Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH ANFD HYGIENE

Public health: It is the “science and art of preventing diseases in the human population,
prolonging human life (increased life expectancy) and promoting human health (decreased
infant and adult mortality)” through organized efforts of society, organizations, NGO’s,
public/private communities and individuals.

Or

It is simply defined as the science of preventive medicine and the preservation of health by
preventing the transmission of infections in the population.

Health: According to WHO definition, the health is simply defined as, "a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease”. The various
categories and types of health include, physical health, sexual health, environmental
health, community health, social health, public health, behavioural health, economic health,
mental health and occupational health, etc.
The focus of public health programmes is to improve health and quality of life through
prevention and treatment of diseases, to promote personal and domestic hygiene in addition to
safe water and food practices. Examples of common public health measures include promotion
of hand washing, sanitation and cleanliness, breastfeeding, vaccinations, awareness
campaigns, suicide prevention and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually
transmitted diseases.
Public health encompasses the interdisciplinary approaches of physicians,
epidemiologists, medical assistants, psychologists, environmentalists, public health nurses and
volunteers, biostatistics, pharmacists, dentists, dieticians, veterinarians, sociologists, societal
experts, and other various health services. Many diseases are preventable through simple,
nonmedical methods.

Nowadays, Public Health 2.0 or health 2.0 is a movement and a research programme within
public health that describes ways and aims to make in which traditional public health
practitioners and institutions can reach out (or could reach out) to the public through social
media and health blogs about status of public health.

Hygiene: Hygiene is a concept related to cleanliness, health and medicine, as well as to

personal and professional care practices. According to WHO, Hygiene is simply defines as the
set of practices/conditions and methods that help to maintain health and minimise the incidence
and prevent the spread of diseases in the population.
Hygiene is simply not the 'cleanliness,' but hygiene is a broad term. It includes such personal
habits and choices as how frequently to bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails and change
clothing, etc. It also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace,
including bathroom facilities, clean and germ-free.

Hand hygiene, household cleaning and food safety constitute the main focus for hygiene
interventions in the home and community. Hands should be washed before eating, before
preparing food, after using the toilet, changing diapers or other similar exposure, and after
playing with or feeding pets. Consistent environmental cleaning with detergent, especially of
frequently touched objects, is also recommended.

Types of hygiene: The various types of hygiene’s for maintaining a healthy life are medical
hygiene, Personal hygiene, Oral hygiene, Dental hygiene, Sleep hygiene, Hand hygiene, home
hygiene, Environmental hygiene, Respiratory hygiene, Food hygiene, Mental hygiene, laundry
hygiene, Disinfection, Sanitation, Use of antiseptics, etc.
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

PCOD AND PCOS

PCOD (Polycystic Ovarian Disease) is a medical condition in which the woman ovaries
produce immature or partially mature eggs in large numbers and over the time these become
cysts in ovaries. Due to this ovary become large and secrete large amount of male hormones
(androgens) causing infertility, irregular menstrual cycles, hair loss and abnormal weight
gain. PCOD can be controlled by diet and lifestyle modifications.
Almost 10% of women in the world is suffering from PCOD. In compare to PCOD women
with PCOS produce higher-than-normal amounts of male hormones. This hormone imbalance
causes them to skip menstrual periods and makes it harder for them to get pregnant.

Besides unpredictable hormonal behaviour, this condition can trigger Diabetes, Infertility,
Acne, Excessive hair growth.

What is PCOS?
PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome) is a metabolic
disorder in which the woman affected by hormonal
imbalance in their reproductive years (between ages
12 and 51). Due to increase level of male hormones
females might skip menstrual periods, have irregular
ovulation making it hard to get pregnant, get abnormal
hair growth on the body and face simultaneously it
can lead to heart disease and diabetes in long term.
PCOS is a serious medical condition, and it requires
proper medical attention or surgical treatment.

Many women have PCOD / PCOS but they don’t know it. Group of symptoms that affects
the ovulation and ovaries are: Ovarian cysts, increased level of male hormones, skipped or
irregular menstrual periods

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How are the Two Conditions Different?
Nature of the condition: PCOS is a serious condition. PCOD is not considered to be truly a
disease since with the right diet and exercise, it can be managed. PCOS, on the other hand, is
a metabolic disorder.
1. Causative Factors:
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome is a disorder of the endocrine system, while PCOD is a condition
developed by the imbalance of hormones. It is believed that hormonal imbalances and genetics
play an essential role in both conditions. The theory is that high levels of male hormones
prevent ovaries from producing hormones and producing eggs normally. Insulin resistance and
inflammation have also been linked to excess androgen production.

2. Occurrence:
PCOD is more common in comparison. Almost one-third of women around the globe suffer
from Polycystic Ovarian Disease. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome has a lower number of patients.
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

3. Impact of PCOD & PCOS on Pregnancy:

Polycystic Ovarian Disease does not lead to infertility in all women and shouldn’t be
considered an obstacle towards pregnancy. In about 80 per cent of cases, women can
possibly conceive with a little aid and experience a smooth pregnancy. For women
with PCOS, conception can be a challenge due to the hormonal irregularities. To
conceive, one should have balanced hormonal cycles that can create an environment
for the ovum to release and infuse with the sperm post-intercourse.
Maintaining good health is essential to prevent as well as treat hormonal disturbances
and conditions. The best treatment for PCOD and PCOS will include timely diagnosis
and the appropriate steps that can help overcome the syndrome and make the journey
towards conception a success

SUMMARY
In PCOD the ovaries start releasing immature eggs that lead to hormonal imbalances
and swollen ovaries, among other symptoms; while in PCOS, endocrine issues cause
the ovaries to produce excess androgens, which makes eggs prone to becoming cysts.
These cysts won’t, however, be released like in PCOD - rather they build up in the
ovaries themselves.
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Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

What is Cancer?
Cancer is one of the most feared diseases in the world and it affects over 11 lakh people every
year in India alone. Worldwide, more than 10 million people succumb to this disease every year.
In humans, cell differentiation and proliferation are highly manipulated and regularized by the cell
division mechanism.

Uncontrolled cell division occurs when a process called contact inhibition fails. In healthy
organisms, during this process, when cells come in contact with other cells, the process of cell
replication ceases.

As a result, contact inhibition becomes a powerful anti-cancer mechanism, but it is lost in cancer
cells. Hence, most types of cancer have tumours (except for cancers of the blood).

It is often presumed that all tumours are cancerous – but this is a misconception. A tumour
becomes cancerous only when it spreads to other parts of the body.

Types of Tumour

A tumour is classified into one of these three types based on its ability to undergo metastasis
(spreading):

Benign Tumour

These tumours are localized at a particular location in the body. Moreover, it does not spread to
the other parts of the body and is generally harmless. However, when a benign tumour occurs in
areas such as the brain, it can turn fatal. Treatment often involves surgery and it does not grow
back.

Malignant Tumour

These tumours are cancerous – meaning that they will grow quickly and spread to other
normal tissues of the body. This ability to spread is called metastasis. Usually, cancer cells
metastasize when it gets into the bloodstream or the lymph nodes and form secondary tumours
across various sites in the body.

Types of Cancer

From a medical perspective, cancer types can be classified based on the type of cell they
originated from. Therefore, cancer can be classified into:

Carcinoma
The most common form of cancer, it originates from the epithelial cells. E.g. lip cancer, lung
cancer, liver cancer, cervical cancer, breast cancer

Sarcoma
Originates from the connective tissues such as cartilage, fat and bone tissues.

Melanoma
Originates from melanocytes, which are a type of cell that contains pigments.

Lymphoma & Leukaemia

Originates from the cells that comprise blood (such as b lymphocytes or white blood cells)
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

Causes of Cancer
Many factors are attributed to causing cancer. The most probable factors include:

1. Physical factors – Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays

2. Chemical factors – Such as tobacco and smoke
3. Biological factors – Viral oncogenes, proto-oncogenes and cellular oncogenes

The above factors are called carcinogens.

Diagnosis of Cancer

The detection and diagnosis of cancer are very important before it spreads to other parts of the
body. Identification of cancer genes is pivotal to prevent cancer.
The following methods are used to detect cancer –
1. Biopsy.
2. Histopathological studies of tissue.
3. Radiography technique.
4. Computed tomography.
5. Magnetic resonance imaging.
6. Molecular biology techniques.

Treatment of Cancer

Commonly, three types of treatment are available for cancer.

1. Surgery – Surgically removing localized cancerous mass (Effective for benign tumours)
2. Radiation therapy – In this therapy, radiation is used to kill the cancer cells.
3. Chemotherapy – Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancer cells.
4. Immunotherapy – Immune molecules and agents used to treat or correct cancerous
cells.
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

Tuberculosis
The word “tuberculosis” comes from a Latin word for "nodule" or something that sticks out.
TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. TB
is spread through the air when people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit. A person needs to
inhale only a few germs to become infected.

Every year, 10 million people fall ill with tuberculosis (TB). Despite being a preventable and
curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year – making it the world’s top infectious
killer.

TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to
antimicrobial resistance.

Tuberculosis is also known as TB. Not everyone who becomes infected with TB gets sick,
Most of the people who fall ill with TB live in low- and middle-income countries, but TB is
present all over the world. About half of all people with TB can
be found in 8 countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines and South Africa.

About one-quarter of the world’s population is estimated to be

infected by TB bacteria. Only 5-15% of these people will fall ill
with active TB disease. The rest have TB infection but are not ill
and cannot transmit the disease. Both TB infection and disease
are curable using antibiotics

Not everyone infected with TB bacteria (germs) becomes sick.

So, there are two types of TB conditions:

• Latent TB infection, where the TB germs live in your body but don't make you
sick.
• TB disease (active TB) where you get sick from the TB germs. TB disease can
almost always be cured with antibiotics. But if it's not treated properly, it can
be fatal.
Thus,

If you’re infected with the bacterium, but don’t have symptoms, you have inactive tuberculosis
or latent tuberculosis infection (also called latent TB). It may seem like TB has gone away, but
it’s dormant (sleeping) inside your body.
If you’re infected, develop symptoms and are contagious, you have active tuberculosis or
tuberculosis disease (TB disease).

The three stages of TB are:

• Primary infection.
• Latent TB infection.
• Active TB disease.
•
How common is tuberculosis?

About 10 million people became ill with TB throughout the world, and about 1.5 million people
died from the disease in 2020.

Are there different kinds of tuberculosis?

Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

In addition to active or inactive, you might hear about different kinds of TB, including the
most common, pulmonary (lung) tuberculosis. But the bacterium can also affect other parts of
your body besides the lungs, causing extrapulmonary tuberculosis (or TB outside of the
lung). You might also hear about systemic miliary tuberculosis, which can spread throughout
your body and cause:
• Meningitis, an inflammation of your brain.
• Sterile pyuria, or high levels of white blood cells in your urine.
• Pott’s disease, also called spinal tuberculosis or tuberculosis spondylitis.
• Addison’s disease, an adrenal gland condition.
• Hepatitis, a liver infection.
• Lymphadenitis in your neck, also called scrofula or TB lymphadenitis.

How is tuberculosis spread?

TB can be spread when a person with active TB disease releases germs into the air through
coughing, sneezing, talking, singing or even laughing. Only people with active pulmonary
infection are contagious. Most people who breathe in TB bacteria are able to fight the bacteria
and stop it from growing. The bacterium becomes inactive in these individuals, causing a latent
TB infection.
As many as 13 million people in the U.S. have latent TB. Although the bacteria are inactive,
they still remain alive in the body and can become active later. Some people can have a latent
TB infection for a lifetime, without it ever becoming active and developing into TB disease.

What are the signs and symptoms of tuberculosis?

People with inactive TB do not exhibit symptoms. However, they may have a positive skin
reaction test or blood test.
Those with active TB can show any of the following symptoms:
• Bad cough (lasting longer than two weeks).
• Pain in your chest.
• Coughing up blood or sputum (mucus).
• Fatigue or weakness.
• Loss of appetite.
• Weight loss.
• Chills, Fever and night sweats.
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

Amebiasis
Amebiasis is a parasitic infection of the intestines caused by the amoeba Entamoeba
histolytica, or E. histolytica.
The symptoms of amebiasis include loose stool, abdominal cramping, and stomach pain.
However, most people with amebiasis won’t experience significant symptoms.

Who is at risk for amebiasis?

Amebiasis is common in tropical countries with underdeveloped sanitation. It’s most
common in the Indian subcontinent, parts of Central and South America, Mexico, and parts
of Africa. It’s relatively rare in the United States.

People with the greatest risk for amebiasis include:

✓ people who have travelled to tropical locations where there’s underdeveloped
sanitation
✓ immigrants from tropical countries with underdeveloped sanitary conditions
✓ people who live in institutions with underdeveloped sanitary conditions, such as
prisons
✓ men who have sex with other men
✓ people with suppressed immune systems and other health conditions

What causes amebiasis?

E. histolytica is a single-celled protozoan that usually enters the human body when a person
ingests cysts through food or water. It can also enter the body through direct contact with fecal
matter.
The cysts are a relatively inactive form of the parasite that can live for several months in the
soil or environment where they were deposited in feces. The microscopic cysts are present in
soil, fertilizer, or water that’s been contaminated with infected feces.

Food handlers may transmit the cysts while preparing or handling food. Transmission is also
possible during anal sex, oral-anal sex, and colonic irrigation.

When cysts enter the body, they lodge in the digestive tract. They then release an invasive,
active form of the parasite called a trophozoite. The parasites reproduce in the digestive tract
and migrate to the large intestine. There, they can burrow into the intestinal wall or the colon.

What are the symptoms of amebiasis?

According to the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), only about 10 to 20
percent Trusted Source of people who have amebiasis become ill from it.

While most people have no symptoms, amebiasis can cause bloody diarrhoea, colitis, and
tissue destruction. The person can then spread the disease by releasing new cysts into the
environment through infected feces.

When symptoms do occur, they tend to appear 1 to 4 weeks after ingestion of the cysts.
Symptoms at this stage tend to be mild and include loose stools and stomach cramping.
In a rare complication of the disease, the trophozoites may breach the intestinal walls, enter the
bloodstream, and travel to various internal organs. They most commonly end up in the liver,
but may also infect the heart, lungs, brain, or other organs.
If trophozoites invade an internal organ, they can potentially cause:
• abscesses
• infections
• severe illness
• death
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

If the parasite invades the lining of the intestine, it can cause amoebic dysentery. Amoebic
dysentery is a more dangerous form of amebiasis with frequent watery and bloody stools and
severe stomach cramping.

Another very rare complication is fulminant necrotizing amoebic colitis, which can destroy
bowel tissue and lead to bowel perforation and peritonitis.

The liver is a frequent destination for the parasite, where it can cause a collection of pus called
an amoebic liver abscess. Symptoms include fever and tenderness in the upper-right part of the
abdomen.

To detect E. histolytica and rule out other possible infections, your doctor may order tests
such as stool samples and antigen testing.

How can I prevent amebiasis?

Proper sanitation is the key to avoiding amebiasis. As a general rule, thoroughly wash your
hands with soap and water after using the bathroom and before handling food.
If you’re traveling to places where the infection is common, follow this regimen when
preparing and eating food:
• Thoroughly wash fruits and vegetables before eating.
• Avoid eating fruits or vegetables unless you wash and peel them yourself.
• Use bottled water and soft drinks from sealed containers.
• If you must drink tap water, boil it for at least 1 minute, or use a store-bought
“absolute 1 micron” filter and add disinfecting chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or iodine
tablets to the filtered water.
• Avoid ice cubes or fountain drinks.
• Avoid peeled fresh fruit or vegetables.
• Avoid milk, cheese, or other unpasteurized dairy products.
• Avoid food sold by street vendors.
• Use of some antiprotozoal drugs like metronidazole, ornidazole and few antibiotics.
Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

Difference between Communicable and Non-communicable diseases

The table below depicts the important differences between communicable and non-
communicable diseases.

Communicable Diseases Non-communicable diseases

Definition

Diseases spread from one to another Diseases cannot be transmitted from one to another person
person. Can be spread through water,
air etc

Causative

Pathogens that are highly infectious Here, the causative are allergies, malnutrition, illness due to
and vectors transmit these diseases internal factors, lifestyle changes, environmental changes,
abnormalities in cell proliferation etc

Agent causing infection

Virus, bacteria No agents

Inheritance factor

Cannot be inherited from one Can be inherited from one generation to another
generation to another

Example

AIDS, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Malaria, Allergies, heart diseases, diabetes

Cholera

Type of disease

As it can develop almost immediately, As it develops over a period of time and lasts for long, it is
it is acute chronic

Treatment

Traditional methods/therapies Surgically or specialized methodologies

Multidisciplinary Minor Unit-II “Introductory Zoology”

An overview of Lifestyle disorders

Lifestyle diseases or disorders are those diseases whose occurrence is primarily based on the
daily habits of people and are a result of an inappropriate relationship of people with their
environment/Workplace. Thus, Lifestyle diseases are associated with the way a person OR
people live.
The main factors contributing to lifestyle diseases are: -
1. Bad food/eating habits,
2. Physical inactivity,
3. Wrong body posture and prolonged sitting,
4. Disturbed biological clock/Irregular sleep cycle
5. Long working and labour hours
6. Occupational hazards
7. Working under strict guidelines and stress
8. Socio-psychological distress
9. Environmental pollution
The lifestyle diseases ultimately result in development of following non-communicable and
chronic ailments: -
1. Cardio-vascular disorders (heart attack, stroke)
2. Obesity,
3. Cancer,
4. Chronic liver disease/cirrhosis,
5. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
6. Alzheimer's disease
7. Depression and general anxiety disorder,
8. Chronic backache,
9. Diabetes,
10. Nephritis and chronic renal failure (CRF)
11. Hypertension,
12. Insomnia,
13. Allergy
14. Low immunity
15. Diseases associated with smoking, alcohol and drug abuse.
16. Occupational diseases (caused by the factors present in the vicinity like heat, sound,
dust, chemicals, radiations, fumes, smoke, cold, and other pollutants)
Further, with advancement of our lifestyle, we have become dependent on technology and
gadgets which directly have an impact on our health. For example, heavy computer use could
be linked to glaucoma, especially among those who are short-sighted. Glaucoma is caused by
increased fluid pressure within the eye compressing the nerves at the back, which can lead to
blindness if not treated.
Regular spending of lot of time in front of computer may also lead to neck and back pain
because body is going to begin to change and adapt to take on this frequent activity.
So, a healthy lifestyle must be adopted to combat these diseases with a proper
balanced diet, physical activity and by giving due respect to biological clock.
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