Criminological Research and Statistics

Topic 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

How do you characterize a good research?

Crawford stated that Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of

thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more
adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with
a problem, collects data or facts, analyze these critically, and researches decisions based on
actual evidence.

It involves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves

from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something, seeking to know not
only what but how much, and measurement is therefore a central feature of it.

Another author, Best, gives a summary of the more important characteristics of a

good research as follows cited by Aquino (p. 1 &2)

1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or firsthand sources. It is

not research when one merely restates or merely reorganizes what is already known or what
has been written.

2. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles. It goes beyond
the specific groups and situations investigated, and by careful sampling procedures, infers
qualities of the entire population from those observed in the smaller group.

3. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The researcher knows

what is already known about his problem. He proceeds from this point, carefully planning
his procedures.

4. Data are gathered, recorded, and analyzed with as much accuracy as possible. He
uses such valid data gathering instruments as he can find or devise and employs mechanical
means to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, and computation of
data.

5. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives to eliminate
personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that support
his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on testing,
rather than on proving the hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking and logic. He
suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.

6. Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms, if possible, and express

them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The researcher is willing to
exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to permit the data and logic to lead to a sound
conclusion.
 7. He realizes that significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless
procedures. Research requires courage. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to
conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.

8. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined, all
procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are
carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded. All conclusions and
generalizations are cautiously arrived at with due consideration for all of the limitations of
methodology, data collected, and errors of human interpretation.

How do you summarize the characteristics of research?

1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to

the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

2. Research is controlled. All variables except those that are tested or being
experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes
made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This
is especially true in an experimental research.

3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed, and data gathered are
perceived in the same manner by all observers. For instance, one says that there are five
persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five persons. However, if one says that
there are five ghosts in the room, one or none at all may believe it because not all people
believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples if data that are not empirical.

4. Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there
is no error io their interpretation.

5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All findings and conclusions are logical
based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.

6. Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation process. In

experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific
sub problems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested
and not proved.

7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are transformed into

numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or
usefulness.

8. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from
primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources (usually printed
materials such as books, or theses, etc.)

9. Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid and carefully designed
procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert
scrutiny.

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 10. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description. In fact, every
research activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of
scientific generalizations. All conclusions are based in actual evidence.

11. Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure accuracy. Research
that hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky
conclusions and generalizations,

12. Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted

without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity can conduct
a research because research involves much work and time.

13. Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the researcher
oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters
public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.
How do you Summarized the characteristics of research?

Difference between research and problem solving

Research and problem solving are two concepts that can often be confusing although
there is a key difference between these two processes. The confusion arises from the fact
that both research and problem solving have a common factor. This is the problem. In
research, we try to answer the research problem by gathering data and analyzing the data.
In problem-solving we focus on finding a solution to an already identified problem. The key
difference between research and problem solving is that while in problem-solving the
individual already has the necessary information to make the decision or come up with a
solution, in research the researcher needs to gather the information before he answers the
research problem.

What is a Research?

Research refers to a process in which the researcher attempts to answer the research
problem that he initially creates by gathering and analyzing the data. Research is conducted
both in the natural as well as the social sciences. These are conducted with the intention of
finding answers to the research problem. When conducting research, the first step is to
identify a proper research problem. Based on this the researcher develops research
questions and objectives. Then he would conduct a literature review to understand more
about the problem and identify how other researchers have conducted their research. Based
on this knowledge, the researcher would create his methodology.

For the research methodology, he would identify a sample for data collection and
methods and techniques. Once the data has been gathered the researcher analyzes these data
in order to write the research report. In this report, he explains not only the data that has
been gathered but also the final analysis of the researcher.

What is Problem Solving?

Problem-solving is a process in which the individual defines a problem, identify

possible solutions and evaluates the solutions to find the most effective solution for the
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problem. Problem solving is not only limited to academic disciplines but are also vital in the
industrial setting. In organizations, managers often encounter tasks of problem-solving.

Here, first the individual must define the problem and gain a broader understanding
of it. Since the information is already available, it becomes much easier to find different
solutions to the problem. Then he must evaluate each solution and decide the most effective
solution for the problem. As you can observe although both research and problem-solving
center around a problem the processes in which they are completed are different from one
another.

Characteristics of Research and Problem Solving

Research: Research is scientific.

Problem Solving: Problem solving may not always be scientific.

Process:
Research: When conducting research, there is a particular process that begins with
identifying the research problem and ends with analyzing the data to answer the research
problem so that a research report can be compiled.

Problem Solving: In problem-solving, the process begins with defining the problem and
implementing the identified strategy or solution.

Sampling:
Research: In research, to gather information, a sample is required.

Problem Solving: In problem-solving, a sample may not be required as the information is

already available.

Hypothesis:
Research: In most research especially of the natural sciences, a hypothesis is built.

Problem Solving: In problem-solving a hypothesis may not be required.

Types of research methods

Experiments

People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete
various tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration,
reasoning ability etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The results of different
groups are then compared. Participants should not be anxious about performing well but
simply do their best. The aim of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-called
intelligence, but to look for links between performance and other factors. If computers are
used, this has to be done in such a way that no previous knowledge of computers is
necessary. So people should not be put off by this either.

The study might include an intervention such as a training program, some kind of
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social activity, the introduction of a change in the person’s living environment (e.g. different
lighting, background noise, different care routine) or different forms of interaction (e.g.
linked to physical contact, conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.). Often the
interaction will be followed by some kind of test (as mentioned above), sometimes before
and after the intervention. In other cases, the person may be asked to complete a
questionnaire (e.g. about his/her feelings, level of satisfaction or general well-being).

Some studies are just based on one group (within-group design). The researchers
might be interested in observing people’s reactions or behavior before and after a certain
intervention (e.g. a training programmed). However, in most cases, there are at least two
groups (a between-subjects design). One of the groups serves as a control group and is not
exposed to the intervention. This is quite similar to the procedure in clinical trials whereby
one group does not receive the experimental drug. This enables researchers to compare the
two groups and determine the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two groups
might differ in some important way (e.g. gender, severity of dementia, living at home or in
residential care, etc.) and it is that difference that is of interest to the researchers.

Surveys

Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by
means of questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also be
used. There are different types of survey. The most straightforward type (the “one shot
survey”) is administered to a sample of people at a set point in time. Another type is the
“before and after survey” which people complete before a major event or experience and
then again afterwards.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people
and/or people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments.
They enable people to take their time, think about it and come back to the questionnaire
later. Participants can state their views or feelings privately without worrying about the
possible reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be inclined to try
to give socially acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the questions as
honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false conclusions from their
study.

Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed

questions and open-ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have
a fairly low response rate and people do not always answer all the questions and/or do not
answer them correctly. Questionnaires can be administered in a number of different ways
(e.g. sent by post or as email attachments, posted on Internet sites, handed out personally or
administered to captive audience (such as people attending conferences). Researchers may
even decide to administer the questionnaire in person which has the advantage of including
people who have difficulties reading and writing. In this case, the participant may feel that
s/he is taking part in an interview rather than completing a questionnaire as the researcher
will be noting down the responses on his/her behalf.

Interviews
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 Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be
administered by telephone or using more advance computer technology such as Skype.
Sometimes they are held in the interviewee’s home, sometimes at a more neutral place. It is
important for interviewees to decide whether they are comfortable about inviting the
researcher into their home and whether they have a room or area where they can speak
freely without disturbing other members of the household.

The interviewer (which is not necessarily the researcher) could adopt a formal or
informal approach, either letting the interviewee speak freely about a particular issue or
asking specific pre-determined questions. This will have been decided in advance and
depend on the approach used by the researchers. A semi-structured approach would enable
the interviewee to speak relatively freely, at the same time allowing the researcher to ensure
that certain issues were covered.

When conducting the interview, the researcher might have a check list or a form to
record answers. This might even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere
with the flow of the conversation, particularly in less structured interviews. Also, it is difficult
to pay attention to the non-verbal aspects of communication and to remember everything
that was said and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be helpful for the researchers to
have some kind of additional record of the interview such as an audio or video recording.
They should of course obtain permission before recording an interview.

Case studies

Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small
group). Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes
observation and interviews and may involve consulting other people and personal or public
records. The researchers may be interested in a particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a
diagnosis or a move into residential care) and select one or more individuals in the
respective situation on whom to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very
narrow focus which results in detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s)
studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical settings and may even challenge existing
theories and practices in other domains.

Participant and non-participant observation

Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories,
namely participant observation and non-participant observation.

In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of the
group to be observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of the group and
at the same time remaining sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the observation.
The observations made might be based on what people do, the explanations they give for
what they do, the roles they have, relationships amongst them and features of the situation
in which they find themselves. The researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give
the participants in the study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their
comments seriously.

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 In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part of the group being
studied. The researcher decides in advance precisely what kind of behavior is relevant to the
study and can be realistically and ethically observed. The observation can be carried out in a
few different ways. For example, it could be continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one
hour) or regularly for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds every so often) or on a random
basis. Observation does not only include noting what happened or was said but also the fact
that a specific behavior did not occur at the time of observation.

Observational trials

Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural
settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behavior of a group of people over a fairly
lengthy period of time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life paying specific
attention to diet and lifestyle factors. In some cases, the researchers might monitor people
when they are middle-aged and then again after 15 years and so on. The aim of such studies
is usually to determine whether there is a link between one factor and another (e.g. whether
high alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved in this
kind of study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic or experience
within a defined period. Within the cohort, there may be subgroups (e.g. people who drink
moderately, people who drink heavily, people who binge drink etc.) which allow for further
comparisons to be made.

In some cases, rather than following a group of people from a specific point in time
onwards, the researchers take a retrospective approach, working backwards as it were. They
might ask participants to tell them about their past behavior, diet or lifestyle (e.g. their
alcohol consumption, how much exercise they did, whether they smoked etc.) They might
also ask for permission to consult the participants’ medical records (a chart review). This is
not always a reliable method and may be problematic as some people may forget, exaggerate
or idealize their behavior. For this reason, a prospective study is generally preferred if
feasible although a retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective study may be helpful in
focusing the study question and clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the latter (Hess,
2004).

Studies using the Delphi method

The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s in the
military domain. It has been considered particularly useful in helping researchers determine
the range of opinions which exist on a particular subject, in investigating issues of policy or
clinical relevance and in trying to come to a consensus on controversial issues. The objectives
can be roughly divided into those which aim to measure diversity and those which aim to
reach consensus.

Different ways to employ this method have been devised but they tend to share
common features, namely a series of “rounds” in which the participants (known as
“panelists”) generate ideas or identify salient issues, comment on a questionnaire
(constructed on the basis of the results from the first round) and re-evaluate their original
responses. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the
forecasts/opinions made by the experts and of their reasons.

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 There is no limit to the number of panelists involved but between 10 and 50 might be
considered manageable. The panelists are chosen on the basis of their expertise which could
take many forms (e.g. academic, professional or practical knowledge, personal experience of
having a condition, being a service user etc.).

PARTS OF A THESIS

Preliminary Pages
1. Title Page - The following information needs to be on the title page: The title (and
possibly the subtitle) of your thesis: First name and surname of the author(s):
Whether it is a ‘Bachelor’s thesis’ or a ‘Master’s thesis’: Faculty and department: Place
and date of completion
2. Approval Sheet - This is to prove that the authors have passed the requirements
needed for the thesis: This is signed by the thesis/FS adviser, panel and the Dean: This
also states the grade obtained by the author/s.
3. Acknowledgment - This is a page focused on expressing gratitude to organizations,
agencies or individuals who, in one way or another, have aided the researchers in
finishing the thesis.
4. Dedication - This is the page for dedicating the thesis to certain people or groups who
have inspired the researchers while doing the thesis.
5. Abstract - An abstract presents a brief summary of your thesis: The aim of the abstract
is to briefly provide the reader with the most important information from the entire
text: An abstract never contains new information: This summary is no longer than 2
pages.
6. Table of Contents - The table of contents is essentially a topic outline of the thesis: It
is compiled by listing the headings in the thesis down to whichever level you choose.
7. List of Tables and List of Figures - Include a list of figures (illustrations) and a list of
tables if you have one or more items in these categories: Use a separate page for each
list: List the number, caption, and page number of every figure and table in the body
of the thesis.
8. List of Figures

CHAPTERS

1. Problem and Its Background - Introduction and Background of the Study

i. Introduction
ii. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
iii. Statement of the Problem
iv. Hypothesis
v. Scope and Limitation of the Study
vi. Significance of the Study
vii. Definition of Terms

2. Review of Related Literature and Studies - In this part you must get your data and
information from any books, magazines, and newspapers. You must label your published
material with local or foreign. Must be also organized to cover specific problems. Must take
all the evidences about the problem with the author’s experiences. As much as possible, get
the latest published materials. Avoid old published materials. It must be related to your topic.
If not, do not get it. On the last part of this part you must have a statement how this old
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published material helps the researcher in their current study and relate it to your study.

3. Research Methodology - Brief description and justification of the research method used in
the study.
i. Research Design
ii. Research Setting
iii. Research Respondents
iv. Sample Size of the Study
v. Research Instrument
vi. Scoring Procedure
vii. Validity of Instrument
viii. Data Gathering Procedure
ix. Statistical Treatment

4. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data - Answers to the problems are stated one
by one according to the arrangement of sub-problems for clarity and understanding
i. Presentation of Data
ii. Analysis of Data
iii. Interpretation of Data

5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations - Contains the specific findings/results of

the study, logical and valid outgrowth of the findings and an appeal to people or institutions
concerned to solve the problems discovered in
the study
i. Summary of Findings
ii. Conclusions
iii. Recommendations

6. References

Reference:

Foronda, Mercedes A. (2012). Criminological Research and Statistics

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-research-and-vs-problem-solving/
https://www.alzheimer-europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-of-
research/Research-methods
https://www.alzheimer-europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-of-
research/The-four-main-approaches
Sexon, Draizelle (2012). The thesis and its parts

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