Why Study Thermodynamics?

-I
ME 209
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-1) • Thermodynamics is derived from Greek Words
“Therme” meaning “Heat” and “Dynamis” meaning
“Force”.
Kannan Iyer • Subject developed during the age of development
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in of Heat engines ~1750 onwards to explain the heat
to work conversion
• Today it represents the study of Energy Interactions

• The kinds of energy we come across can be,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Mechanical, Thermal, Photo, Magnetic, Electric,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Nuclear, Chemical, etc.

Why Study Thermodynamics?-II

Different Approaches-I
• It cuts across disciplines and hence every engineer
• Molecular Approach
studies it in some form or the other
– Follow the state of each molecule
• Our focus shall be Mechanical Work-Heat
– Difficult as even 1 cc of air has ~ 1022 molecules at
interaction
STP
• Many components of Power Stations, such as
– With such large numbers, it is ideal to resort to
boilers, turbines, pumps, condensers, etc.,
statistical approaches
Refrigeration and Air-conditioning equipment, such
as compressors, evaporators, condensers, etc.,
Automobile engines, such as petrol engine, diesel
engine, etc., use the knowledge of thermodynamics.

1
 Different Approaches-II Properties
• Continuum Approach • In Continuum or macroscopic approach, we define
– Assumes that the material and their properties are many properties
continuous • Consider the well known property, density
– Measurement methods are synthesized to quantify
the properties M
ρ=
– Suitable laws are generated to relate the various V
changes in properties like conservation of mass, • If we keep subdividing
conservation of energy, etc. this volume into finer
ones, till we come to Continuum
– Predict system behaviour and verify it with Valid
experiments and finally generalize levels of few molecules, ρ
the average density
• We shall follow this approach, which is at times
variation shall be as
called the Classical Thermodynamics.
shown V

Definitions-I
Property
• A characteristic of the state of the matter
e.g., pressure, density, force, volume, etc.
• A property is said to be intensive, if it does not
vary with the extent of matter
e.g., temperature, pressure, density, etc.
• A property is said to be extensive, if it depends on
the extent of matter
e.g., mass, volume, force, etc.
• For every extensive property, we
mass – Density
can define a corresponding
intensive property Volume-specific volume
Definitions-II
System
• In thermodynamics, we normally pay attention to
a quantity of matter that is of interest to us. This is
denoted by system
• A system is homogeneous, if its properties are
uniform (no spatial variation)
• A system is isolated, if it has no energy
interactions with its surroundings
Surroundings
• Matter outside the system
Universe includes both system and surroundings

2
 Definitions-III Definitions-IV
Gas State
• A system is closed, if it • A set of properties required to specify a system
has no mass exchange, uniquely
but has energy • Only a small subset may be defined
interactions with its independently
surroundings
Low pressure – e.g., for gas we can only specify 2 properties
Water in independently (p,v) or (v,T), (p,T)
• A system is open, if it Pump
has both mass and • Relation between the independent property
energy interactions variable and others is called Equation of State
with its surroundings – e.g., pv = RT

High pressure
Water out

Definitions-V Definitions-V
Equilibrium Representation of the state of a system
• In thermodynamics, we normally deal with • Isolated systems eventually come to equilibrium
systems that have no gradients, like homogeneous • Only equilibrium states can be represented in
pressure, temperature, etc. state space
• These correspond to some internal equilibrium
state
State of a system
– Mechanical equilibrium implies uniform
pressure p
– Chemical equilibrium implies homogeneous
composition
– Thermal equilibrium implies homogeneous V
temperature

3
 Definitions-VI
Process
• When energy interactions occur between a system
and surroundings, the state of the system changes
• The locus of change of states is called the process
• For a process to be denoted in a state space, it has
to be very slow such that every point in the path is
an equilibrium state. This is called Quasi-static
process
Initial state
Definitions-VII
• A non-quasi-static process cannot be shown in a
state space as a line. However, if the end states
are known, it is shown as a dotted line
• If the initial and final states of a process is same,
then the process is called a cycle
Initial state

p p p
Final state Final state

V V V

Definitions-VIII
• Since the end points of a cycle is same, then the
initial and final properties shall be same
• As a corollary, if the change of a variable when a
cycle is executed is zero, the variable will qualify
to be called a property.
• Mathematically, property is a point function and
not a path function (independent of path)

4
 Review of Lecture 2
ME 209
• Introduced the property, pressure. Understood the
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-3) principle of manometers, distinguished between
gauge and absolute pressure.
• Introduced the concept of temperature and its
Kannan Iyer
measurement. Two point scale and one point Kelvin
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in scale were introduced. Errors on temperature due to
non-linear behaviour of thermometers was understood
• Elementary concepts on conversion was discussed
• Today we shall discuss Work interaction and Heat
Department of Mechanical Engineering interaction and introduce First Law of
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
thermodynamics.

Work - I
Work - II
Work in Mechanics
Work in Thermodynamics
• In mechanics, we have defined work as:
• In thermodynamics, its definition is a bit complicated
Work = Force x Displacement and winded
r r
W = ∫ F. dS • Positive work is done by a system during a process,
• By virtue of the above definition, work is a scalar when the Sole effect External to the System can be
and is positive, if displacement is in the direction of reduced to a rise of weight
the force. • Why do we need such a winded definition?
• The rate of work done is called power Sole eliminates heat interaction
r r
F. dS r r External eliminates internal conversion
Power = P = = F. V Note that weight need not be actually lifted
dt

1
 Work - III Work - IV
• Let us look at some examples • For the system shown, is there Motor
work done in the process?
Resistor
Battery • No, because it is internal
conversion
• The above figure shows discharging of a battery
through a resistor. If battery is the system, is the Types of work
process work? Displacement Work
Motor
• The answer is yes, as you
can replace the resistor by
a motor which would raise
weight. Hence positive
work is done. d W = pdv d W = Fds d W = Tdθ

Work - V Work - VI
• Electrical work
• Work is not a property as it depends on the path
d W = Edq = Eidt
Initial state
Sign Convention
p
• As work is done during system-surroundings Final state
interaction, it has opposite signs for system and
surroundings V
• Work is positive for the system, if it does • As work done is area under the p-V curve, it
work on the surroundings and it is negative depends on the path
for the system, if the surroundings do work on
Note that work is a commodity in transit and
the system
cannot be possessed

2
1/46 2/46
First Law - I
ME 209 Adiabatic process
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-3) • By definition, adiabatic process is that which
involves only work interaction between system
and surroundings
Kannan Iyer • Joule performed several experiments and showed
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in that Wad is a constant when a adiabatic system is
taken from a given state to another given state..
2
Wad 1 = cons tan t
Department of Mechanical Engineering • This is one form of first law (Caratheodory), the
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay other common form will be seen soon

3/46
First Law - I
4/46
Energy
Forms of Energy
• If we can define a variable φ such that, Energy The Associated Potential

Wad = ∆ϕ
Potential Energy possessed by virtue of
• Then φ qualifies to be a property. Usually, this is elevation from earth
denoted by E and is called Energy. Thus, Kinetic Energy possessed by virtue of
motion
Wad = −∆E Internal Energy Possessed by virtue of
• The negative sign is added to have consistency of • Elasticity
sign convention • Chemical Composition
• Note that work done on the system (which is –ve) • Temperature
will increase the energy of the system
∆E = ∆PE + ∆KE + ∆IE

1
5/46 6/46
Internal Energy Heat Interaction - I
• For adiabatic Process Non-Adiabatic
• Internal Energy possessed by virtue of 2
Temperature is called is usually denoted by U Wad 1 = −∆E p Adiabatic

• In this course, Unless explicitly mentioned, • For Non-adiabatic process

2
∆IE = ∆U Wnad 1 ≠ −∆E V
• Since energy has the same unit as work, it
will be expressed in Joules • Let
2 2 2 2
• Some people still use Calories Wnad 12 − Wad = Q nad 1 ⇒ Wnad 1 + ∆E = Q nad 1
1
1 Calorie = 4.18 J
⇒ W + ∆E = Q
• Specific internal energy is denoted with u,
and has the units J/kg Or ∆E = dQ − dW For an elemental process

7/46
Heat Interaction - II Forms of First Law for a Closed System
The following Observations/Comments may be noted
• Q is also is energy in transit and occurs due to • We had seen that the first law for a process is
temperature difference between system and dE = dQ-dW
surroundings. It is called Heat. Will be expressed
in Joules • If the process were a cycle, then
• The highlighted equation in previous slide is the
0 = ∫ dQ − ∫ dW
First Law
• In adiabatic process Q = 0 • The same law can be written in the rate form as
dE & & &
• For consistency of first law, Q into the system is = E = Q−W
positive for the system dt
• Only E can be stored and not Q or W

2
 ME 209 Review
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-5)
• We had argued axiomatically that Temperature is
nothing but labels of isotherms.
Kannan Iyer
• Isotherms were sequence of states for a system to
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
have no heat interaction with a surrounding whose
state was fixed.
• Such system states for which there are no heat
interactions with surroundings are said to be in
thermal equilibrium with surroundings
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
2/12

Temperature - I Temperature - II
• Humans could sense temperature long before • By executing a cyclic
development of thermometers. However, judgement process (after knowing p
cannot be quantified. how to measure it), it can
• Bodies at different temperature, when brought in be deduced that
contact and left isolated, undergo changes in temperature is a property
physical properties before they attain equilibrium, v
called thermal equilibrium • Zeroth law of thermodynamics helps us to invent
temperature scales
• The energy interaction by virtue of change in
temperature is called heat interaction and • To develop scales and measure temperature, we
will be studied later use some physical property of the sensing element
• Volume of liquid, electrical resistance,
pressure/volume of a gas, thermo emf, etc.,
3/12 are some properties that are used 4/12

1
 Temperature - III Temperature - III
Zeroth Law
• It states that If a body A is in thermal equilibrium
with body B (sensing element) and the body B is
in thermal equilibrium with body C, then body A h
is in thermal equilibrium with body C
• What this implies is that both bodies A and C
when in thermal equilibrium, will make body B 0 (T1) T 100 (T2)
have the same value of a physical property, which • The scale is assumed linear
can be used to create a temperature scale
h − h1 T − T1
• Let us first look at two point reference temperature =
h 2 − h 1 T2 − T1
scales
• In the above scale, we have assumed T1 = 0 and
5/12 T2 = 100 and these assignments are arbitrary 6/12

Temperature - IV Temperature - IV
Two Point scales
• In Celsius scale, the first state corresponds to • As the interest of temperature spread to higher
melting ice and the second state corresponds to temperatures, thermometric substance other than
boiling steam at 1 standard atmosphere mercury had to be looked into
Other Scales • Gas turned out to be convenient option as it can
be used at widely varying temperatures
Scale Melting ice Boiling
value steam value • Gas at lower pressures obey Boyle’s law
Kelvin 273.15 373.15 pV = Cons tan t
• Ideal gas is one that obeys Boyle’s law everywhere
Fahrenheit 32 212
• Using Boyle’s and Charles Law, the ideal gas
Rankine 491.67 671.67 equation of state can be expressed as
• Inter conversion is fairly straight forward pV = mRT
7/12 8/12

2
 Temperature - IV Temperature - V
One Point scale Errors in temperature scales
• The triple point of water, where solid, liquid and • All scales assume a linear behaviour between the
gas phases of water coexist is chosen as the temperature and the sensing property
reference and is assigned a value 273.16 • While gas thermometers (constant p or constant V)
• The relation used to find the other temperature at low pressures are linear, most properties do not
values are vary linearly
Assumed
φ T φ Behaviour
= Or T = 273.16 h measured
φR TR φR
Actual
In the above φ and φR are the property values at T and TR h Behaviour
• If we use a fixed mass of gas as a thermometric
Testimate
substance
( pV )
T = 273.16
( pV )R 9/12 0 (T1) Tactual 100 (T2)10/12

Temperature - VI Reference Value (K)

International Practical Scale Triple Point of H2 13.8033
• It is clumsy to use gas thermometer in practical Triple Point of Ne 24.5561
Triple point of O2 54.3584
environment Source
Triple point of Ar 83.8058
• To facilitate calibration a practical scale has been Triple point of Hg 234.316 http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/International_Tem
evolved. It is summarized in the next slide Triple point of Water 273.16
Melting Point of Ga 302.915 perature_Scale_of_1990
Freezing Point of In 429.749
Freezing point of Sn 505.078
Freezing point of Zn 692.677
Freezing point of Al 933.473
Freezing point of Ag 1234.93
Freezing point of Au 1337.33
Freezing point of Cu 1357.77
11/12 12/12

3
 Review of Lecture 5
ME 209
• Introduced Zeroth law
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-6)
• Understood the two-point and single point scales
• Understood error in thermometers due to the non-
Kannan Iyer linearity of the sensing property with temperature
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
• Introduced the International practical temperature
scale which can be used for calibration.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

Review of concepts Ideal Gas Model - I

• Substances that have only one work mode are called • Many gases can be treated as ideal gas as a first
simple substances approximation
• Air and water can be classified as a simple • The equation of state can be approximated by
compressible substance as the only relevant work Specific
mode is pdV pV = mRT Or pv = RT Volume
• If water is only in the liquid phase, then it can be
• R is gas constant and is given by Ru/M, where Ru is
assumed incompressible (approximation) and hence
the universal gas constant and M is the relative
there is degeneracy. So all properties, except
molecular mass
pressure depend only on temperature
• Ru = 8.314 J/mol-K = 8.314 kJ/kmol-K
• While we shall deal with water later, let us look at
gases, which can be assumed as ideal as a first • Rair = (8.314 kJ/kmol-K)/29 kg/kmol = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
approximation

1
 Ideal Gas Model - II Ideal Gas Model - III
• For a gas, p, v, ρ and T are properties
• Since h = u + pv = u (T) + RT = h(T), thereby we
• For a gas at rest and at standard elevation, the total can conclude that h is only a function of
energy is in the form of internal energy (u) and temperature
from first law it is a property
• The specific heats are defined as,
• We can define another property called enthalpy (h)
∂u du Only a function of
as, h = u + pv cv = = , temperature, as u = u (T)
∂T v dT
• From state principle h (p,T), u (p,T)
∂h dh Only a function of
• We shall show later in the course that u for cp = = , temperature, as h = h (T)
∂T p dT
ideal gas is only a function of temperature,
i.e., u = u (T) • However, R = cp – cv = constant
• Also, the ratio of specific heats cp /cv = γ (T)

Ideal Gas Model - IV Ideal Gas Model - IV

• For a process, change in internal energy can be • Similarly, the change in enthalpy for a process
written as shall be,
2 2 2 2

∫ du =∫ c
1 1
v (T )dT = c v (T2 − T1 ) ∫ dh =∫ c
1 1
p (T )dT = c p (T2 − T1 )

• For a moderate change in temperature, c v may be • While for a small change in temperature, c p may
taken as constant, otherwise, the mean spcific be taken as constant, otherwise, the mean spcific
heat at constant volume shall be defined as heat at constant pressure shall be defined as
2 2

∫ c v (T)dT
1
∫c
1
p (T)dT
cv = cp =
(T2 − T1 ) (T2 − T1 )

2
 Ideal Gas Model - V Ideal Gas Model - VI
Reference State and its Consequence • Similarly, we can write for change in enthalpy
• For a process where the specific heat can be from 0 K
assumed as constant, change in internal energy h (T) = c p T + h ref
from a reference state can be written as
T T Where, h ref = u ref + p ref v ref = 0 as, uref, vref = 0
∫ du = u(T) − u(T(Re f )) =
T (Re f )
∫ c v (T)dT = cv (T − T(Re f ))
T (Re f )
• Hence, we can write
• For an ideal gas, we can postulate that its internal h ( T) = c p T
energy shall be zero at 0 K, hence the reference
state is taken as 0 K. Thus in case of an ideal gas • The above relations for h and u appear to define
with constant specific heat model, we can write absolute quantities. However, in thermodynamics,
u (T ) = c v T Note: T in K we always relate change of states.

Processes with Ideal Gas - I Processes with Ideal Gas - II

Frictionless Adiabatic Process (pdv + vdp)
⇒ = −pdv
• For an ideal gas with constant specific heat and γ −1
no friction, we can use first law to arrive at the
process equation ⇒ pdv + vdp = −γpdv + pdv
∆u = dQ − dW
• The above can be rewritten as
⇒ c v dT = 0 − pdv 1
dp dv
From Equation of State = −γ
pdv + vdp p v
pv = RT ⇒ pdv + vdp = RdT ⇒ dT =
R • The above equation integrated between two
Hence Eq. (1) can be rewritten as states gives
(pdv + vdp ) (pdv + vdp )
= −pdv ⇒ c v
γ γ
cv = −pdv p1v1 = p 2 v 2
R c p − c v

3
 Processes with Ideal Gas - II
• Several processes with ideal gas can be
generalized as follows
pv n = constant
n = 1 Isothermal process
n = 0 Isobaric process
n = γ Adiabatic frictionless process
n = n Polytropic process
V = constant Isochoric process

4
 Review of Lecture 6
ME 209
• Introduced the various form of first law and the State
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-7) principle
• Introduced the ideal gas equation of state and the
definition of specific heats. Learnt that u, h, cp and cv
Kannan Iyer are only functions of temperature
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in • Derived the process relation for adiabatic frictionless
process in ideal gas with constant specific heats
• Solved a few problems illustrating work and first law.
• Today, we shall build the concepts involving
properties of water substance.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

Properties of Pure Substances Properties of Pure Substances - II

• Consider a fixed mass of a pure water in a cylinder
piston arrangement (p = constant) subjected to • Triple line – p = 611 Pa, T = 0.01 oC
heating • Critical Point – p = 22.09 MPa, T = 374.14 oC
Liquid-Vapour
Dome • Water contracts on melting and Tmelt decreases with
increase in p

Boiling
• Other substances that expand on Melting, the Tmelt
T(K) (L+V) increases with increase in p
• During phase change, p and T are not independent
Sublimation • The solid-liquid transformation and solid-vapour
Melting (S+V) Triple Line
transformation are not very useful in power generation
applications and hence will not be discussed further.
v (m3/kg)

1
 Properties of Pure Substances - III Properties of Pure Substances - IV
Definitions
• The phase diagram can be plotted in p-v and p-T
• Saturated temperature is the temperature at which
plane. Only liquid-vapour system is plotted in p-v
change of phase occurs at constant pressure. It is a
Sublimation line Fusion line vapourisation line function of pressure. Tsat = Tsat(p)
• Saturated pressure is the pressure at which change
L of phase occurs at constant temperature. It is a
p function of temperature. psat = psat(T)
p S
L L+V V • Subcooled Liquid is the state when T < Tsat(p)
V • Superheated vapour is the state is when T >Tsat(p)
Critical
Isotherms Triple Point Point • The state is wet, T = Tsat, p = psat and a mixture of
vapour and liquid is simultaneously present.
v T

Steam Tables - I Steam Tables - II

• Ideal gas temperature holds, when p << pc,
• For every Ttriple point < T < Tcritical, there exists a psat
T >> Tsat
• Equation of state of a real substance is quite • The saturated liquid properties are denoted by
complicated. the subscript f and the saturated vapour
properties are denoted by the subscript g
• These are tabulated in the form of tables.
• In saturated pressure table, for every psat, the
• Generally this table is in three forms corresponding Tsat, vf, vg, uf, ug, hf, hg, hfg sf,
– Saturated Tables sfg and sg are tabulated
– Superheated vapour Table • In saturated temperature table, for every Tsat,
– Compressed liquid Table. the corresponding psat, vf, vg, uf, ug, hf, hg, hfg
sf, sfg and sg are tabulated
• The last one is often skipped and Incompressible
model is used.

2
 Steam Tables - III Steam Tables - IV
• In superheated steam table, for every pressure, • The properties of two-phase mixture is estimated
the values of v, u, h and s are tabulated at regular using the dryness fraction as follows
intervals of temperature for T > Tsat • Consider, Volume of two-phase mixture, V
• Thus the properties of the gas and liquid phase in V = Vf + Vg = m f v f + m g v g
saturated state and the properties of gas at
superheated vapour state can be obtained V mf vf + mg vg
⇒v= =
• When a mixture of two phases exists, we define a m f + mg mf + m g
parameter x, which is defined as the fraction of mf mg
mass of vapour in the mixture. This parameter is ⇒v= vf + vg
called dryness fraction or quality m f + mg mf + mg
⇒ v = (1 − x ) v f + xv g

Steam Tables - V Incompressible liquid model

• In a similar fashion all the specific properties will • For incompressible substances, u = u(T), v = v(T)
be dryness fraction weighted. and s(T) = sf (T)
• Hence we can estimate u, v and s for liquids as
u = (1 − x )u f + xu g h = (1 − x )h f + xh g u (T) = uf (T), v (T) = vf (T) and s (T) = sf (T)

s = (1 − x )s f + xs g • Finally, h(T) can be estimated as

• From the above we can write, h (p, T) = u f (T) + pv f (T)

v − vf u − uf h − hf s − sf
x= = = =
vg − v f u g − u f h g − h f sg − sf

3
 For details refer to the original site
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/phase.html

Liquid
1 MPa

p
1 kPa Vapour
Solid
1 Pa
0 200 400 600 800
T (K)

4
 8/27/2010

1/15 2/15

ME 209 Properties-1
Basic Thermodynamics • We saw previously that simple substances are those
which have one reversible work mode.
(van-der-Waals Equation) • According to the state principle such substances can
Kannan Iyer have only two properties that can be defined
independently.
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
• Equation of state is the relationship that connects a third
property to the other two independent properties.
• The simplest is the one we saw and extensively used is
the ideal gas law.
• Now we shall build on this and see how real substances
Department of Mechanical Engineering
can be modelled
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/15 4/15

Properties-2 Properties-3
• The projection of this surface on two dimensional
• The most commonly talked of planes such as the ones shown below are familiar
intensive properties are p,v,T.
• Thus, f (p,v,T) = 0 is an Sublimation line Fusion line vapourisation line
equation of state
• Geometrically, this can be
viewed as a three dimensional L
p
surface, which can be fairly
p S
complex, if all the solid liquid L V
L+V
and gas transformations are
V
represented Critical
• A typical surface is as shown Isotherms Triple Point Point

v T

1
 8/27/2010

5/15 6/15

Equation of State Ideal Gas Law

• Remember p,v,T surface is just one such surface. • Combining Boyle’s law, Charles Law and Avogadro’s
hypothesis, the ideal gas equation was constructed
• We can generate many such surfaces like, s,v,T; h,s,T,
etc. p α 1/V pα T pα n
• First we will address p,v,T surface now and then we
shall look at more property relations later in the nT
⇒ pα ⇒ pV = nRuT
course. V
• The foundation for ideal gas was laid by Robert Boyle
in 1660, who showed that at lower pressures pV =
constant for a gas at same temperature. • This is a simpler form of what is called a generalised
• The general interpretation is that as the volume is compressible gas law given by
halved then the number density of molecules double R  Z is the generalised
and twice as many molecules bang the wall resulting pv = Z u T compressibility factor
in double pressure. M Z = 1 for ideal gas

7/15 8/15

Compressibility Factor-I Compressibility Factor-II

• Another type of expansion used is
• Standard texts give
c1(T ) c 2(T ) c3(T )
variation of Z for typical Z =1+ + 2 + 3 + ..... Also called Virial
v v v Expansion
gases as a function of
pressure at constant Ts as • In the above expansions, as p is small or when v is
shown in the adjacent large, Z reduces to 1 leading to ideal gas.
figure.
• It may be observed that as • One of the first modification to ideal gas was
p tends to 0, Z tends to 1 proposed by van der Waals to explain the real gas
behaviour. The equation is given by
• A curve such as the one
shown motivates one to  a  ‘a’ accounts for inter
write  p + 2 ( v − b) = RT molecular attraction and ‘b’
 v  the size of atoms
Z = 1 + c1(T) p + c 2(T ) p 2 + c3(T )p 3 + ..... Called Virial Expansion

2
 8/27/2010

9/15 10/15

Van der Waals Equation-I Van der Waals Equation-II

• Van der Waals equation can be rewritten as • We had already noted that Van der Waals equation
reduces to ideal gas equation at large v’s
−1
a RT  b a
p=− 2 + ⇒ pv = RT  1 −  − • Because of cubic nature, it has 3 roots for v for a
v (v −b)  v v
given p below a critical pressure
• Using binomial theorem, we can expand and write • As v tends to b, the pressure goes
2 3
RTb − a b b very large, thereby mimicking the
pv = RT + + RT   + RT  + .... liquid behaviour
v v v p
• However, this equation also fails to
• The above can be assumed to be a kind of virial predict the real behaviour in the two-
expansion expression phase dome
v
• Another way of looking at Van der Waals equation is • This may be easily visualized by
pv3 − (pb + RT ) v 2 + av − ab = 0 Cubic equation
plotting the behaviour

11/15 12/15

Van der Waals Equation-III Van der Waals Equation-IV

• If we have measured values of pc, vc and Tc, we have
• It may be noted that there is a point three equations to determine 2 constants a and b
of inflexion at the critical point. Thus RT a
p= − 2 • The expression for b from second equation and from
∂p ∂ p 2 (v − b) v
= 2 =0 At critical point solving first and third equations are
∂v T ∂v T
∂p RT 2a ∂2 p 2 RT 6a vc RTc
⇒ =− + 3 =0 ⇒ = − 4 =0 b= and b =
∂v T (v − b) v
2
∂v T (v − b ) v
2 3
3 8p c

• Using T = Tc, p = pc and v = vc , we can solve for pc, • The values of b from the above two equations do not
vc and Tc in terms of a and b using the above three agree
relations to give • Elimination of b from the above two equations give
a 8a
the value of Zc = 3/8 or 0.375
pc = 2
, vc = 3b, Tc
27b 27Rb

3
 8/27/2010

13/15 14/15
Van der Waals Equation-V Principle of Corresponding States-I
• However, the values of Zc are reasonably fair and
deviates further for heavier gases • If we plot the compressibility factor in reduced
coordinates with pr as variable and Tr as a parameter,
Element Zc we get
He 0.327
H2 0.306
O2 0.292 There appears
to be universal
CO2 0.277 agreement

H2O 0.233 Refer any

standard Text
• We can generalize the properties by introducing
reduced coordinates defined by
p v T
pr = , vr = and Tr =
pc vc Tc

15/15

Principle of Corresponding States-II

• Such plots to compute enthalpy and entropy are also
available in standard texts (Van Wylen and Sonntag)
• Vander der Waals equation can also be reduced to
and will be done as home work
 3 
 p r + 2 (3v r − 1) = 8Tr
 v r 


• There are more accurate empirical equations of state

such as Redlich-Kwong, Peng-Robinson, Lee-Kessler
equations that have more parameters and predict better.
You can refer to standard texts

4
1/14 2/14
Some Definitions
ME 209
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-9) • Prior to discussion on Second Law, it is instructive
to define what is meant by a Reservoir, a Heat
Engine, a Heat Pump and a Refrigerator
Kannan Iyer • A Reservoir is either a source or sink of heat
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in characterised by its temperature.
• These are large bodies such as atmosphere, river,
ocean, etc. and is usually denoted by a rectangle

Department of Mechanical Engineering T

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/14
Heat Engine 4/14
Heat Pump & Refrigerator
• A Heat Engine is a device or a combination of • A Heat Pump or a Refrigerator is a TH
devices that converts heat into work TH device or a combination of devices that QH
• Generally, it is shown to interact QH
converts work into heat W
with reservoirs for taking in or • In a Heat Pump the heat delivered to QC
W
dumping out the heat QC
the hot reservoir is the useful output, TC
• Generally engines have a working fluid whereas in a Refrigerator the heat
TC Heat Pump/Refrigerator
that normally is subjected to cyclic removed from the cold space is the
processes Heat Engine useful output
• If we apply first law for the cyclic process Q H − Q C = W
• If we apply first law for the cyclic process
Q H − QC = W • The Coefficient of Performance of Heat COP = Q H
W Pump can be defined as
HP W
• The efficiency of Engine can be defined as η =
QH • Similarly, for a Refrigerator COPREF = Q C
W

1
5/14 6/14
Second Law-I Second Law-II
• First law or energy conservation is a book keeping • While the direction of process for a simple
law that connects two states with the heat and work everyday process can be guided by experience, a
interactions that may be involved in the process of guiding principle is required for complex process.
change of state of the system • Second law provides answers.
• It cannot say anything about the possibility of the • If we carefully look at the above examples, we
process. For instance, first law cannot prohibit the could have obtained work in both the cases
energy of the heat engine to be 100%
TH TH
• Interestingly, many of the spontaneous processes in QH
QH
nature have a definite direction, e.g., hot body
W
cooling off, or high pressure tank emptying through
QC
a leak, etc.
TC TC
Turbine W
Heat Engine

7/14 8/14
Second Law-III Clausius Statement
• As an engineer, we can ask how much of work
ideally could have been obtained? • It is impossible for any system to operate in such
• Second Law provides the answer a way that the sole result is the energy transfer
from a cold body to hot body
• Second Law provides the answers for
– Directionality • The primary interpretation of the above statement
is that some external work will be required to
– Conditions for equilibrium
pump the heat from a lower temperature to higher
– Maximum possible work that can be obtained temperature.
– Absolute temperature scale
TH
– Property relations QH
• A law that can provide answers to such diverse
questions cannot be stated uniquely. It has several
forms, all of which are equivalent TC

2
9/14 10/14
Kelvin-Planck Statement Equivalence of K-P and C Statements
• It is impossible to have an engine operating Let Clausius statement be violated
cyclically in which only interactions are work TH TH TH
done at the expense of heat received from a single QH QH-Q
reservoir Q Q W W
TH 1–T Engine is not Q
QH possible TC TC TC
W
• While qualitative remarks have been made, we
• It is fairly straight forward to prove that violation can put the Kelvin-Planck Statement in a
of Clausius statement leads to the violation of quantitative form as
Kelvin-Planck statement Note that K-P prohibits
∫ dW ≤ 0 positive work, but we can
1−T
always have the reverse

11/14 12/14
Reversible Process-I Reversible Process-II
• Let us now define the Reversible Process • Quasitatic adiabatic compression/expansion,
Isothermal heat addition/rejection are reversible
System Surroundings process
State-A State-B If after a process • Causes of Irreversibility
the system and – Lack of Equilibrium
Process surroundings can
• Heat transfer with finite temperature difference
State-B* be identically
State-A* • Free expansion (mixing of gases with p1 > p2)
taken to their
original states then – Dissipative Work
Inverse the original • Friction in system
Process process is
• Friction in surroundings
reversible.
State-A State-B
• In all the irreversible processes, either there is
dissipative work or opportunity to extract work is
lost

3
13/14 14/14
Carnot Corollary-1 - I Carnot Corollary-1 - II
TH TH
• Corollary-1 states that the • Corollary-1 also states that
QHR QHIR QHR QHIR
efficiency of a reversible the COPR > COPIR For a heat
engine is greater than the WR WIR pump/refrigerator WR WIR
efficiency of the irreversible QCR QCIR QCR QCIR
TC • Let the corollary be violated TC
engine
and let QHR = QHIR. This
• Let the corollary be violated TH will imply WR > WIR TH
and let QHR = QHIR. This QHR QHIR QHR QHIR
will imply WR < WIR WR WIR
• Reverse the reversible WR WIR
QCR QCIR
HP/REF and consider the QCR QCIR
• Reverse the reversible combined system
engine and consider the TC TC
combined system • Violates K-P statement
WIR-WR WR-WIR
• Violates K-P statement
QCIR-QCR TC QCIR-QCR TC

4
1/14 2/14
Review of Lecture 9
ME 209
• Understood the concept of an engine, heat pump and
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-10) refrigerator.
• Understood the Clausius Statement and Kelvin
Planck Statement, and showed that they are
Kannan Iyer equivalent.
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
• Now we shall look at reversibility and understand
that reversible engines, heat pumps and refrigerators
perform better than their irreversible counter parts.
• Then we shall move towards definition of
Department of Mechanical Engineering thermodynamic temperature scale and show that it is
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay equivalent to Kelvin scale

3/14 4/14
Reversible Process-I Reversible Process-II
• Let us now define the Reversible Process • Quasitatic adiabatic compression/expansion,
Isothermal heat addition/rejection are reversible
System Surroundings process
State-A State-B If after a process • Causes of Irreversibility
the system and – Lack of Equilibrium
Process surroundings can
• Heat transfer with finite temperature difference
State-B* be identically
State-A* • Free expansion (mixing of gases with p1 > p2)
taken to their
original states then – Dissipative Work
Inverse the original • Friction in system
Process process is
• Friction in surroundings
reversible.
State-A State-B
• In all the irreversible processes, either there is
dissipative work or opportunity to extract work is
lost

1
5/14 6/14
Carnot Corollary-1 - I Carnot Corollary-1 - II
TH TH
• Corollary-1 states that the • Corollary-1 also states that
QHR QHIR QHR QHIR
efficiency of a reversible the COPR > COPIR For a heat
engine is greater than the WR WIR pump/refrigerator WR WIR
efficiency of the irreversible QCR QCIR QCR QCIR
TC • Let the corollary be violated TC
engine
and let QHR = QHIR. This
• Let the corollary be violated TH will imply WR > WIR TH
and let QHR = QHIR. This QHR QHIR QHR QHIR
will imply WR < WIR WR WIR
• Reverse the reversible WR WIR
QCR QCIR
HP/REF and consider the QCR QCIR
• Reverse the reversible combined system
engine and consider the TC TC
combined system • Violates K-P statement
WIR-WR WR-WIR
• Violates K-P statement
QCIR-QCR TC QCIR-QCR TC

7/14
Carnot Corollary-2
8/14
Themodynamic Temperature Scale-I
TH • For the sake of distinction, let us call
QH1 QH2 the hot and cold temperatures in
• This states that all reversible θH
engines operating between W1 W2 thermodynamic scale as θH and θC QH
same temperatures have the QC1 QC2
η = f (θ H , θ C ) W
same efficiency TC
QC
• The above is independent of working
• Let this be not true and let TH fluid in the engine θC
engine 2 produce more work QH1 QH2 Q
output for the same QH η(θ H , θC ) = 1 − C
W1 W2 QH
• Reverse the first engine and QC1 QC2 QC
consider the combined system TC = 1 − η(θ H , θC ) = f (θ H , θ C )
QH
W2-W1
Q C θC
• Simplest conceivable function is =
• Violates K-P statement Q H θH
QC1-QC2 TC

2
9/14
Themodynamic Temperature Scale-II
10/14

θ1 θ1
• Thus we can use heat engine to construct a
Q1 Q1
thermometer with supplied or rejected as a
W
thermometric property (work remaining the same)
W
Q2 Q
Q2 θ = 273.16
θ2
Q Re f
Q2 W
W Q3 • We have seen that isothermal heat transfer and
Q3 θ3
frictionless adiabatic process as reversible
θ3 • An engine that operates on this cycle is called a
Carnot Engine and we shall use this to relate the
thermodynamic scale to Absolute Gas Scale
(Kelvin Scale)

11/14
Carnot Engine
TC TH

1. Isothermal Compression (1-2)

2. Adiabatic Compression (2-3) 3
3. Isothermal Expansion (3-4) p 4

4. Adiabatic Expansion (4-1) 2

1

3
1/16 2/16
Review of Lecture 10
ME 209
• Understood the Carnot Corollary-I by which the
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-11) reversible machines perform better than their
irreversible counterparts operating between the same
reservoirs
Kannan Iyer • Understood the Carnot corollary-II by which all the
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in reversible machines perform equally well
• Thus, the heat transferred from reversible engines
could be used as a thrmometric sensor and a
thermodynamic scale can be constructed
• Got exposed to an engine that works reversibly
Department of Mechanical Engineering
between two reservoirs (2-T reversible engine)
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/16 4/16
Agenda for Today Carnot Engine
TC TH
• Analyse a Carnot engine and show that the
Thermodynamic scale and Ideal Gas Kelvin scale are
identical
• Derive the Clausius Inequality, define entropy and
entropy production
1. Isothermal Compression (1-2)
• Derive the Second law in terms of change of entropy
2. Adiabatic Compression (2-3) 3
for an infinitesinal process
3. Isothermal Expansion (3-4) p 4
• State the principle of increase in entropy of the
universe. 4. Adiabatic Expansion (4-1) 2
1

1
5/16
Equivalence of Thermodynamic and 6/16
Equivalence of Thermodynamic and
Kelvin Scale-I Kelvin Scale-II
• Process 1-2 is a constant temperature process with T = TC. • Process 2-3 is frictionless adiabatic process
1 1

W12 = mRTC ln 2 

V
=  2  =  C 
V3 T γ −1 T γ −1
⇒
 V1  V2  T3   TH
• Applying first law for the process 1-2 we get, • Similarly for Process 4-1
1 1
∆U = 0 = Q12 − W12
=  1  =  C 
V4 T γ −1 T γ −1
⇒
V1  T4   TH
⇒ Q12 = W12 = mRTC lnV2  1
 V1  • From the above two equations,
• Similarly applying first law for the process 3-4 we get,

⇒ Q34 = W34 = mRTH lnV4  2 ⇒ V4 = V3 ⇒ V4 = V1 3

V1 V2 V3 V2
 V3 

7/16
Equivalence of Thermodynamic and 8/16
Equivalence of Thermodynamic and
Kelvin Scale-III Kelvin Scale-IV
• From Eq. (1) in slide 3 of this lecture • Previously we had shown that in thermodynamic
Q12 = −QC = mRTC ln 2  ⇒ QC = mRTC ln  1 V  4
V V scale
 V1   2 Q
⇒ C = C
θ
• From Eq. (2) in slide 3 of this lecture, we have Q H θH
TC θC T θ
Q34 = QH = mRTH ln  4 
V 5 • Thus = Or =
 V3  TH θH Tref θref

• From Eqs. (3), (4) and (5) above, we have • If Tref = θref , then T= θ

Q C TC • Thus, the thermodynamic scale and Kelvin scale are

⇒ =
Q H TH equivalent and Kelvin scale can be called absolute
scale.

2
9/16 10/16
Carnot Efficiency/COP Clausius Inequality-I
QC T
η(θ H , θC ) = 1 − = 1− C
QH TH • Clausius Inequality lays foundaation for the
definition of quantitative description of II Law
• This is the highest possible efficiency of an engine
• It states that for a cyclic process
QC TC
COPREF = =

∫
QH − QC TH − TC dQ
≤0
T
• This is the highest possible COP of a Refrigerator • The equality sign holds for a reversible cycle
QH TH • There are many ways to show this, let us
COPHP = =
QH − QC TH − TC follow Kelvin-Planck Route

• This is the highest possible COP of a Heat Pump

11/16 12/16
Clausius Inequality-II Clausius Inequality-III

• Consider the system as shown having heat and work • Note that in this thought experiment, a large number
interaction with the surroundings during cyclic of cycles are executed by the reversible engine while
process Q our system executes one cycle
To
W • For the cycle that the body
dQR
executes
• For the purpose of analysis, we split the heat and dWR ∫ dQ = ∫ dW 1
body body
work into a sereis of infinitesimal heat and work dQ
interaction • For the combined 1-T system
dW T
• It is assumed that all heat is added through an ∫ dWR + ∫ dW ≤ 0 2
engine body
infinitesimal heat engine interacting with a reservoir

3
13/16 14/16
Clausius Inequality-IV Clausius Inequality-V
• If T is the body temperature during the infinitesimal • Substituting Eq.(4) in Eq. (2), we get
process, then using Kelvin absolute scale for
reversible engine To
∫ dW + ∫ dQ − ∫ dQ ≤ 0
body body T body
dQ R dQ 3
= • From Eq. (1), the cyclic work = cyclic heat for the
To T To
dQR body
• First law for the reversible engine T
dWR ⇒ ∫ o dQ ≤ 0
dWR = dQ R − dQ body T
dQ
T Note that for a
⇒ dWR = o dQ − dQ 4 dW T Or ∫
dQ
≤0 reversible process it
T body T is an equality

15/16 16/16
Entropy-I Entropy Production
2
dQ • Let 1-2 be a irreversible
• We have just shown that ∫ =0
reversible T process.
p
• This implies that we can write dQ R • Let us return to state 1 by a
= dS 1
T reversible process
• Subsript R is chosen to represent reversible process V
• Since part of the cycle is irreversible,
dQ dQ Entropy production
• In the above equation, S is a property and is called ∫ <0 or ∫ = −SP and is always positive
T T
entropy
dQ 1 dQ R
2 2 dQ 1 2
In classical thermodynamics, entropy is a mathematical ⇒∫ +∫ = −SP ⇒ ∫ + ∫ dS = −∫ dS P
entity and is as abstract as heat or momentum (mV) or 1 T 2 T 1 T 2 1

moment of inertia (mK2). Its use needs to be understood 2 dQ 2 2 2 2 dQ 2

and no time should be wasted on its physical interpretation ⇒∫ − ∫ dS = − ∫ dS P ⇒ ∫ dS = ∫ + ∫ dS P
1 T 1 1 1 1 T 1

4
17/16
Second Law for Closed System
2 2dQ 2 dQ
∫ dS = ∫ + ∫ dS P ⇒ dS = + dS P
1 1 T 1 T

• The above expression is the second law for an

infinitesimal process.
• It is very useful for deriving property relations

Principle of increase in entropy of the universe

• For an isolated system dS is always positive as
dQ = 0 and dSP is always positive

5
 2/13
ME 209
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-12)
Kannan Iyer
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
3/13 4/13
Agenda for Today
• Understand property relations
• Understand h-s and T-s diagrams
Review of Lecture 11
• Analysed a Carnot engine and showed that the
Thermodynamic scale and Ideal Gas Kelvin scale are
identical
• Derived the Clausius Inequality, defined entropy and
entropy production
• Derived the Second law in terms of change of entropy
for an infinitesinal process
• Stated the principle of increase in entropy of the
universe.
TdS Relations-I
• Consider two states 1 and 2
as shown
p 2
• The entropy change S2-S1
shall not depend on path 1
• Let us identify the reversible
V
path 1-2
• First law for the closed system can be written as
dQ = dU + dW
⇒ TdS = dU + pdV
Note that the above relation involves only properties
and hence shall be independent of path
1
5/13 6/13
TdS Relations-II T-S Diagram-I
• We can also modify the relation derived as follows • For adiabatic and reversible process ds = 0
TdS = dU + pdV • Further, for a reversible process, the heat transferred
per unit mass of the substance can be written as
⇒ TdS = dU + d (pV ) − Vdp
2
⇒ TdS = dH − Vdp ⇒ Q R = ∫ Tds
1

• The above two property relations are the working • The above has motivated construction of T-s
equations for the evaluation of entropy change and are diagram. Its usefulness is established by
known as TdS relations considering analysis of Carnot Cycle

7/13 8/13
T-S Diagram-II T-S Diagram-III
1. Isothermal Compression (1-2) • Heat rejected in process 1-2
2
2. Adiabatic Compression (2-3) ⇒ Q C = −Q12 = − ∫ Tds = −TC (S2 − S1 )
3. Isothermal Expansion (3-4) 1
• Heat added in process 3-4
4. Adiabatic Expansion (4-1) 4
3 4 ⇒ Q H = Q 34 = ∫ Tds = TH (S4 − S3 )
TH 3 3 4
TH
3 QC
4 T ⇒ η =1−
p QH T
TC 1 TC (S1 − S2 ) T TC
2 2 = 1− = 1− C 1
1 TH (S4 − S3 ) TH 2

V S S

2
9/13 10/13
h-s diagram Critical Point V Superheated vapour

h T=C
• For open systems, with kinetic and potential effects
neglected, we saw that for turbines, p = constant L+V
pumps/compressor and heat exchangers the p=C
heat/work per unit mass of the substance was
directly related to change of enthalpy s
• This motivated inventions of h-s diagrams, v = constant
T
particularly for water substance L L+V
• These are called Mollier Diagrams V

11/13 12/13
Evaluation of Change in Entropy-I Evaluation of Change in Entropy-II
For the system with ideal gas
• Proceeding on similar lines, we can use the
• Once the two states are known p 2 second TdS relation
we can use the TdS relations
1 TdS = dH − Vdp and show
to evaluate the entropy change
TdS = dU + pdV T2 p
mRT V ⇒ S2 − S1 = mc p ln − mR ln 2
⇒ TdS = mc vdT + dV T1 p1
V
dT dV
⇒ dS = mc v + mR
T V
2 2 dT 2 dV
⇒ ∫ dS = mc v ∫ + mR ∫
1 1 T 1 V
T2 V
⇒ S2 − S1 = mc v ln + mR ln 2
T1 V1

3
13/13
Evaluation of Change in Entropy-III
For the system with incompressible substance

• For incompressible substances the expansion

work is absent that makes cp = cv = c
TdS = dU + pdV
⇒ TdS = dU + pdV
⇒ TdS = mcdT
dT
⇒ dS = mc
T
2 2 dT
⇒ ∫ dS = mc ∫
1 1 T
T
⇒ S2 − S1 = mc ln 2
T1

4
1/18 2/10
Review of Lecture 12
ME 209
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-13) • Understood TdS relations and their usefulness in
evaluating entropy change between two states
• Appreciated the utility of T-S diagram.
Kannan Iyer
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in • Appreciated solution of problems in II law.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/10 4/10
Agenda for Today Motivation for Second Law Analysis
• We have seen that when entropy production is there is a
• Understand the concept of Availability work penalty
• In technology, there is a constant quest for minimising
• Understand the development of Availability Balance this penalty
equation
• To get a comparison between competing
technologies, we need a method for assessment. This
is commonly done by using second law efficiency
• While we can do everything by using the laws already
defined, second law analysis or Availability/Exergy
analysis helps in appreciating the interpretations better.

1
5/10 6/10
Availability-I Availability-II
• Availability, by definition, is the maximum useful work • First let us understand the term useful work
that can be extracted when a system at a given state is
• Consider a piston moving dead weight as
brought to equilibrium with the environment
shown
• Since the reservoir with which the system most often
• The work done by the system is used to lift
interacts is atmosphere, the final state is in equilibrium
weight as well as work against atmosphere
with the surrounding. This state is called the Dead State
• The former is the useful work, while latter is
• 1 bar and 300 K, is the most commonly accepted dead the inevitable due to nature and cannot be
state. However, it should be obvious that it can very extracted. 2
much depend on the geographic location of the place
• Thus, of the total work ∫ pdV, the unavailable
and the season. 1
work is po ∆V. 2
⇒ ∫ pdV = p 0 ∆V + WU
1

7/10 8/10
Availability-III Availability-IV
• Now, if we can define an availability function as
• First let a system and surrounding interact and have
heat and work interactions as shown A = E − T0S + p 0 V

• First law implies that ⇒ Wu −max = −∆A

⇒ ∆E = Q − W
• If the heat interaction with the
ambient be reversible, then
Q = T0 ∆S
⇒ ∆E = T0 ∆S − (Wu + p 0 ∆V )
⇒ Wu = −∆E + T0 ∆S − p 0 ∆V
⇒ Wu = − ∆(E − T0S + p 0 V ) = Wu − max
• Note that A is a property function and is dependent of
system as well as environment properties
Q • Availability function can be viewed as a potential for
W doing work. As a consequence, for a process taking the
present system state to the dead state, we can write
P0, T0 ⇒ Wu max(1→0) = A1 − A 0 = ( E − U 0 ) − T0 (S − S0 ) + p0 ( V − V0 )
• Availability would increase if work is done on the
As there is no irreversibility system and vice versa.

2
9/10 10/10
Availability Balance Equation-I Availability Balance Equation-II
• We can generate an availability balance equation by
combining first and second laws. • Eq. (4) can be recast as
2
 T 
2 2 ∆A = ∫ 1 − 0 dQ − (W − p 0 ∆V ) − T0Sp 5
∫ dQ − ∫ dW = ∆E First Law 1 1 T
1 1
Change of Availability Availability Work Lost
2dQ
∫ + Sp = ∆S Second Law 2 availability transfer transfer
1 T due to heat due to work Also called
• Eq. (2) x T0 implies exchange exchange Irreversibility
2 dQ 3
∫ T0 + T0Sp = T0 ∆S
1 T • The above equation is useful to directly compute
• Eq. (1) - Eq. (3) implies maximum useful work that can be extracted
2
 T0 
∫ 1 − dQ − W − T0Sp = ∆E − T0 ∆S = ∆A − p 0 ∆V 4
1 T

3
 9/27/2010

2/15
ME 209
Concept of Exact Differential-I
Basic Thermodynamics
Property Relations • Consider a property surface. Let it be
a p,v,T surface
• Let point 1 and 2 be close to each A
1
Kannan Iyer other and the point 1-2 can be 2

Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in reached by infinite number of B

paths. If we look at dv = V2-V1, it
should be independent of the path
• Let 1-A and B-2 be isotherms and 1-B and A-2 be
isobars
Department of Mechanical Engineering ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay dv1− 2 = dp + dT = dT + dp
∂p T1 ∂T p 2 ∂T p1 ∂p T 2
Path 1-A-2 Path 1-B-2

3/15 4/15

Concept of Exact Differential-II Concept of Exact Differential-III

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v • As the points are close by, we can write the previous
dv1− 2 = dp + dT = dT + dp
∂p T1 ∂T p 2 ∂T p1 ∂p T 2 equation as
∂  ∂v  ∂  ∂v 
 ∂v   ∂v  ⇒ = 
 ∂v ∂v  
∂T  ∂p T  p ∂p  ∂T p 
dp + dT  −  dT + dp  = 0
 ∂p  
∂T p 2   ∂T p1 ∂p T 2 
T
 T1
∂2v ∂ 2v
⇒ =
 ∂v ∂v   ∂v ∂v  ∂T∂p ∂p∂T
⇒  − dp =  − dT
  ∂T ∂T p1 
 ∂p T 2 ∂p T1   p2 • The value of a mixed differential is independent of the
order of differentiation
 ∂v
 ∂v   ∂v ∂v 
− − • The result is a consequence of assuming dv is
 ∂p ∂p T1   ∂T p 2 ∂T p1 
⇒  T2 = independent of direction. Those differentials that
dT dp satisfy this property are called exact differentials

1
 9/27/2010

5/15 6/15

Concept of Exact Differential-IV Rules of Partial Derivatives-I

• Every property change is an exact differential and
Every exact differential represents change of a • Now let us look at the relation between partial
property derivatives
∂x ∂x
dx = dy + dz
• The whole thing can be generalised as, given three ∂y z ∂z y
variables x, y and z and they have a relation of the • Similarly, we can write
form
dz = M ( x , y )dx + N( x , y) dy ∂y ∂y
dy = dx + dz
then the differential dz is exact, if ∂x z ∂z x
• Substituting the expression for dy in second equation
∂M ∂N
⇒ = into the first equation, we get
∂y ∂x
∂x  ∂y ∂y  ∂x
dx =  dx + dz  + dz
• In thermodynamics, knowing that properties are exact, ∂y z  ∂x z ∂z x  ∂z y
we shall equate the cross derivatives

7/15 8/15

Rules of Partial Derivatives-II Rules of Partial Derivatives-III

• Collecting the coefficients of dx and dz, we can write
• Now if we go to two neighboring states such that dx = 0
 ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y ∂x  and dz ≠ 0, then, we can write,
dx 1 − = + dz
  
 ∂y z ∂x z   ∂y z ∂z x ∂z y ∂x ∂y
=−
∂x
∂y z ∂z x ∂z y
• Now if we go to two neighboring states such that dz = 0
and dx ≠ 0, then it is necessary to have • Now applying the reciprocal rule, we can write
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x 1 ∂x ∂y −1
1− =0 Or =1 Or = = ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂y z ∂x z ∂y z ∂x z ∂y z ∂y ∂y z ∂z x ∂z Or = −1
∂y z ∂z x ∂x y
∂x z ∂x y

• We can call the above as Reciprocal Rule • The above can be called as Cyclic Rule

2
 9/27/2010

9/15 10/15

Thermodynamic Functions-I Thermodynamic Functions-II

• Having laid the foundation for deriving property • Let us begin with the two Tds relations that we have
relations, we shall now go on to define two new derived earlier
thermodynamic functions called Helmholtz and Gibbs du = Tds − pdv 1 dh = Tds + vdp 2
functions
• Differentiating the two functions defined in previous
• The Helmholtz function A and Gibbs function G are slide, we can write
defined as
da = du − Tds − sdT 3 dg = dh − Tds − sdT 4
A = U − TS G = H − TS
• Their intensive counterparts are a and g • Substituting for du-Tds from Eq. (1) in Eq. (3) and
a = u − Ts g = h − Ts similarly substituting for dh-Tds from Eq. (2) in Eq. (4),
we get
• Now we shall begin manipulating these functions
da = − pdv − sdT 5 dg = vdp − sdT 6

11/15 12/15

Thermodynamic Functions-III Thermodynamic Functions-IV

• Now let us manipulate Eq. (1), where u = u(s,v)
• From Eq. (5) da = − pdv − sdT
du = Tds − pdv
• Chain rule implies ∂a ∂a
• We can write, = −p, = −s 9
∂v T ∂T v
∂u ∂u
du = ds + dv
∂s v ∂v s • From Eq. (6) dg = vdp − sdT
• Comparing the above two equations, we can write,
• We can write, ∂g ∂g 10
∂u ∂u = v, = −s
= T, = −p 7 ∂p T ∂T p
∂s v ∂v s
• From Eq. (2) dh = Tds + vdp • Thus we have obtained the basic thermodynamic
properties, p,v,T and s have been defined as the
• We can write, ∂h ∂h derivative of u, h, a and g. Due to this aspect, u, h, a
= T, =v 8
∂s p ∂p s and g are also called thermodynamic potentials

3
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13/15 14/15

Maxwell Relations Auxiliary Relations-I

• Now we shall use the exact differential rule and relate • Now we shall equate T is Eqs. (7) and (8) to give
the derivatives
∂T ∂p ∂u ∂h
du = Tds − pdv ⇒ =− 11 ⇒ = 15
∂v s ∂s v ∂s v ∂s p

∂T ∂v • Similarly equating -p is Eqs. (7) and (9) to give

dh = Tds + vdp ⇒ = 12
∂p s ∂s p
∂u ∂a
∂p ∂s ⇒ =− 16
da = − pdv − sdT ⇒ = 13 ∂v s ∂v T
∂T v ∂v T
• Equating v is Eqs. (8) and (10) to give
∂v ∂s
dg = vdp − sdT ⇒ =− 14
∂T p ∂p T ∂h ∂g
⇒ = 17
• The relations in Eqs. (11) – (14) are called Maxwell ∂p s ∂p T
Relations

15/15

Auxiliary Relations-II
• Equating -s is Eqs. (8) and (10) to give
∂a ∂g
⇒ = 18
∂T v ∂T p

• The fundamental question that arises is what is the use of

all these relations?
• They provide means to construct property tables from
the measured p, v and T data and some additional
measurements
• The aim is to measure minimum quantities and construct
property data

4
 10/11/2010

1/17 2/17
ME 209
Application-I
Basic Thermodynamics
• Let us explore as to how an enthalpy table can be
Property Relations constructed for water that has a complex behaviour when
both liquid and vapour phases have to be addressed
∂h ∂h
h (T, p ) ⇒ dh = dT + dp
Kannan Iyer ∂T p ∂p T
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in • The equation that connects dh and dp is
dh = Tds + vdp
• As we need the derivative of h with p along constant T,
we can manipulate the previous equation and write,
∂h ∂s ∂h ∂v
Department of Mechanical Engineering ⇒ =T +v ⇒ = −T +v
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay ∂p T ∂p T ∂p T ∂T p Maxwell
Relation
Eq. (13)

3/17 4/17

Application-II Application-III
p2 
∂v 
⇒ h 2 − h1* = ∫  v − T dp
• Thus, we can write T2  ∂T p 
⇒ h1* − h 1 = ∫ c p −ref dTp
p1

 ∂v  T1
⇒ dh = c p dT +  v − T dp 19
 ∂T p  p = p2
 p = p1

• Thus, along an isobar, 1* 2

⇒ dh p = c pdTp
T
• Now, if we move along isotherm, we can write
 ∂v 
⇒ dh T =  v − T dp T 1
 ∂T p 

• For finding the change in enthalpy, we need cp variation
s
with T at one convenient pressure and v(p,T)
Thus for any single-phase region we can use this concept

1
 10/11/2010

5/17 6/17

Application-IV Relation Between cp and Entropy

• We had shown that • From the Tds relation,
 ∂v  dh = Tds + vdp
⇒ dh = c p dT +  v − T dp
 ∂T p   ∂s 
 = T dT +
∂s
dp  + vdp
 ∂T ∂p T 
• If we had ideal gas, then  p

∂s  ∂s 
RT
⇒
∂v
=
R
⇒T
∂v
=
RT
=v =T dT +  T + v dp
v= ∂T p
p ∂T p p ∂T p p  ∂p T 
• Also, ∂h ∂h
∴ dh = c pdT dh = dT + dp
∂T p ∂p T
• Thus, h only varies with temperature and is independent ∂s ∂h  ∂s 
of pressure ⇒T = cp , =  T + v 
∂T p ∂p T  ∂p T 

7/17 8/17

Evaluation of Entropy Change Properties with Phase Change-I

• We have shown how thermodynamic properties (h,s) can
• Now we shall derive the relationship for change in be computed for a fluid, from a reference datum, by
entropy knowing the pvT relation and cp as a function of T at a
∂s ∂s
s(T, p) ⇒ ds = dT + dp reference pressure
∂T p ∂p T
From previous slide From Maxwell • From our previous chapters, we have recognised that in
Relation Eq. (14)
cp  ∂v  phase change region, there is degeneracy between p and
= dT +  − dp 
 T as one depends on the other.
T  ∂T p 
• The change in entropy can be obtained just as we got • This leads to the following
change in enthalpy by using pvT relation and cp as a ∂T ∂v ∂p s fg Using
function of T at one reference pressure. = Maxwell Relation ⇒ = Reciprocal Rule
∂p s ∂s p Eq. (12) ∂T s v fg
• For ideal gas, it is fairly straight forward to show that ∂p ∂s
= Maxwell Relation ∂p sfg
cp R ∂T v ∂v T Eq. (13) ⇒ =
ds = dT − dp ∂T v v fg
T p

2
 10/11/2010

9/17 10/17

Properties with Phase Change-II Properties with Phase Change-III

• Thus we have shown that the variation of saturated • At low pressures, this can be simplified as follows
pressure with temperature is independent of at least two
paths. Being a simple substance, two independent path dp h fg h fg h p
⇒ = = = fg 2
having no effect can be generalised to the statement dT sat T(v g − v f ) T
RT RT
p Assumed as ideal gas
∂p dp sfg Relatively negligible
⇒ = = 20
∂T any− process− 2phase dT sat v fg
d ln( p) h fg
• Using Tds relation along the constant pressure line ⇒ = 23 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
dT sat RT 2
dh = Tds + vdp ⇒ h fg = Ts fg 21
• If hfg can be fitted as a function of T, then the above
• Eqs. (20) and (21) lead to equation can be analytically integrated to get an
expression for ln(p)
dp h fg Clapeyron Equation
= = 22
psat TSat h fg (T)
dT sat Tv fg ⇒ ln = ∫ dT
p sat − Re f TSat −Re f RT 2

11/17 12/17
• To get properties (h,s) at 2, we use the route 1-1*-2*-2
Properties with Phase Change-IV • To get properties (h,s) at 3, we can use the route 1-s -
3 or 1-1*-2*-3*-3**-3***-3
• Now we can bridge the two ends of saturated region and 2
construct the variation of h and s in the whole of state p = pref
space from a given reference point.
3*** 3**
3 3*
• We had already seen the procedure to compute h and s
T
between any two points in single-phase phase using cp at 1*
a reference pressure and the pvT relation in the state s 2*
1
space
• From the pvT relation, at any given T on the two-phase
L L+V V
dome, we should be able to estimate hg-hf with known dp
and vfg by using Eq. (22) and sg-sf using Eq. (21) dT sat
• The procedure to estimate is graphically now
demonstrated in the next slide s

3
 10/11/2010

13/17 14/17

Other Thermodynamic Properties-I Other Thermodynamic Properties-II

Isentropic Compressibility
• There are several other themodynamic properties that
are used in different fields. These are just introduced 1 ∂v
α=−
here for the sake of completeness v ∂p s
Volume Expansivity
• We will show in compressible fluid flow that
1 ∂v ∂p ∂p
β= c2 = = − v2
v ∂T p ∂ρ s ∂v s
Isothermal Compressibility • This implies that

1 ∂v v
κ=− c2α = v ⇒α= This can be experimentally
estimated by measuring v and c
v ∂p T c2

15/17 16/17

Other Thermodynamic Properties-III Other Thermodynamic Properties-IV

Joule-Thompson Coefficient • For a given initial pressure and temperature, the exit
pressure can be adjusted by adjusting the valve and
∂T exit temperature can be measured.
µ=−
∂p h • The slope of the curve obtained is the
• This property can also be Joule-Thompson Coefficient
experimentally measured by • It can be positive,
conducting a porous plug P1, T1 P2, T2
negative or zero
experiment
• The value at which the T
• The valve controls the flow and hence the pressure slope is zero is called
drop inversion point
• If there is no work and heat interaction and if kinetic • If the initial state is to the
and potential effects are negligible, the process is left of inversion point, the
Isenthalpic gas will cool on expansion p

4
 10/11/2010

17/17

Computerised Steam Tables

• While in principle, the previously described methods
can be used, the newer computerised steam tables
follow a different approach
• They fit an equation for Helmholtz function a (ρ,T)
and the constants are optimised using experimental
data pvT and other parameters such as speed of
sound, Joule-Thompson coefficient, etc.
• The properties can then be extracted using the
following definitions
∂a ∂a
p = −ρ 2 s=− u = a + Ts h = u + p/ρ
∂ρ T ∂T ρ

5
 Analysis of Open Systems
ME 209 • Our previous discussions were focussing on closed
Basic Thermodynamics system generally confined to a chamber with rigid
walls or piston cylinder where a fixed mass of fluid
Analysis of Open Systems trapped.
Kannan Iyer • Many engineering systems have fluid flowing through
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in them and the mass of fluid inside the device need not
be constant
• Systems through which mass passes by are called open
systems and we shall derive the governing relations.
This kind of analysis is also called control volume
Department of Mechanical Engineering analysis
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay • We will show later that the two forms are equivalent.
However, one form makes the problem easier to solve.

Conservation of Mass-I Conservation of Mass-II

• Consider an arbitrary control volume as shown • Let us consider the
through which mass crosses (flowing from ducts) same mass of fluid as MCV (t)
δmi
shown in yellow
Fluid • At time, t, the fluid fills
out δme
the control volume and
MCV a portion of inlet duct
• The same fluid at t+∆t
Fluid in fills the control volume MCV (t+∆t)
• The aim shall be to use the equations derived for and a portion of exit duct.
constant mass systems previously
⇒ M CV ( t + ∆t ) + δm e = M CV ( t ) + δm i
• We shall now look at two snapshots one at t and
other at t+∆t ⇒ M CV ( t + ∆t ) − M CV ( t ) = δm i − δm e

1
 Conservation of Mass-III Conservation of Mass-IV
• Dividing both sides by ∆t and shrinking the ∆t to 0, • If we put the above equation in words, we can
we can write, write
M CV ( t + ∆t ) − M CV ( t ) δmi δm e
= − Rate of mass Total mass flow Total mass flow rate
∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t →0 ∆t ∆t → 0 accumulated in a = rate into the CV
-
exiting the CV
control volume
dM CV
=m
& i −m
&e • In terms of uniform velocities in ducts, we
dt can write
• If there are several inlets and exits, the mass balace dM CV
implies = ∑ ρi A i Vi − ∑ ρ e A e Ve
dt
dM CV
= ∑m
& i −∑m
&e
dt

Concept of Flow Work-I Concept of Flow Work-II

• During the time ∆t, at the inlet duct, the boundary
of the control mass is pushed inwards by a distance • Or the same can respectively be written as
equal to Vi ∆t and at the same time at outlet duct, pi p
the boundary is pushed outward by Ve ∆t − & i and e m
m &e
ρi ρe
Or − p i v i m
& i and p e v e m
&e
• Work for the system
MCV (t) at inlet is -piAiVi
∆t and at outlet is • Thus the rate of work for the control volume at inlet
+peAeVe ∆t and outlet are respectively − p i vi m
& i and p e v e m
&e

• It implies that rate of Work for the system at inlet

is -piAiVi and at outlet is +peAeVe

2
 First Law for Open System-I First Law for Open System-II

• We can now derive the first law for open system. • Now let us consider the
arbitrary system again
δmiei EECVCV
(t)(t)
• Let the kinetic, potential and internal energy per • At time, t, the total
unit mass be denoted by V2/2, u, gz. Collectively energy of the control
they can be clubbed together at inlet as mass is ECV(t)+ δmiei δmeee
2
Vi • At time, t+ ∆t, the total
ei = u i + + gz i
2 energy of the control
mass is ECV(t+∆t )+ δmeee ECV (t+∆t)
• The same at outlet shall be
2 • During this ∆t, the system
V has heat and work interaction
e e = u e + e + gz e
2 of δQ and δW. Usual Sign
convention applies

First Law for Open System-III First Law for Open System-IV
• The first law for the control mass can be written as, • Splitting the flow work out of WCV and accounting
it separately
ECV(t+∆t )+ δmeee- (ECV(t)+ δmiei) = δQ - δW & =W
& &
W Flow work
+W CV
• Rearranging and dividing both sides by ∆t and
= − pi v i m
& i + pi v i m &
&i +W
shrinking the ∆t to 0, we can write, CV
dE CV & & +m
E CV ( t + ∆t ) − E CV ( t ) δQ δW δm i δm e ∴ = Q CV − WCV
& i (e i + p i v i ) − m
& e (e e + p e v e )
= − + ei − ee dt
∆t ∆t → 0 ∆ t ∆t →0 ∆ t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0
 Vi
2

dE CV &
& −W
E& CV = Q CV
& +m
CV
&  u
i i + + gz i + p i v i 
or, & +m
= Q CV − W & i ei − m
& ee e  2 
dt
 V
2

−m & e  u e + e + gz e + p e v e 
 2 
 

3
 First Law for Open System-V First Law for Open System-VI
• For multiple inlets and outlets, we can write, • For Steady flow,

 Vi
2
 dM CV
& −W
E& CV = Q CV
& +∑m
CV
&  u
i i + + gz i + p i v i  = 0 = ∑ ρi A i Vi − ∑ ρe A e Ve
 2 
dt
 V
2
 ⇒ ∑m
& i = ∑m
&e
−∑m & e  u e + e + gz e + p e v e 
 2 
 
• For Single inlet and outlet

&i =m
m &e =m
&
• Steady state implies that the state of the fluid in
Control volume does not change with time

First Law for Open System-VII

• For Steady flow, Energy equation

 Vi
2

&E = 0 = Q & −W & +∑m 
& i ui + + gz i + p i v i 
CV CV CV  2
 
 V
2

−∑m& e  u e + e + gz e + p e v e 
 2 
 
• For Single inlet and outlet
 2
Vi − Ve
2

& −W
0=Q & +m&  ( h − h ) + + g ( z − z ) 
CV CV  i e
2
i e 
 
Steady Flow Energy Equation

4
 Review of Lecture 16
ME 209 • Identified that Open Systems are of engineering
importance
Basic Thermodynamics • Derived the Conservation of Mass
Analysis of Open Systems-2 • Understood the concept of flow work
• Derived the Conservation of Energy
Kannan Iyer
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in • Most engineering devices have one inlet and one exit
and operate in steady mode and the relevant
equations are m&i =m &e =m&
 2
Vi − Ve
2

0=Q& −W & +m &  ( h − h ) + + g ( z i − z e ) 
CV CV  i e
2
 
Department of Mechanical Engineering • Today, we shall look at the various engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
devices, make relevant assumptions and apply the First
law of thermodynamics (Energy Equation)

Approximations in Open Systems Kinetic Energy Transfer Devices-I

Common Approximations
• Velocity and temperature are uniform at the inlet and
exit.
• At each location equilibrium property relations apply
• Heat transfer is assumed zero for cases, when
– Control surface is insulated
– Exposed area is small
– ∆T between system and surroundings small
• No work transfer, if
– No rotating shafts
– No movement of system boundaries
• In applications like rocket motors, steam ejectors,
there is a need to accelerate a fluid to very high
velocity
• At times, a high velocity fluid has to be decelerated
to lower velocity
• A device that accelerates fluid velocity is called a
nozzle and that which reduces velocity is called a
diffuser
• Everyday experience of watering the garden
suggests that the area has to be decreased to
increase velocity. However, in Fluid Mechanics,
you will learn that at supersonic conditions it is
just the opposite

1
Kinetic Energy Transfer Devices-II Kinetic Energy Transfer Devices-III
Subsonic Nozzle Superonic Nozzle No moving shaft

 2
Vi − Ve
2

& −W
0=Q & +m&  ( h − h ) + + g ( z i − z e ) 
CV CV  i e
2
 
Change in elevation
Device area small
negligible

Subsonic Diffuser
2 2
Superonic Diffuser V − Vi
⇒ (h i − h e ) = e
2
Many occasions
this is negligible
⇒ Ve = 2(h i − h e )

Work Transfer Devices Heat Transfer Devices-I

• In many application, work is supplied to increase
the fluid pressure • There are many heat transfer devices
• The most common ones are • The most common ones are
– Compressor (Gas, High ∆p, but low flow) – Boiler (To produce steam)
– Blower (Gas, High Flow, but low ∆p) – Condenser (To condense steam)
– Pump (Liquid, all ∆p) Change in KE negligible – Heat Exchanger (To heat/cool fluids)
 2
Vi − Ve
2
 • The construction varies from device to device,
& −W
0=Q & +m&  ( h − h ) + + g (z i − z e ) 
CV CV  i e
2 but they can be idealized as two concentric
  tubes
Negligible Change in elevation
negligible
&
W CV
= (h i − h e )
m&

2
 Heat Transfer Devices-II Heat Transfer Devices-III
• If we combine both the tubes together in our
• First Law can be simplified for any one tube as control volume, it becomes multiple inlet

Change in KE negligible
 2
Vi − Ve
2

& −W
0=Q & +m&  ( h − h ) + + g ( z − z ) 
CV CV  i e
2
i e 
   Vi
2

No shaft Change in elevation & −W
0=Q CV
& +∑m
CV
&  h
i i + + gz i 
negligible  2 
 Ve
2

& =m 
− ∑ me  h e +
& + gz e 
Q & (h e − h i ) = m
& c p (Te − Ti ) 2
CV
 
& 1 ( h e1 − h i1 ) = m
=m & 2 (h i 2 − h e 2 )

Pressure Reduction Device Flow Measuring Device-I

• In many application the pressure of a flowing fluid • A convergent divergent device operating at low
is to be reduced to control the flow. These are velocities is called a venturimeter and is used to
called Valves measure flow
• Prior to showing the basis, let us get back the so
called Bernoulli’s equation from First law
No shaft Change in KE negligible  2
Vi − Ve
2

& −W
0=Q & +m &  ( h − h ) + + g (z i − z e ) 
 2 2

CV CV  i e
2
& −W
0=Q & +m&  ( h − h ) +
Vi − Ve
+ g (z i − z e )   
CV CV  i e
2 Vi
2
Ve
2
  hi + + gz i = h e + + gz e
Negligible Change in elevation 2 2
negligible 2 2
⇒ hi = he p V p V
⇒ u i + i + i + gz i = u e + e + e + gz e
• This isenthalpic process is also called throttling ρi 2 ρe 2

3
 Flow Measuring Device-II Flow Measuring Device-III
• If the velocities are low, then in such cases flow • Now we can deduce the expression for flow in
can be approximated to be isothermal terms of measured pressures at 1 and 2
2 2
p V p V
p i Vi
2
p V
2 ⇒ 1 + 1 + gz1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2
⇒ ui + + + gz i = u e + e + e + gz e ρ 2 ρ 2
ρi 2 ρe 2  A2 2 
2 2 1− 2 
p − p 2 V2 − V1 A1 
• Further, when velocities are low, even a gas flow = V2 
2
⇒ 1 =
can be considered incompressible ρ 2  2 
 
p i Vi
2
p V
2
 
⇒ + + gz i = e + e + gz e
ρ 2 ρ 2

The above is incompressible Bernoulli’s Equation 2

1

Flow Measuring Device-IV

• Thus, the final expression for Velocity at 2 is

2(p1 − p 2 )
⇒ V2 =
 A2 
ρ 1 − 2 2
 A1 

• The volumetric flow rate or mass flow rate can

now be obtained easily by multiplying by area or
the product of area and density

4
1/20 2/20
h-s diagram
ME 209
Basic Thermodynamics (Lecture-18) • For open systems, with kinetic and potential effects
neglected, we saw that for turbines,
Open Systems-III pumps/compressor and heat exchangers the
Kannan Iyer heat/work per unit mass of the substance was
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in directly related to change of enthalpy

• This motivated inventions of h-s diagrams,

particularly for water substance
• These are called Mollier Diagrams
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/20 4/20

V Superheated vapour
II Law for Open System-I
Critical Point
h T=C • Now let us consider the
arbitrary system again
p = constant L+V SE (t)
δmisi CV (t)
CV
• At time, t, the total
p=C
entroy of the control
mass is SCV(t)+ δmisi δmese
s
• At time, t+ ∆t, the total
v = constant energy of the control
T
L L+V mass is SCV(t+∆t )+ δmese SCV (t+∆t)
V
• During this ∆t, the system
has heat interaction of δQ.
Usual Sign convention
s applies

1
5/20 6/20
II Law for Open System-II Evaluation of Change in Entropy-I
• The second law for the control mass can be written For the system with ideal gas
as, 2
• Once the two states are known p
SCV(t+∆t )+ δmese- (SCV(t)+ δmisi) = (δQ/T) +δSp we can use the TdS relations
1
to evaluate the entropy change
• Rearranging and dividing both sides by ∆t and
TdS = dU + pdV
shrinking the ∆t to 0, we can write, mRT V
⇒ TdS = mc vdT + dV
SCV (t + ∆t ) − SCV ( t) δQ 1 δm i δm e δSp V
= + si − se + dT dV
∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t T ∆t →0 ∆t →0 ∆t ∆t →0 ∆t ∆t →0 ∆t ∆t →0
⇒ dS = mc v + mR
T V
2 2 dT 2 dV
⇒ ∫ dS = mc v ∫ + mR ∫
&
dS CV Q 1 1 T 1 V
or , = CV + m & e s e + S& p
& isi − m T2 V
dt T ⇒ S2 − S1 = mc v ln + mR ln 2
T1 V1

7/20 8/20
Evaluation of Change in Entropy-II Evaluation of Change in Entropy-III
For the system with incompressible substance
• Proceeding on similar lines, we can use the
second TdS relation • For incompressible substances the expansion
work is absent that makes cp = cv = c
TdS = dH − Vdp and show
TdS = dU + pdV
T p ⇒ TdS = dU + pdV
⇒ S2 − S1 = mc p ln 2 − mR ln 2
T1 p1 ⇒ TdS = mcdT
dT
⇒ dS = mc
T
2 2 dT
⇒ ∫ dS = mc ∫
1 1 T
T
⇒ S2 − S1 = mc ln 2
T1

2
9/20 10/20
Isentropic efficiency-I Isentropic efficiency-II
• Turbines, compressors and nozzles, perform • We define isentropic efficiency as
ideally under isentropic conditions
hi − h e
• Turbine output decreases, Compressor input ηs −Turbine / Nozzle =
h i − h e*
increases and nozzle KE developed decreases,
under non-isentropic conditions h e* − h i
ηs −comp/ pump =
he − hi
p = p1 p = p1
T p = p2 T p = p2

S S

11/20 12/20
Availability Balance Equation-I Availability Balance Equation-II
• We can generate an availability balance equation by
combining first and second laws. • Eq. (4) can be recast as
2
 T 
2 2 ∆A = ∫ 1 − 0 dQ − (W − p 0 ∆V ) − T0Sp 5
∫ dQ − ∫ dW = ∆E First Law 1 1 T
1 1
Change of Availability Availability Work Lost
2 dQ
∫ + Sp = ∆S Second Law 2 availability transfer transfer
1 T due to heat due to work Also called
• Eq. (2) x T0 implies exchange exchange Irreversibility
2 dQ 3
∫ T0 + T0Sp = T0 ∆S
1 T • The above equation is useful to directly compute
• Eq. (1) - Eq. (3) implies maximum useful work that can be extracted
2
 T0 
∫ 1 − dQ − W − T0Sp = ∆E − T0 ∆S = ∆A − p 0 ∆V 4
1 T

3
13/20 14/20
Exergy Analysis-I Exergy Analysis-II
d(E CV − T0SCV ) d (A CV − p 0 VCV ) &  T0  &
• Combined first and second law analysis for flow = = Q CV 1 −  − WCV − T0S& p
systems is called Exergy Analysis
dt dt  T
 V
2

• The governing equation for the same can be derived as & i  h i + i + gz i − T0Si  3
+m  2 
follows:  
dE CV &  Vi
2
  V
2

& +m
= Q CV − W &  h + + gz i  & e  h e + e + gz e − T0Se 
−m
CV i i 1  2 
dt  2   
d(A CV ) &  T0  & C
& &
 Ve
2
 = Q CV 1 −  − (WCV − p 0 VCV ) − T0Sp D
−m 
& e he + + gz e  dt  T
 2  2

  A B V
& i  h i + i + gz i − T0s i  E
&
dS CV Q +m  
= CV + m & e s e + S& p
& isi − m 2  2 
dt T
 V
2

• Eq. (1) - Eq. (2) x T0 implies −m & e  h e + e + gz e − T0s e  F
 2 
 

15/20 16/20
Exergy Analysis-III Exergy Analysis-IV
• Each of the term marked in the previous slides are as V2
• The expression h+ + gz − T0s is called Exergy
follows: 2
A Rate of change of Availability in the control volume and is usually denoted by b

B Rate of change of Availability due to heat flow • The final availability balance equation can be stated as:

C Rate of change of Availability due to work transfer d(A CV ) &  T0  & −p V

& &
= Q CV 1 −  − ( WCV 0 CV ) − T0Sp + m i b i − m e b e
& &
D Rate of production of Irreversibility dt  T 
E Rate of Availability transported in
E Rate of Availability transported out

4
17/20 18/20
Second Law Efficiency-I Second Law Efficiency-II
Electrical heaters &
• Ideal processes have no entropy production. However, W
in many real processes, entropy production is hi, si, Vi he, se, Ve
inevitable, for e.g., heat exchangers, flash chambers,
etc.
• Systems and processes that generate minimum entropy
d(A CV ) &  T0  & −p V
& &
are preferred as they conserve energy resources = Q CV 1 −  − ( WCV 0 CV ) − T0Sp + m i bi − m e b e
& &
dt  T
• An indicator is often desirable to compare processes
and second law efficiency is an indicator in this & = T S& + m
−W & (b e − bi )
CV 0 p
direction
& (b e − b i )
m
• Different definitions are given for various systems and ηII =
−W & CV
we shall see some of them to get a flavour

19/20 20/20
Second Law Efficiency-III Second Law Efficiency-IV
Heat Exchangers Turbine
&2
bi 2 , m
d(A CV ) &  T0  & −p V
& &
= Q CV 1 −  − ( WCV 0 CV ) − T0Sp + m i ( b i − b e )
&
dt  T
&1
bi1 , m
b e1 & = −T S& + m
W & (b i − b e )
CV 0 p

be 2 W&
CV
ηII =
& (b i − b e )
m
d(A CV ) &  T0  & −p V
& &
= Q CV 1 −  − ( WCV 0 CV ) − T0Sp + ∑ m i b i − ∑ m e b e
& &
Compressor
dt  T
• The equation is same, but the definition is reversed to
& e b e + T0S& p = ∑ m
⇒ ∑m & i bi keep the efficiency to be less than 1
& cold (b e −cold − b i− cold )
m & = T S& + m & (b e − b i )
& (b e − bi ) ηII = m
ηII = To get this value less −W CV 0 p
than 1, ηII is defined thus −W & CV
m& hot (bi − hot − b e− hot )

5
1/14 2/14

ME 209 Compressible Fluid Flow-I

Basic Thermodynamics • The compressibility refers to the change of density
Introduction to Compressible Flow-I of the fluid
• Density can change due to a change in pressure or
Kannan Iyer temperature of a fluid
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in • In a Liquid, the density is a very weak function of
pressure and but it can change perceptibly with
temperature.
• In gas, the density is a strong function of
temperature and pressure
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/14 4/14

Compressible Fluid Flow-II Compressible Fluid Flow-III

Applications of Compressible Flow
– Gas • It is a vast and complex subject
• Gas and Steam Turbines • Under some cases, we can treat the subject purely based
• Rocket Nozzles, on thermodynamic laws of mass and energy
• I.C. Engine ports,
• However, some concepts of momentum conservation is
• Combustion chambers needed at places, which we shall consciously minimise.
• Re-entry vehicles
– Liquids
• Hydraulic Penstocks
• High pressure hydraulic circuits
• In liquids normally, it is only the transient that calls for
compressible flow analysis
• In gases both steady and transient flow may call for
compressible analysis

1
5/14 6/14

Conservation of Momentum-I Conservation of Momentum-II

• Consider an arbitrary control volume as shown • Let us consider the r
δm i Vi r
through which mass crosses (flowing from ducts) same mass of fluid as
shown in yellow PCV ( t )
Fluid • At time, t, the fluid fills r
out δm e Ve
the control volume and
MCV a portion of inlet duct
• The same fluid at t+∆t r
Fluid in fills the control volume PCV ( t + ∆t )
• The aim shall be to Convert Newton’s Second Law and a portion of exit duct.
for a control mass to a flow system r r r
PCM ( t + ∆t ) = PCV ( t + ∆t ) + δm e Ve
• We shall now look at two snapshots one at t and r r r
other at t+∆t PCM ( t ) = PCV ( t ) + δm i Vi

7/14 8/14

Conservation of Momentum-III Conservation of Momentum-IV

• Subtracting the above two equations, we get r
dPCV r r r r
r r ⇒ +m& e Ve − m& i Vi = FS + FB
PCM ( t + ∆t ) − PCM ( t ) = dt
r r r r r
dPCV r r r r
PCV ( t + ∆t ) − PCV ( t ) + δm e Ve − δm i Vi Or =m & i Vi − m
& e Ve + FS + FB
dt
• Dividing both sides by ∆t and then shrinking ∆t to 0, • At steady state
we get r r r r
r r 0=m & i Vi − m
& e Ve + FS + FB
dPCM dPCV r r
= +m& e Ve − m
& i Vi • If we put the above equation in words, we can
dt dt
write
• Newton’s Ssecond law implies Rate of
r Rate of Sum of all
dPCM r r r momentum -
momentum + forces = 0
= F = FS + FB entering CV
dt exiting CV

2
 9/14 10/14

Conservation of Momentum-V Pressure Pulse Propagation-I

• The equation derived above can be extended to a • Pressure pulses propagate in a compressible fluid
steadily moving control volume as follows with a characteristic speed.
r r r r • This is what we commonly call as speed of sound
0=m & i −Re l Vi −Re l − m
& e − Re l Ve −Re l + FS + FB
• This speed is a property of the medium
• In the above equation all quantities refer to • Consider a cylinder piston filled with a
quantities with respect to relative frame of compressible fluid
reference.
• Let the piston be moved instantly
• Its application will make it clear in the following
• This will set a pressure wave moving at a speed c
derivation
V = ∆V, p + ∆p
c
T + ∆T, ρ + ∆ρ V = 0, p, T, ρ
Undisturbed fluid

11/14 12/14

Pressure Pulse Propagation-II Pressure Pulse Propagation-III

Momentum balance
• To derive a relation between the speed of
propagation and system properties, let an observer & (c − ∆V)
m &c
m
p + ∆p p Positive direction
ride on the wave. In this moving coordinate the
fluid will be in steady state
• For the moving coordinate the properties are as & (c − ∆V) + (− ∆pA ) = 0 No friction
& c−m
Momentum balance ⇒ m
shown in out force

V = c − ∆V V = c, & ∆V − ∆pA = 0 ∆pA ∆pA ∆p

⇒m ⇒ ∆V = = =
ρ + ∆ρ ρ &
m ρAc ρc
∆p
⇒ ∆V = 2
Mass balance ⇒(ρ+∆ρ)A(c −∆V) = ρAc ρC
c∆ρ ∆p ∆p dp
⇒ρc + ∆ρc −ρ∆V− ∆ρ∆V) = ρc c ∆ρ • Eqs. (1) and (2) = c2 = =
Second order ∴ ∆V = ρ ρc ∆ρ dρ
1
ρ

3
13/14 14/14

Pressure Pulse Propagation-IV Pressure Pulse Propagation-V

∂p ∂p Assuming the process
• For ideal gas dp = dρ + ds • For Solids and Liquids
∂ρ s ∂s ρ to be adiabatic →ds = 0
dp ∂p
∴ = = c2 Newton had assumed the dp dp E V EV
dρ ∂ρ s Bulk Modulus Ev = ⇒ = = c2 ⇒c= 4
process to be Isothermal dρ / ρ dρ ρ ρ
p
s = cons tan t ⇒ = cons tan t ⇒ ln(p ) − γ ln(ρ) = cons tan t
ργ
For Water 20 oC, Ev = 2.24 x 109 N/m2 , ρ = 998 kg/m3
dp dρ dp p p
⇒ −γ =0 ⇒ =γ ∴ c 2 = γ = γRT ⇒ c = γRT 3
p ρ dρ ρ ρ 2.2 x10 9
∴c = ≈ 1500 m / s
998
• At 300 K c = 1.4X 287X300 = 347 m / s
For Steel 20 oC, Ev = 200 x 109 N/m2 , ρ = 7830 kg/m3

Note that c is independent of p and depends only on T 200 x10 9

∴c = ≈ 5050 m / s
7830

4
 1/42 2/42

ME 209 ONE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Basic Thermodynamics • Let us now try to apply mass momentum and
Introduction to Compressible Flow-II energy for a one dimensional flow
Kannan Iyer • The approach is very popular during design phase
for many practical applications.
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
• Let us develop these from the concepts developed
thus far

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

3/42 4/42

Conservation of Mass - I Conservation of Mass - I

∂A
A+ ∆x
A – Area (m2) ∂x
V– Velocity (m/s) ∂V • At steady state
A, V+ ∆x
ρ – Density (kg/m3) V, ∂x
ρ ∂ρ ∂ (ρA)  ∂m
& 
& – Mass flow rate (kg/s)
m
&
m
ρ + ∆x
∂x + =0 ⇒m
& = ρAV = Cons tan t
x – Coordinate along pipe (m)
∂t  ∂x 
∂m
&
& +
m ∆x
∂x
⇒ ρAdV + AVdρ + VρdA = 0 1
Rate of
Mass flow _ Mass flow rate dV dA dρ
accumulation of = ⇒ =− −
rate into CV out of CV V A ρ 2
mass in CV

∂(ρA∆x )  ∂m
&  ∂ (ρA)  ∂m&
& −m
=m &+ ∆x  ⇒ + =0
∂t  ∂x  ∂t  ∂x 

1
5/42 6/42

Conservation of Momentum - I Conservation of Momentum - II

∂m
&V Sum of all
&V+
m ∆x Rate of
∂x accumulation of = Momentum _ Momentum + forces in
rate into CV rate out of CV positive
&V
m momentum in
CV direction
∂m
&V acting on
&V
m &V+
m ∆x
ρA∆xV ∂x CV
∂A
p ∆x
∂x  ∂pA  ∂A ∂p
pA −  pA + ∆x  + p ∆x = −A ∆x
 ∂x  ∂x ∂x
∂pA
pA pA + ∆x
& V −  m
∂x ∂ (ρAu∆x ) & V) 
∂(m ∂p
=m &V+  − A ∆x
∂t  ∂x  ∂x

7/42 8/42

Conservation of Momentum - IV I-Law of Thermodynamics

• At steady state
& V) • At steady state
d(m dp
0= +A  2
Vi − Ve
2

dx dx & &
0 = Q CV − WCV + m 
& (h i − h e ) + + g ( z i − z e ) 
 2
dρAV 2 dp As mass flow rate is  
⇒0= +A 2 2
dx dx constant
⇒ hi +
Vi V
= he + e  V2 
⇒ dh + d  = 0
dV ∂p 2 2  2 
⇒ 0 = ρAV +A
dx ∂x
 V2 
dV 1 ∂p ⇒ c p dT + d  = 0 4
⇒0=V + 3 Note that this is valid  2 
dx ρ ∂x for variable area too

Decrease in pressure results in increase of velocity Increase in velocity results in decrease of Temperature

2
 9/42 10/42

Mach Number
Equation of State
• In compressible flow it is useful to unify all the results
Equation of State in terms of Mach Number
p • Mach Number is defined as the ratio of fluid velocity
p = ρRT ⇒ =R
ρT and the local sonic speed ⇒ M = V / c 6
• Thus the Mach Cone angle can be written as α = Sin −1 (1 / M)
dp p dρ p dT
⇒ − − =0 • All property changes can be related to local Mach
ρT T ρ 2 ρ T 2 number as follows
Momentum balance [Eq. (3)]
dp dρ dT dV 1 ∂p dp ρV 2 dV
⇒ − − =0 5 ⇒V =− ⇒ ρVdV = −dp ⇒ =−
p ρ T dx ρ ∂x p p V
ρ γ dp
2
V dV dV
Since = ⇒ = −γ 2 = − γM 2 7
p c2 p c V V

11/42 12/42

Property Relations-I Property Relations-II

Finally Mass balance [Eq. (2)]
2
Energy balance [Eq. (4)] ⇒ c p dT + d (V )=0 dV dρ dA
2 ⇒ + =−
V ρ A
dV dT 1 V 2 dV dT γR V 2 dV
⇒ dT = −V ⇒ =− ⇒ =− 2 dρ dV
cp T T cp V T Equation (15) ⇒ = −M 2
c cp V ρ V
γR γ (c p − c v ) 1  dV dA
Note ⇒ = = γ − 1 = γ − 1 (1 − M 2 ) =− 10
cp cp γ  V A
dT dV
∴ = −( γ − 1)M 2 8 • We shall derive many general conclusions from all the
T V
relations derived above
Equation of State [Eq. (5)]
• Equation (9) implies that for M< 0.3, fractional
⇒
dρ dp dT
ρ
=
p
−
T
⇒
dρ dV
ρ
=
V
(
− γM 2 + ( γ − 1)M 2 ) change in density is less than 9% of fractional change
in velocity.
dρ dV
⇒ = −M 2 9
ρ V

3
13/42 14/42

Property Relations-III Property Relations-IV

• This is the general incompressibility condition
commonly used
• Equation (8) implies that for M< 0.3, fractional
change in Temperature for air is less than 4% of
fractional change in velocity
• Most importantly, equation (10) underlines the
characteristic difference between subsonic (M<1) and
Supersonic flows (M>1)
• This is discussed in next slide
Eq. (10) ⇒ dV = − dA 1
V A (1 − M 2 )
If M < 1 or 1-M2 > 0, then dV > 0 for dA < 0 and dV < 0 for dA > 0
• The above conditions imply that the nozzle will be
converging and the diffuser will be diverging under
subsonic conditions
• The opposite, i.e., nozzle will be diverging and
diffuser will be converging under supersonic
conditions is given by the condition stated below
If M > 1 or 1-M2 < 0, then dV < 0 for dA < 0 and dV > 0 for dA > 0

15/42 16/42

Stagnation Properties Isentropic Flow-I

• When a fluid is brought to rest from a given state • For isentropic flow, We can write
under isentropic conditions, the resulting properties
are called stagnation properties γ −1
γ −1 γ −1
γ γ  T2   v1  ρ   T2   p2  γ
• These are denoted with the subscript ‘0’ p1v1 = p 2 v 2   =   =  2    =  
 T1   v 2   ρ1   T1   p1 
• Thus, h0, p0, T0, ρ0 are stagnation enthalpy, pressure,
γ −1 γ −1
temperature and density 0.5
c 2  T2   p  2γ  ρ2  2
• The following results can be written: • Since c = γRT ⇒ =   =  2  =  
V2 11
c1  T1   p1   ρ1 
⇒ h0 = h + Comes from energy balance 2 2
2 V V
⇒ T0 = T +
V2
Ideal gas and constant specific heat 12 • Energy equation ⇒ h1 + 1 = h 2 + 2
2c p 2 2
2 2 2 2
V1 V2 V1 V
• We shall now show the relations between two points ⇒ c p T1 + = c p T2 + ⇒ T1 + = T2 + 2 = T0
in isentropic flow 2 2 2c p 2c p

4
17/42 18/42

Isentropic Flow-II Isentropic Flow-III

V12  V1 2 
T1 1 +
1
T1 +    γ − 1  2  γ −1
2c p 2c p T1  1
⇒ =1 ⇒  =1 ρ  T  γ −1 ρ  1 +  2  M1 
V2  V2 
2 • Since  2  =  2  ⇒ 2 =    14
T2 + 2 T2 1 + ρ  T
1   1  ρ1   γ − 1  2 
2c p  2c p T2  1 +  2 M 2 
    
2
V2 V2 M 2 γR M c p / c v (c p − c v ) M 2 ( γ − 1)
= = = =
2c p T c2 2c p 2c p 2 γ
2c p
γR γ   γ − 1  2  γ −1
 γ −1 2
p  T  γ −1  1 +  2  M1 
• Similarly, since  2  =  2 
⇒ 2 =  
p
1+   M1 
 2  T  p1   T1  p1   γ − 1  2  15
⇒ = 2 13 1 +  2 M 2 
 γ − 1  2 T1    
1+  M 2
 2 

19/42

Isentropic Flow-IV
20/42
Concept of Static and Stagnation
• If point 2 is the stagnation point and point 1 is any Pressure-I
general point, then • Static Pressure: Local thermodynamic pressure measured
0.5 without changing its state
T0  γ −1  2 c   γ −1  2  • Stagnation Pressure: It is the hypothetical pressure that will
⇒ = 1+   M ⇒ 0 = 1 +  M  16
T  2  c   2   be measured, if the fluid is brought to rest in a frictionless
manner at the same elevation
1
ρ   γ − 1  2  γ −1 The relationship between static and stagnation pressure for
⇒ 0 = 1 +  M  17 incompressible flow can be obtained by Bernoulli’s equation
ρ   2   0
2 2
γ ρV1 ρV2
p1 + + ρgH1 = p 2 + + ρgH 2
p   γ − 1  2  γ −1 2 2
⇒ 0 = 1 +  M  18 H1 = H2
p   2   2
ρV
∴ p stagnation = p static +
2
• For air (γ=1.4), the values of T0/T, c0/c, ρ0/ ρ, p0/p are
ρV 2
tabulated as a function of Mach number The term is called dynamic pressure
2

5
21/42 22/42
Concept of Static and Stagnation Pitot Tube-I
Pressure-II • Local fluid velocity can be estimated, if static and
stagnation pressures can be measured.
• Concept of piezometric head

For liquids For gases

V2
h=
2g

1
p 3 = p1 + ρV 2
This can be done by using Pitot-static tube 2
p 4 = p1

23/42 24/42

Pitot Tube-II Isentropic Flow-V

• The same concepts can be extended to compressible • If the Mach number at the general point is 1, then the
flow condition of the fluid is called critical.
• p3 is the stagnation pressure • The properties at critical state are denoted with a * in
• p4 is the local static pressure the superscript
• We can derive the following relations between the
• In slide 18, we have shown For gases critical and stagnation properties
that
γ T0  γ −1  γ + 1 19
p   γ − 1  2  γ −1 ⇒ = 1+  =
⇒ 0 = 1 +  M  T*  2  2
p   2  
1 γ
 γ + 1  γ −1
ρ0 20  γ + 1  γ −1
p0
• Thus by knowing p and po, we p3 = p0 ⇒ * =  ⇒ * =  21
can measure the Mach number ρ  2  p  2 
p4 = p

6
25/42 26/42

Flow in a Variable Area Passage-I Flow in a Variable Area Passage-II

• We had shown earlier that Converging Nozzle

Eq. (10) ⇒ dV = − dA 1
V A (1 − M 2 )
po
• This implies that if we have a converging nozzle and
initial Mach number is less than 1, then it will
accelerate till Mach number becomes one. pe1
1.0 pe2
• It should be understood that for a given p0 and T0, the pe3
boundary condition at the other end shall either be pamb p/po p*/po pe4
or M = 1. pe5
• Let us understand the flow characteristics qualitatively 0.0
x

27/42 28/42

Flow in a Variable Area Passage-III Flow in a Variable Area Passage-IV

Converging Nozzle • To get the ratio between A/A*, we invoke mass
balance ρ* T*
A ρ * V * ρ *c * 1 ρ0 T0
ρAV = ρ* A* V* ⇒ = = =
po A * ρV ρMc M ρ T
ρ0 T0
1 1

ρ0   γ −1  2  γ −1   γ −1  2  2
T0 1 +  2  M  1 +  2  M 
1
A
⇒ * =
1 ρ T =
1        
1.0 23 A M ρ0 T0 M  γ −1     γ −1  
1+     1+  2  
ρ* T* γ +1 
4
p*/po 5   2      
p/po 6   γ − 1  2  2 (γ −1)
1+  M 
7 A 1   2   28
8
⇒ * = A/A*
0.0 A M   γ − 1   For a given A/A*,
x  1 +    1
  2   we have 2 Mach
1
Numbers M

7
29/42 30/42

Flow in a Variable Area Passage-V Flow in a Variable Area Passage-VII

• Several general observations can be made • The mass flow can be estimated as follows
V2
• In isentropic flow, A/A* is also a function of Mach ⇒ h0 = h + ⇒ V 2 = 2c p (T0 − T )
2
number only  γ −1

 T    p γ 
⇒ V 2 = 2c p T0 1 −  ⇒ V 2 = 2c p T0 1 −   
• A* implies area where Mach number is 1
 T0    p0  
 0.5 
• In a converging nozzle it is the smallest area 1
  γ −1
 
 p γ    p  γ 
• In a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle, it will be the m& = AρV = Aρ 0    2c p T0 1 −    
throat  p0     p0   
  
0 .5
• A nozzle is said to be choked when M = 1 at the throat.   2 γ +1

   p  γ  p  γ 
• Mass flow rate reaches a maximum when a nozzle is m = Aρ 0  2c p T0    −    
& 29
choked (for a given stagnation condition)    p 0   p 0   
  

31/42 32/42

Flow in a Variable Area Passage-VIII Flow in a Variable Area Passage-IX

γ
• For given p0 and ρ0, mass flow rate given by Eq. (29) p  2  γ −1
= = 0.528 For γ = 1.4
p 0  γ + 1
in the previous slide is a function of p/p0
• The function in the parenthesis, when plotted gives • The expression for maximum mass flow can
maxima at p/p0 = 0.528 for γ =1.4 now be obtained by substituting for p/p0 from
Function

0.3
above in Eq. (29) expressing cp in terms of γ
0.25 and R γ +1
0.2
 2  2(γ −1)
& max = A t ρ 0 
⇒m  γRT0
Value

0.15 Function
30
0.1
 γ +1 
0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 • Thus, if the stagnation conditions are known,
p/p_0

then the nozzle can be designed for a desired

• The same can be analytically obtained by differentiating mass flow rate
Eq. (29) and equating to 0, leading to

8
33/42 34/42

• We can recast the mass flow rate equation (Eq.(29) in • If we plot the non-dimensional mass flow rate equation
the following form. Note the reference is throat. we get the following variation
Variation of mass flow rate
0.5
  2 γ +1

 γR   p t  γ  p t  γ  
1

mdot/mdot_max
0.8
& = A tρ0  2
m T0    −     0.6
Is entropic

 γ −1   p0   p0   
0.4

  
0.2
0
γ +1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

 2  2(γ −1) From Eq. (30)

p/p0

⇒m
& max = A t ρ 0   γRT0
 γ +1 • The right side of the curve for 0.528 > p/po > 1, the

0. 5 curve can very closely represented by an ellipse given by
 2 γ +1

 2   pt  γ  pt  γ   Isentropic-Ellipse Comparison

      
−  pt 
2
 m & 
2

 γ − 1   p0   p0   
1

From the  p − 0.528  

mdot/mdot_max
& max 
0.8
m&       m
⇒
0.6 Is entropic
= γ +1
above two ⇒ 0
+ =1 0.4 Elliptic
& max
m equations 0.472 2 0.2

 2  2 ( γ −1) 1 0

  0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

 γ +1 Error less than 0.5% p/p0

35/42 36/42

Flow in a Variable Area Passage-X Normal Shock-I

• Before concluding, let us visit C- nozzle again
• We saw that a normal shock can arise in a CD
• The non-dimensional mass flow rate for C-nozzle can nozzle
be drawn
• The variation of pressure at exit plane and at back of • During normal shock there are jump in properties
C-nozzle can be as shown • We shall establish relation ships in properties
1 before and after a normal shock
m& 1.000
& max
m p e 0.528 Mass balance p1 , ρ1 , T1 , V1
p0 ⇒ ρ1V1 = ρ 2 V2
0 Energy balance
0.528 1 0
pb 0.528 1 ⇒ h1 + 0.5V12 = h 2 + 0.5V2 2
pb p 2 , ρ2 , T2 , V2
p0 ⇒ h 01 = h 02 ⇒ T01 = T02
p0

9
37/42 38/42

Normal Shock-II Normal Shock-III

T2 p 2 V2 p 2 M 2 c 2 p 2 M 2 T2
• Since flow is isentropic on both sides of the shock ⇒ = = =
T1 p1 V1 p1 M1c1 p1 M1 T1
(except at the shock front)
2
T2 p2 M 2 T p M 
T  γ −1 2 T02  γ −1  2 ∴ = ⇒ 2 =  2 2  32
⇒ 01 = 1 +   M1 ; = 1+  M 2 T1 p1 M1 T1  p1 M1 
T1  2  T2  2 
 γ −1  2
 γ −1  2 1+   M1 2
1+   M1  2   p2 M 2 
T2  2  Eqs (31) and (32) ⇒ 
=  

⇒ = 31  γ −1 2  p1 M1 
T1  γ −1  2 1+  M 2
1+  M 2  2 
 2  As T01 = T02 (from previous slide)
0.5
  γ −1  2 
• From Continuity,  1+  M 1 
⇒ 2 = 1  
p M 2   33
p1 p
⇒ ρ1V1 = ρ 2 V2 ⇒ V1 = 2 V2 p1 M 2  γ −1  2 
RT1 RT2 1+  M 2 
  2  

39/42 40/42

Normal Shock-IV Normal Shock-V

• Squaring both sides, cross multiplying and
Momentum balance simplifying leads to
⇒ p1 − p 2 = ρ 2 V2 2 − ρ1V12 ⇒ p1 + ρ1V12 = p 2 + ρ 2 V2 2 0.5
  2 
 M12 +  
γ − 1  
2 2 2 2
⇒ p1 + ρ1M1 c1 = p 2 + ρ 2 M 2 c 2 
M2 =   35

  2γ  M12 − 1 
p1 p
⇒ p1 + M12 γRT1 = p 2 + 2 M 2 2 γRT2
RT1 RT2   γ −1 
2
  
p 2 1 + γM1
⇒ = 34
p1 1 + γM 2 2 • It is now straightforward to derive the following
0.5
  γ −1 2  γ −1 2
 1+  M1 
M1   2   1 + γM12 T2 1 + 2 M1
Eqs (33) and (34) ⇒ = ⇒ = 36
M 2   γ −1  2  1 + γM 2 2 T1 1 + γ − 1 M 2
1+  M 2  2
  2   2

10
41/42 42/42
Normal Shock
Normal Shock-VI 1
0.9
0.5
 γ −1 2  0.8

ρ 2 M1 
1+ M2  0.7
0.6

Value
M2

⇒ =  2  37
0.5
0.4 p02/p01

ρ1 M 2  1 + γ − 1 M 2  0.3

 1 
0.2

 
0.1
2 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1
γ +1
 γ −1 2  2 ( γ −1)

p 02  1 + 2 M 2 
Normal Shock
M1
⇒ =  38 100

p 01  1 + γ − 1 M 2  M2
 1 
 2  p2/p1

Value
10 T2/T1
rho2/rho1
*
A p1
⇒ * = 02 39 1
A 2 p 01 0 2 4 6 8
M1

11