in time.
 It is a single, stand-alone study.
 Cross sectional designs are effective for providing
a snapshot of the current behaviors, attitude and
beliefs in a population.
 This design also has the advantage of providing
data relatively quickly when compared to
longitudinal studies.
 Cross sectional studies are not effective if the
researcher’s goal is to understand trends or
 B) Longitudinal Surveys

 In Longitudinal surveys data are collected at two or more

times.
 These surveys are extremely useful for studying the
dynamics of a topic or issue overtime.
 Longitudinal studies require an extended commitment by
the researcher and the participants.
 Some difficulties in conducting longitudinal studies
include keeping track of sample members overtime and
maintaining sample members’ willingness to participate
in the study.
 Attrition (participants dropout is common) .
…….
2) Correlation Research (CR)
 It is also said to be associational research
 It tries to establish whether and to what degree a
relationship exists b/n two or more variables.
 It describes the degree to which two or more
quantitative variables are related and it does so by use
of correlation coefficient.
 Its purpose may be to determine r/ship
 The higher the correlation the closer the relation
between the two variables and the more accurate are
predictions based on the relation.
………
3) Causal-Comparative Research (CCR)
 
 CCR is also said to be “ex-post facet” (Latin saying)
meaning after the fact research.
 It attempts to determine the causes or consequences
of noted difference that already exist b/n or among
groups or individuals.
 Is a type of research method used to explore not
only what a certain phenomena like but also how
and why it occurred?
……..
 Its aim is to
 Compare similarities and differences among
phenomenon( associational research).
 Discover what factors contribute to the occurrence of certain events
or practices.
 Studies of this type usually use statistical correlation to establish
r/ship
……………..
4. Experimental Research (ER)
 Is a method of research that involves the manipulation and controlling
of variables to see their r/ship.
 It is concerned with the “ what will” aspect
 Provides a systematic and logical methods for answering the question,
“if this is done under carefully controlled conditions, what will
happen?
 Its purpose is to establish the cause & effect r/ship by exposing one or
more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and
comparing the results to one or more control groups .
 Experimenters manipulate certain treatment and observe how the
behaviour of the subject is affected or changed.
…..
Their manipulation is deliberate and systematic.
They must be aware of other factors that could influence
the outcome and remove or control them so that they can
establish a logical association between manipulated factors
and observed effects.
Experimentation provides a method of hypothesis testing.
 After experimenters define a problem, they propose a
tentative answer or hypothesis.
They test the hypothesis and confirms or refute it in the
light of the controlled variable relationship that they have
observed.
 …………………………………………………
 The experimental group is exposed to the influence of the
factors under considerations, but the control group is not.
 Observation are then made to determine what differences
appears or what changes or modifications occurs in the
experimental as contrast with the control group.
 There are at least 3 variables in experimental research
1. Dependent variable
2. Independent variable
3. Confounding(extraneous variables)
……….
 The dependent variables are the measured
performances attributable to the influence
of the independent variable.
 Confounding variables are those aspects of
a study or sample that might influence the
dependent variable( outcomes) and whose
effect may be confused with the effects of
the independent variable.
……..
5) Case study
 Is an intensive investigation of an individual or a certain
group (a family, a group of delinquents, drop outs etc).
 While the aim of survey is to scratch the surface, the case
study searches beneath the surface some times discovering
the cause of factors exposed by surveys.
 The researcher gathers data about the
 Past experiences
 Present status & how these factors relate to each other

 Its major purpose is to investigate the patterns & sequences of

growth &/ or changes as a function of time.
…….
 In it, a researcher makes in-depth and intensive study
on a limited number of representative’s cases.
 Hence it narrower in scope but more exhaustive
 Classification by Function

1. Basic Research (Fundamental or Pure

Research)
 is intended to expand general body of knowledge rather than solution to
immediate practical problem
 Is concerned with formulation of theories and a contribution to the
existing body of knowledge.
 Its aim is to disclose fundamental truth or principles.
 Less report to immediate and direct application of the outcome in the field
situation.
 Often conducted in laboratory
 Because it deals with basic principles of behaviour, mostly they use
animals rather than human beings.
 In general, the goal of basic research is to expand the frontier of knowledge by
formulating, expanding & evaluating theory without regard to practical
application.
 2. Applied (Field) Research
 is conducted to solve immediate specific & practical problem
 Deals mainly with determining r/ships and testing theories in the
field situation.
 Its result is evaluated in terms of local applicability rather than
universal validity.

 Note: Basic & Applied researches complement each other

 2.The Research Problem and Preparation
of the Research Proposal
 Research is generally considered as a structured inquiry involving a series of
systematic and interdependent steps.
 Formulations of steps in research vary from author to author, but the major typical
steps are:

 Problem identification
 Definition of the problem
 Survey/ review of the related literature
 Formulation of research hypothesis /basic questions
 Selecting and defining the research design and methodology,
 Deciding and validating data gathering tools
 Analysis and interpretation of data,
 Summarizing the findings
 Drawing conclusion
 Suggesting possible solutions and
 Taking action. 
 Selection/Identification of the Research
Problems
 Research starts with a question or a problem for
which the answer is not available.
 Identification of a problem does not mean to
select atopic of a research .
 In order to identify and define a research problem,
a researcher should know the sources and
criterions of selecting the research problem . 
………
i) Sources of the Research Problem
The sources of the research problem can be
Professional experience
Contact and discussion with people
Influence from theory
Professional literature
Contemporary social and technological
changes, etc
………….
ii) Criteria (prerequisites) for selecting a research problem

 These criterions can be grouped as external and internal criterion

a. External criterion:
 It should be researchable
 Relevant data should be available
 Can be solved through the process of research
 It should be significant and important
 Novelty (the problem should be new) (no research is exhaustively
conducted on it) .
Its relevance and practical value
It should be timely (currently “live”
issue)
………

b. Internal criterion:

The researcher should be competent and interested in

problem i.e. the researcher’s intellectual curiosity and
drive.
Financial, time and administrative conditions should be
convenient.
 Defining the Research Problem

 Having selected the research problem and

ascertained its validity, the next logical step is to
properly define your problem in such away that it is
amenable for investigation.

 To define a problem means to specify it in detail and

with precision. Each question to be answered will be
specified.

 The limits/scope of the study must be determined.

…………….
Advantages of defining research problem:

 Helps you stick to your research objective

 Reduce unnecessary and vague concepts
 Discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant one
 Specify the techniques and research methods to be
pursued
 ……………
i. State your problem in general way

 This is possible only when you have a clear picture about your topic. To do
this:

 Enter into discussions with those who you think have better exposure
and knowledge in the area.

 Survey the available literature (Note that the techniques and

approaches employed in the previous work may be guiding to sharpen
and formulate your study).

ii. Provide the operational definitions to the concepts employed in your

research topic
 your definition should be contextual
…………..
iii.Progressively sharpen your topic to a manageable
level.
As you progressively inspect your proposed study
you may eventually realize that much remains
broad and vague requiring sharpening for clarity.

 It is generally suggested that you should keep a

balance between generality and specificity to be
feasible in your particular situation.
 2.3. The Research Hypothesis/Basic Question

 Having identified and defined the research

problem, the next logical task in progress is
putting the problem into working hypothesis.
What is Hypothesis? 
 A hypothesis is an educated or calculated guess
that shows the likelihood of the direction where
the solution to the problem lies.
 Hypotheses are tentative generalizations about
the nature of the problem under consideration. 
 Sources of Research Hypothesis

i. Personal experience. the researcher may need to attend the procedures below

 Make observation
 Think about the problem
 Make additional observations
 Formulate a hypothesis

ii. Reading in the area. Despite its newness, the research topic may
have some link with the already attempted research endeavours
or accumulated knowledge in the area.
Importance of Hypothesis
 A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following
advantages:
Represents specific objectives, which determine
the nature of the data needed to test the
propositions.
Offers basis for selecting the sample the
research procedures and the statistical analysis
needed.
Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby
preventing it from becoming too broad.
Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion
 Characteristics of Acceptable Hypotheses

 In formulation of hypothesis the researcher has to set an intelligent guess

about the possible results of the research exercise.
 In this regard, the hypothesis that the researcher sets should have the
following characteristics.
i. Researchable
ii. A hypothesis must have explanatory power,
iii. A hypothesis must state the expected relationship between variables e.g.
there is a positive relationship between self-concept and achievement in
civics education .
iv. A hypothesis must be testable.
e.g. Mechanical engineering promotes “all rounded development of
students” All rounded, development “ makes this hypothesis hard to test.
v. A. hypothesis must be consistent with the existing body of knowledge
(known facts or theories)
 2.4. Components of Research Proposal

 A research proposal is a systematic “blue print” that

brings to focus the preliminarily planning that will be
needed to fulfil the purpose of the proposed study.

 More specifically, the research proposal  

 Forces you think through every aspect of the study
 Facilitates the evaluation of the intended study by you
and others
 Provides a guide for the actual condition of the study.
 Reduces the probability of costly mistakes for it is a
plan of a research work. 
……
 Even though there are different forms of writing a research proposal, the
following are some of the elements that require inclusion in it.

A) Cover page
 The Title of the research proposal should incorporate the
following issues.
 A good research title should be short, accurate and concise
 Avoid too length titles. Note that the proposed study
cannot be fully presented in the title
 The title shouldn’t be too brief.
 A study title should be worded in such a way that it
could give sufficient information about the nature of
the study.
……..
It should make the central objectives and
variable clear to the reader (reviewer).
It should provide the key words for
classification and indexing of the project.
……
B) The Inside part
1. Introduction
 The introduction section deals with

o Background of the study

o Statement of the problem
o Objectives of the study
o Significant of the study
o Delimitation of the study
o Limitation of the study(optional),
o Definition of basic terms
o Organization of the study
1.1. background of the study 

 The statement of the topic should be stated as clearly as

possible for it sets the stage for the rest of the plan.

 It should be accompanied by a description of the background

of the topic and a rationale for its significance.

 The background provides some general theoretical basis or

justification for conducting research and focuses on:
 What are the goals of study
 What does the general situation in the study site like.
 That is the background of the problem (information&
historical) , how wide & important?)
 Why is the study being conducted?
1.2.Statement of the problem
• Under the Statement of the Problem, you need to justifies
the need for the study and also develop hypothesis or key
research question, which may help show the direction of
the whole exercise.
• It is a declarative statement but may be in question form.
• It must be limited enough in scope to make a definite
conclusion possible.
• The major statement may be followed by minor
statements.
• A problem often implies that a controversy or difference of
opinion exists.
 1.3. Objectives of Study
 The statements of objectives are the direct reflection
of your hypotheses/basic questions
 It refers to what you are going to do in your research.
 Objectives could be stated in the form of general &
specific objectives.
 General Objective: it should describe the kind of
knowledge the study is expected to obtain.

 Specific- coincide with the basic questions / hypothesis'

 1.4. Significance of the Study (Application of
Results)
 Justify the importance and urgency of the study as to how the
results of the study will be useful to the beneficiaries.
 Demonstrate why it is worth of time, effort and expense in
carrying out the proposed study.
 Some of the points needed to be stressed in the justification
include:
 A wide time gap b/n the earlier study & the present one.
 Need for new knowledge, techniques or conditions will
necessitate for replicating the study.
 The need for the present investigation could be to help address
those areas that remain untouched or inadequately treated.
 Lack or shortage of information about the problem
 Academic, policy & awareness significance of the study
 1.5. Delimitations of the Study

 Your research proposal should indicate that

the study is delimited both in scope and
depth to manageable size including tangible
reasons.
 It is the boundaries of the study or the
conclusion of your study
 1.6. Limitation of the Study (Optional at the proposal
stage)

 The fact that your research is properly designed does not

guarantee that it is free from constraints.
 The limitations (uncontrollable variables that confront
investigation & affect conclusions)

 The possible sources of limitation include:

 Practical weaknesses in the methodologies you adapted

 Lack of access to the right data
 Poor choice or delivery of instruments
 Sampling restriction
 Lack of up to date literature in the area
1.7. Definition of Basic Terms used in the Study
(Optional)

• Definitions to the basic concepts (technical terms,

words or phrases) having special meanings
employed in the study need to be defined
operationally by the researcher or with the help of
Authorities (books, dictionaries, references, etc).
 
 

  Organization of the study(Optional)

 The researcher has to organize

systematically how the study is to be
presented.
 Among other things, he/she has to explain
how the study is divided in to various
chapters.
2. Review of Related Literature
 The Review literature involves the systematic identification, location
and analysis of documents containing information related to the
research problem.

 The term is also used to describe the written components of a

research plan or report that discusses the reviewed documents.

 These documents can include articles, abstracts, reviews,

monographic dissertations, books, other research reports and
electronic media efforts.

 It helps to explores, interprets synthesizes and discusses what has

been done (researched and documented in previous works) and
what needs to be done is known as the review of related literature.
……
The purpose of the review of related literature
 Provide insight into methods
 Suggest different sources of data
 Avoid duplication
 Delimit the research problem and define it better
 Create linkage between your study and the accumulated
knowledge in the area.
 Provide recommendation for further research.
 Tells you what has been done and what needs to be done.
 Helps to discover research strategies and specific data collection
approaches
 Reviewing strategies
 Note taking strategies.
 One way or the other, a review of the related literature requires
note taking
 While taking notes, allow yourself a systematic approach. Keeping
a proper card index is the most vital task to this effect.
 What is a card index? 
 A card index is a collection of lined cards of various sizes which is
meant to keep review notes and reference information.

 A sample card with appropriate bibliographic details may look like

the following
…
No___________________ 

• Author(s) ____________________________
• Title of the book/article________________
• Date of publication____________________
• Place of publication____________________
• Volume Number ______________________
• Page Number ________________________
• Publisher _____________________________
• Edition Number _______________________
• Issue Number _________________________

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
•  
..
 On the rest of the card you can take notes which you
made while reading the book or an article in question.
 If the notes require you additional page, use
supplementary card and attach it to the first.

 Basics for writing the section on review of the related literature

 Arrange your review by topic
 Use your hypothesis to help serve as framework to organize the
review.
 Do not be tempted by mere quantity of facts and findings.
 Begin with the most recent studies in the area and then work
backward through earlier works.
 Read the abstract and summary section of report first in order to
help determine e whether is relevant to your topic.
…………..
 Before reading the material, skim over the contents in
order to locate the section which is pertinent to your work.
 Evaluate the usefulness of the review
 
 How do you organize your discussion of the review of the
literature.
 Develop an outline on which discussions of a review of a
related literature follows.
 Begin your discussion from a comprehensive perspective
 This means broad and general studies will review first and
followed by specific and local studies.
 At the end, a brief summary should be made.
3. Method
• The method section mainly deals with the Research Design
and Methodology.
• Under this part the following major issues should be
included:
The Research Methodology

 Describe in general terms the method to be employed to

achieve the study objectives & justify why this method is used.
 Both quantitative & qualitative methods could be used.
 The method section typically includes a description of the
experimental design for experimental research, where as the
design and procedure section may be combined in a plan for a
descriptive study.
…..
Sources of Data
 Discuss the population from which data will be
collected (Their type, their number, how & from
where they are selected).
Sampling Techniques
 Explain the sampling technique that should be
employed and discuss why they are selected
 Determine the sample & discuss the
representativeness of the selected Sample.
…..
Data Gathering Tools
 Discuss the different data gathering tool to be
employed and give reasons why these tools have been
chosen.
Procedure of Data Collection
 Describe the steps to be followed in collecting data
from the field
Data Analysis
 Describe the different data analyzing and explain
4. Work Plan
 Give cost and time breakdown that is needed to conduct
the study
 Time schedule
 One requirement of your proposal is the preparation of a
realistic time schedule for completing the study with the
time available.
 The information helps you to seed how much time would
be needed to bring the research into completion and to
provide opportunities for periodically evaluating the
development of the study
 Budget schedule
• This is a financial breakdown that helps estimate the cost
of the study.
5. Bibliography
 A bibliography is a list of all the works referred in
due course of your investigation in alphabetical
order.
 At the proposal stage, you can include all the
works that you already referred and which will be
referred while you are implementing the research
project.
 Thus, it is a tentative bibliography.
…………..
 If the number of reference is large, you may divide
the bibliography into various sanctions;

One for books

One for periodicals and journals
Possible one for reports and special documents.
 ………………………….
A. BOOKS
Basic entry: Author's name, year, title of the book, publication information(Name of the
City & Publisher)
a) Author's name: reveres the authors name and add comma after the last name.
 Omit titles, affiliations and degrees (Dr, Phd, MA, professors)

b) Title of the book: State full title including subtitles

Put colon directly after the main title if it has subtitle

Place a period after the title.
Underline the whole title or make it bold typed

c) Publication information:-

Write city of publication

Use a colon between the place of publication and the publisher, a comma between the publisher
and the year.

The year may be placed after the author's name in the bracket.
 
 Citing a book with more than three authors, you will name only
the first author and add "and others" or etal.
For example,
 Silman, S., et.al. (1993). Hysteria Beyond Freud. Berkely:
University of California.

 When the authors name is not indicated, start with the title of the
book.

For example,
 The Constitution of the Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia.
Addis Ababa: Bole printing press, 1991.
………
B, Journals
 Entry:
 The name of the author
 The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the journal underlined.

Volume number, issue number and total pages of the

article.
For example.
 Rosner, B. (1991). "Women in Management." Harvard Business
Review, Vol.69, Num.3, pp 100-152
…..
C. News papers
 Entry:
 The name of the author
 The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the newspaper underlined
 The date and page number.
For example, 
 Abebe Asfaw. "Attacking unemployment in Ethiopia. " The
Ethiopian Herald, September 4,1974, p.8.
………….
D. Unpublished sources
Essential entries are:
 The name of the writer
 The title of unpublished work enclosed in a quotation
 Description about the source.
For example
 Sacala, C. (1930). “Maternity care policy in United State“. Unpublished dissertation. Boston
University. 
E. Books with editor (s)
Entry:
 Author's name (reverse it)
 Title of article in quotation
 Name of the editor (reverse it) and add (ed)
 Publication information (city, agency and inclusive page numbers of the article).
For example,
 Marshal, J.(1986). “Women Managers." In Mumy, Ford A.(ed). Hand Book of Management
Development. Alders hot: Goveler publishing company, 358-373
……..
F. Government publication Entry:
 Name of the organization
 Year of publication
 Title of the book underlined
 Publication information.
For example,
 Ministry of education. (1993). Basic Education
Statistics. Addis Ababa: Educational Management
and Information Systems.
 Group Assignment(25%)
• Write a research proposal on selected topic
• 5-6 pages
• Incorporate all the major components of the
research proposal
• Submit on the date of your final exam.