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ACIDS AND BASES

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  ACIDS AND BASES

 Acids and bases are chemicals that exhibit their chemical behaviour when dissolved in
water.
 Hence, when dealing with them the word aqueous will be repeatedly used, so is in the
chemical equation for acids and bases.
 Acids and bases produces ions when dissolved in water; therefore, are called
electrolytes.
 An electrolyte is an ionic solution that is able to conduct electricity.
 There are different types of acids and bases that occur naturally; however, there also
others which are derived in the laboratory

 ACID/BASE DEFINITIONS

 Ionisation: The process whereby covalent molecules will produce ions in solution for
the first time
 Dissociation: The process where ionic compounds break up into their individual ions
in solution.

o Arrhenius
 An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) / hydronium ions (H3O+)
when dissolved in water.
 HCl ↔ H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
 This process is known as ionisation
 A base is a substance that produces hydroxide (OH−) when dissolved in water.
 NaOH ↔ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 This process is known as dissociation

o Bronsted-Lowry
 An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.
 HCl + H2O ↔ H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
 A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
 NH3 + H20 ↔ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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  PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

 ACID

 Sour taste
 Corrosive
 have pH lower than 7
 As pH decreases the acidity increases

 BASE

 Bitter taste
 Caustic
 Have pH greater than 7
 As pH increases the basicity increases.

 ACID PROTICITY

 Some acids are able to donate more than one proton.

 The number of protons that an acid can donate is referred to as the acid proticity.
 HCl has one hydrogen in its structure, thus we call this a monoprotic acid.
 H2SO4 has two hydrogen atoms in its structure, thus we call this a diprotic acid.
 H3PO4 has three protons in its structure, thus we call this a triprotic acid.

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  CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

 An acid forms a conjugate base when it donates a proton.

acid →conjugate base + H+
 A base forms a conjugate acid when it accepts a proton.
base + H+ →conjugate acid
 Conjugate acid-base pairs are compounds that differ by the presence of one proton.

KUTHU HUUUU!!!

 NH3 and NH4+

 NH3 is acting as the base thus will be the proton acceptor, which makes the NH4+ the
conjugate acid.
 It can be clearly seen that the NH4+ differs from the NH3 by a single proton (H+) and
thus will act as an acid (proton donor) in the reverse reaction.

 H2O and OH-

 H2O is acting as the acid thus will be the proton donor which then makes OH- the
conjugate base.
 It can be clearly seen that OH- differs from H2O by a single proton (H+) and thus will
act as a base (proton acceptor) in the reverse reaction.

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  AMPHOLYTE / AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES

 Ampholyte - A substance that can act as both an acid or a base.

 Amphiprotic substances can therefore either donate or accept protons.
 Common ampholytes include: H2O, HCO3− and HSO4−.

KUTHI HUUUUU!!!

HSO4- + H2O → H2SO4 + OH- :HSO4- acts as a base

HSO4- + H2O → SO42- + H3O+ :HSO4- acts as an acid

 CONCENTRATED VS DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES

 Concentration is the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution.

 A concentrated acid is an acid with a large amount of solute (the acid) dissolved in a
small volume of solvent (water).
 A dilute acid is an acid with a small amount of solute (the acid) dissolved in a large
volume of solvent (water).

 STRONG VS WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

 The strength of an acid/base refers to the ability of the substance to ionise or

dissociate.

 ACIDS
 A strong acid will ionise completely in water.
 HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
strong acid → weak conjugate base
 A weak acid will only partially ionise in water.
 2H2CO3 (l) + 2H2O (l) → 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq) + H2CO3 (aq)
weak acid → strong conjugate base

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  BASES

 A strong base will dissociate completely in water.

 NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
strong base → weak conjugate acid
 A weak base will dissociate only partially in water.
 2Mg(OH)2 (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq)

 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A STRONG ACID AND A WEAK ACID

 STRONG ACID
 Ionises completely in water to form high concentration of hydronium ions
 Has a lower pH value
 has bigger Ka
 Stronger electrolytes, high conductivity
 Examples: HCl / H2SO4 / HNO3

 WEAK ACID
 Ionises partially in water to form low concentration of hydroxide ions
 Has pH value closer to 7
 Has smaller Ka
 Weak electrolytes, lower conductivity
 Examples: CH3COOH / H2CO3 / H3PO4

 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A STRONG BASE AND A WEAK BASE

 STRONG BASES
 Dissociates completely in water
 Has a pH value closer to 14
 Has bigger Kb
 Stronger electrolytes, high conductivity
 Examples: LiOH / NaOH / KOH

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  WEAK BASES
 Dissociates partially in water
 Has pH value closer to 7
 Has smaller Kb
 Weak electrolytes, lower conductivity
 Examples: Ca (OH)2 / Mg(OH)2 / NH4OH

 INFLUENCE OF ACID / BASE STRENGTH

 REACTION RATE

 Reaction rates increase as the strength of the acid/base increases.

 Stronger acid = higher concentration of ions = greater rate of reaction.

 CONDUCTIVITY

 Conductivity increases as the strength of the acid/base increases.

 Stronger acid = higher concentration of H+ = greater conductivity.

 THE pH SCALE

 The pH of a solution is a number that represents the acidity or alkalinity of a

substance.
 The greater the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the more acidic the solution and
the lower the pH.
 The lower the concentration of H+ in solution, the more alkali the solution and the
higher the pH.
 The pH scale is a range from 0 to 14.

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  PROTOLYTIC REACTIONS

 Protolytic reactions are reactions during which protons (H+) are transferred.
 acid + metal → salt + H2

2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g)

 acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + H2O

H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

 acid + metal oxide → salt + H2O

2HCl (aq) + MgO(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

 acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2

2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

 HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS

 Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water.

 During the hydrolysis, the salt will form an acidic, alkali or neutral solution.
 The acidity of the salt is dependent on the relative strength of the acid and base that is
used.
 ACID BASE SALT

Strong → Weak → Acidic

Strong → Strong → Neutral
Weak → Strong → Alkali

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 Sulfuric acid reacts with magnesium hydroxide to form magnesium sulphate and
water according to the following reaction:

H2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 → MgSO4 (aq) + H2O

 Here the salt MgSO4 will be found as aqueous ions in solution, that is, dissociated in
water:

MgSO4 → Mg2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

 These ions come from the weak base (Mg(OH)2) and the strong acid (H2SO4) .
 We know that strong acids and bases will almost fully ionise/dissociate, but weak
acids/bases will only partially ionise in solution.
 This means that the ion from the weak base, Mg2+ , will undergo hydrolysis with
water according to the following reaction:

Mg2+ + 2H2 O → Mg(OH) + 2H+

 The ion now forms Mg(OH)2 in solution, a partially dissociated base, by reacting with
the water and leaving H+ ions in the solution. This means that excess H+ will affect the
neutrality of the solution.
 If there is an excess of (H3O+ ) or H+ present, the solution will become acidic.
 This means that hydrolysis has occurred with the salt in solution causing the solution
to become acidic.
 The salt is thus known as an acidic salt because it will increase the acidity of the
solution.
 In other words, the salt of a strong acid and a weak base will form an acidic salt as it
will cause hydrolysis to occur making the solution acidic

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KWV 02

 Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water
according to the following reaction:

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

 Here the salt CH3COONa will be found as aqueous ions in solution, that is,
dissociated in water

CH3COONa → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

 These ions come from the strong base (NaOH) and the weak acid (CH3COOH) .
 We know that strong acids and bases will almost fully ionise/dissociate, but weak
acids/bases will only partially ionise/dissociate in solution.
 This means that the ion from the weak acid CH3COO- will undergo hydrolysis with
water according to the following reaction:

CH3COO- + H2O → CH3COOH + OH-

 The ion now forms CH3COOH in solution, a partially ionised acid, by reacting with
the water and leaving OH- ions in the solution.
 This means that excess OH- ions will affect the neutrality of the solution.
 If there is an excess of OH- present, the solution will become basic.
 This means that in this example, hydrolysis has occurred with the salt in solution
causing the solution to become basic.
 The salt is thus known as a basic salt because it will increase the basic nature of the
solution.
 In other words, the salt of a strong base and a weak acid will form a basic salt as it
will cause hydrolysis to occur making the solution basic

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KWV 03
 Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water
according to the following equation:

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

 Here the salt NaCl will be aqueous ions in solution, that is, will be dissociated in
water.
NaCl → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
 These ions come from a strong base and a strong acid respectively.
 We already know that strong acids and strong bases almost fully ionise/dissociate in
water thus water will not react with these ions.
 In other words, hydrolysis will not occur and thus there will be no reaction with water
to produce any excess in H+ / (H3O+ ) or OH- ions.
 The salt is thus known as a neutral salt because it will not affect the acidic or basic
nature of the solution.
 In other words, the salt of a strong base and a strong acid will form a neutral salt as
no hydrolysis will occur.

 INDICATORS

 An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the substance.

 During titrations, the indicator needs to be selected according to the acidity/alkalinity
of the salt that will be produced (see hydrolysis).
 An indicator is a chemical substance that changes colour when the solution has a
specific pH
 There are three indicators that are of concern for grade 12 discussion i.e. methyl
orange, Phenolphthalein and Bromothymol blue
 •Indicators are used in titration (neutralisation reactions) to determine an equivalence
point or an end point
 An equivalence point is a stage whereby an acid/base has completely reacted with an
base/Acid. Therefore, in solution there is only salt, water and an indicator available
 Although, there are three different indicators available for use in grade 12,
 it is important that one is able to determine the suitable indicator based on
combination of acid and base available.
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  THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLE INDICATOR

Combination Indicator pH range Expected colour

Strong Acid + Weak base Methyl Orange 3,1 – 4,4 Yellow / orange
Strong acid + Strong base Bromothymol blue 6,0 – 7,6 Blue / dark blue
Weak acid + strong base Phenolphthalein 8,3 – 10 Pink / red

o Bromothymol blue → Blue to yellow

 NEUTRAL: PH 7

 Neutralisation is when the equivalence point is reached.

 Equivalence point is NOT when the solution is at pH 7, but when the molar amount of
acid and base is the same according to the molar ratio.
 The pH at neutralisation is dependent on the salt that is formed.

 CALCULATING PH VALUES

pH = − log[H3O+]
Poh = [OH−]
pH + pOH = 14

 Strong acids ionise completely in water, meaning that all acids donate their protons.
 The concentration of the H+ ions can be determined from the initial concentration of
the acids, taking the proticity of the acid into account.

MONOPROTIC:

HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

1 mol : 1 mol : 1 mol
0,4 mol·dm−3 : 0,4 mol·dm−3 : 0,4 mol·dm−3

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 DIPROTIC:

H2SO4(g) → H+(aq) + SO42− (aq)

1 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol
0,4 mol·dm−3 : 0,8 mol·dm−3 : 0,4 mol·dm−3

TRIPROTIC:

H3PO4(g) → H+(aq) + PO43− (aq)

1 mol : 3 mol : 1 mol
0,4 mol·dm−3 : 1,2 mol·dm−3 : 0,4 mol·dm−3

 Determination of pH for Acids

 STEP 1

 Ionise HNO3 to get H+ ions

 STEP 2

 Determine stoichiometric ratio of an acid to proton

 STEP 3

 Determine the concentration of H+

 STEP 4

 Determine pH using calculation

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  AUTO-IONISATION OF WATER AND KW

 Water ionises to form hydronium and hydroxide ions in the following reaction:

2H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

o The concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are equal, and the equilibrium constant
for the ionisation of water (Kw) is 1,00 ✕ 10−14 (at a temperature of 25°C or 298 K).
 THEREFORE
[H3O+] [OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−14 mol·dm−3
[H3O+] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3
[OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3

o When the concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are equal, the solution is neutral
and has a pH of 7.
o Acidic pH is less than 7
o Neutral pH is equal to 7
o Basic / Alkaline pH is greater than 7
o Also, pH could be calculated using stoichiometry and hydrolysis of substance to
determine the concentration of H+ ions
o Acidic solutions will have pH < 7 because [H3O ] is greater than 1 x 10 -7 mol.dm-3
o Neutral solutions will have pH = 7 because [H3O+ ] is equal to 1 x 10-7mol.dm-3
o Basic solution will have pH > 7 because [H3O+ ] is less than 1 x 10-7mol.dm-3

 DETERMINATION OF PH FOR BASES

 The problem with bases is that they don‘t produce H+ ions during hydrolysis.
 Therefore, when pH of a base is calculated, it is important to first determine the
concentration of H+ before committing to the mathematical definition of pH.
 Kw of pure water is 1x10-14
 However, water is a product of H+ (acid) and OH-(base).
 Hence, the above statement could be mathematically written as

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 [H+][OH-] = 1x10-14

 Ka AND Kb VALUES

o When weak acids or bases are dissolved in water, only partial ionisation/ dissociation
occurs.
 There is a mixture of the original reactant as well as the ionic products that were
formed.
 The extent of ionisation can be treated in the same way as the extent to which an
equilibrium reaction takes place.
 The acid dissociation constant (Ka) and base dissociation constant (Kb) values are like
the equilibrium constant (Kc), but specifically described the extent of ionisation/
dissociation, and therefore the strength of the acid / base.

 NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS

 The above reactions are also called protolysis, because there is proton transfer.
 Also, neutralisation produce heat i.e. are exothermic
 Equivalence point/end-point: this is the point in the titration where neither H3O+ nor
OH- ions are in excess and the solution is neutral.
 It is also known as the neutralisation point

 CONCENTRATION

 Concentration is the measure of amount of solute in a solution.

 Solutions are divided into two in terms of concentration i.e. dilute and concentrated
solution.
 Concentration is measured in mol.dm-3, sometimes denoted as M which means
molarity. However, for our discussion the focus is on the former.
 Concentration is quantitatively calculated using the following equations:

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  TITRATIONS

 A titration is a practical laboratory method to determine the concentration of an acid

or base.
 The concentration of an acid or base can be determined by accurate neutralisation
using a standard solution- a solution of known concentration.
 Neutralisation occurs at the equivalence point, when the molar amount of acid and
base is the same according to the molar ratio.

 WRITE BALANCED EQUATIONS FOR THE FOLLOWING ACID-BASE REACTIONS

 Carbonic acid reacts with calcium hydroxide

o H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2→CaCO3 + 2H2O

 Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium oxide

o 2CH3COOH + Na2O→2CH3COONa + H2O

 Sulfuric acid reacts with lithium hydrogen carbonate

o H2SO4 + 2LiHCO3→Li2SO4 + CO2 + 2H2O

 Hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium sulphate Solution

o 2HCl +MgCO3→MgCl2 + CO2 + 2H2O

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  TITRATION SETUP

1. Pipette known solution into conical flask (usually base).

2. Add appropriate indicator to flask.

3. Add unknown concentration solution to the burette (usually acid).

4. Add solution from burette to conical flask at a drop-wise rate (remember to swirl).

5. Stop burette when indicator shows neutralisation/equivalence point has been reached.

 Burette

 To measure the (exact) volume of acid needed to reach endpoint/to neutralise the

base.

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  STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

KEY!

ca = concentration of an acid

Va = volume of an acid

na = number of moles of an acid

Cb = concentration of a base

Vb = volume of a base

Nb = number of moles of a base

 CALCULATION STEPS

 STEP 1

 Write a balanced chemical reaction (if given check and balance it)

 STEP 2

 Ratio of acid to base (Stoichiometry)

 STEP 3

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  Collect data

 STEP 4

 Select a suitable formula and substitute

o NB: nexcess = nfinal - nreacted

nexcss = ninitial - nreacted

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