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    This document reviews hydrokinetic energy conversion systems for extracting energy from flowing rivers, tidal currents, and other artificial water channels. It provides definitions related to this technology and surveys various hydrokinetic systems reported to date. Based on the review, general trends are identified in system design, duct augmentation, and placement methods for river and tidal applications. The energy in flowing rivers and tidal currents is considered a viable renewable power source, and hydrokinetic conversion systems may be suitable for harnessing energy from these resources, though mostly at an early development stage.

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    This document reviews hydrokinetic energy conversion systems for extracting energy from flowing rivers, tidal currents, and other artificial water channels. It provides definitions related to this technology and surveys various hydrokinetic systems reported to date. Based on the review, general trends are identified in system design, duct augmentation, and placement methods for river and tidal applications. The energy in flowing rivers and tidal currents is considered a viable renewable power source, and hydrokinetic conversion systems may be suitable for harnessing energy from these resources, though mostly at an early development stage.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    6 views13 pages

    Elservier

    Uploaded by

    Maquinas Arcade
    This document reviews hydrokinetic energy conversion systems for extracting energy from flowing rivers, tidal currents, and other artificial water channels. It provides definitions related to this technology and surveys various hydrokinetic systems reported to date. Based on the review, general trends are identified in system design, duct augmentation, and placement methods for river and tidal applications. The energy in flowing rivers and tidal currents is considered a viable renewable power source, and hydrokinetic conversion systems may be suitable for harnessing energy from these resources, though mostly at an early development stage.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    of 13

     

    Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

    Contents lists available at   ScienceDirect

    Applied Energy
    journal homepage:  www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

    Hydrokinetic energy conversion systems and assessment of horizontal and vertical


    axis turbines for river and tidal applications: A technology status review
    M.J. Khan a, , G. Bhuyan a, M.T. Iqbal b, J.E. Quaicoe b
    *

    a
    Power System Technologies, Powertech Labs Inc., Surrey, BC, Canada V3W 7R7 
    b
    Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science, Memorial University, St. John’s, NL, Canada A1B 3X5

    a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

     Article history: The


    The en
    energ
    ergy
    y in flowi
    flowing
    ng river
    river str
    strea
    eams
    ms,, tid
    tidal
    al curren
    currents
    ts or oth
    other
    er ar
    artifi
    tificia
    ciall water
    water chan
    channe
    nels
    ls is being
    being consid
    consider
    ered
    ed as
    Received 13 August 2008 viable source of renewable power. Hydrokinetic conversion systems, albeit mostly at its early stage of 
    Received in revised form 23 February 2009 development, may appear suitable in harnessing energy from such renewable resources. A number of 
    Accepted 24 February 2009
    resource quantization and demonstrations have been conducted throughout the world and it is believed
    Available online 1 April 2009
    that both in-land water resources and offshore ocean energy sector will benefit from this technology. In

    Keywords: this paper, starting


    and upcoming with a schemes,
    conversion set of basic
    anddefinitions pertaining
    their fields to thisare
    of applications technology,
    outlined. aBased
    review
    onof the existing
    a comprehen-
    Renewable energy
    sive survey of various hydrokinetic systems reported to date, general trends in system design, duct aug-
    Tidal current
    River stream me
    mentat
    ntation,
    ion, and placem
    placement
    ent met
    methods
    hods are dedu
    deduced.
    ced. A detailed
    detailed asse
    assessme
    ssment
    nt of various
    various turbine
    turbine systems
    systems
    Hydrokinetic
    Hydrokinet ic technology (horizontal and vertical axis), along with their classification and qualitative comparison, is presented.
    Duct augmentation
    augmentation In addition, the progression of technological advancements tracing several decades of R&D efforts are
    highlighted.
      2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

    Contents

    1. Intr
    Introd
    oduc
    ucti
    tion
    on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1823
    23
    2. Hydr
    Hydrok
    okin
    inet
    etic
    ic e
    ene
    nerg
    rgy y conv
    conver ersi
    sion
    on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1824
    24
    2.1.
    2.1. Conve
    onversrsio
    ionn sch
    schememes es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1824
    24
    2.2.
    2.2. TeTerm
    rmininol
    olog
    ogieiess fo
    forr turb
    turbin inee syst
    system ems. s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1825
    25
    2.3.
    2.3. Arereas
    as of
    of appl
    applic icat
    atio
    ion.
    n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1826
    26

    3. Tech
    Techno
    3.1.
    3.1. nolo
    logy
    Su gy
    Survrvey
    eyssu
    umrv
    rvey
    eyhodo
    etho
    et . .dolo
    . .logy
    . gy
    . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18
    1826
    1826
    1826
    26
    3.2.
    3.2. Analynalysi siss of sur
    survevey y................... ............. ............ ............ ............ ........... ............. .. 18
    1827
    27
    4. Hori
    Horizo
    zont
    ntal
    al a
    andnd ver
    verti
    tica
    call ax
    axis
    is tur
    turbi bine ness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1828
    28
    4.1.
    4.1. Ro Rototorr con
    configu
    figurarati
    tion
    onss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1828
    28
    4.2.
    4.2. Duct
    Duct aug augm menentatati
    tion
    on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1830
    30
    4.3.
    4.3. Ro Rototorr plac
    placememen entt op
    optition
    ons. s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1831
    31
    5. Te
    Techn
    chnica
    icall adv
    advan antag
    tageses and
    and disdisad adva vantantage gess of ho horiz rizon ontal tal a andnd vert vertica icall turbin
    turbines es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
    1832
    6. Co
    Conc
    nclu
    lusi
    sion
    ons.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1832
    32
    Ack
    ckno
    now wle
    ledg
    dgememen entt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1833
    33
    Appe
    Appendndix
    ix AA.. List
    List of ssururve
    veyeyed d te tech chno nolo logi gieses (i (in n al alphphab abet etic ic or orde der). r). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1833
    33
    Re
    Refe
    fere
    renc
    nces
    es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
    1833
    33

    1. Introduction

     Corresponding author.
    E-mail addresses: Tel.: +1 604 590 6634; fax: +1 604 590 8192. The process of hydrokinetic energy conversion implies utiliza-
    jahangir.khan
    jahangir.khan@powertech
    @powertechlabs.com
    labs.com(M.J
    (M.J.. Khan),
    Khan), gouri.bhuyan@
    powertechlabs.com   (G. Bhuyan),
    powertechlabs.com Bhuyan),   tariq@mun.ca   (M.T.
    (M.T. Iqba
    Iqbal),l),   jquaicoe@mun.ca tion of kine
    kinetic
    tic ene
    energy
    rgy con
    contain
    tained
    ed in rive
    riverr stre
    streams
    ams,, tida
    tidall curren
    currents,
    ts,
    (J.E. Quaicoe). or other man-made waterways for generation of electricity. This

    0306-2619/$ - see front matter   2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
    doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.02.017
     

    1824   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

    emerging class of renewable energy technology is being strongly analyze


    ana lyzedd in light
    light of the questio
    questionsns abo
    above.
    ve. Disc
    Discussi
    ussions
    ons on per
    perfor-
    for-
    recogni
    reco gnized
    zed as a unique
    unique and unconv
    unconvent
    ention
    ional
    al solution
    solution that falls
    falls mance analysis and modeling issues are beyond the scope of this
    within the realms of both in-land water resource and marine en- work and will be addressed through separate publications (such
    ergy. In contra
    contrast
    st to conve
    conventiona
    ntionall hydroelectric
    hydroelectric plants, where an as,
    as, [21]
     [21]).
    ). While a complete converter system may incorporate var-
    artificia
    artificiall water-h
    water-head
    ead is created
    created usin
    using
    g dams
    dams or penstoc
    penstocks
    ks (for ious
    ious import
    important
    ant sub-syst
    sub-system
    emss (suc
    (such
    h as, power
    power elec
    electro
    tronics
    nics,, anchorin
    anchoring,
    g,
    large-hydro
    large-h ydro and micro-hydro,
    micro-hydro, respectively), hydro
    hydrokinetic
    kinetic convert- and enviro
    environmen
    nmental
    tal monit
    monitoring,
    oring, Fig. 1
    1),
    ), this
    this work
    work mo
    mostl
    stly
    y deals
    deals with
    with
    ers are constructed without significantly
    significantly altering the natural path- the front-
    front-end
    end pro
    process
    cess of hyd
    hydrod
    rodyna
    ynamic
    mic-to
    -to-me
    -mechan
    chanical
    ical power
    power
    way of the water stream. With regard to ocean power utilization, conversion.
    these technologies can be arranged in multi-unit array that would
    extract energy from tidal and marine currents as opposed to tidal
    barragess where
    barrage where stored
    stored potent
    potential
    ial ene
    energy
    rgy of a basi basinn is har
    harness
    nessed.
    ed. 2. Hydrokinetic energy conversion
    While modularity and scalability are attractive features, it is also
    expected that hydrokinetic systems would be more environmen- Bei
    Being
    ng an emerg
    emerging
    ing energy
    energy solution
    solution,, the
    there
    re exis
    exists
    ts noticea
    noticeable
    ble
    tally
    tally frie
    friendl
    ndly y when
    when compar
    compared ed to con
    conven
    vention
    tionalal hydr
    hydroele
    oelectri
    ctricc and ti- ambiguity in defining the technology classes, field of applications,
    dal barrages. and their conversion concepts. This section aims at elaborating on
    In addition to worldw
    worldwide ide interest, recent initiatives by North these
    these issu
    issues
    es in con
    consult
    sultatio
    ation
    n wit
    with
    h the existing
    existing literatu
    literature
    re and pre
    presen
    sentt
    America
    Ame ricann ent
    entitie
    itiess have
    have also seen a gre greater
    ater momen
    momentum tum   [1–4].
    [1–4]. trends.
    Resource
    Reso urce and techtechnol
    nology
    ogy assessment
    assessment by EPR EPRII in US US   [5]
    [5],, BC Hy-
    dro/Triton  [6]   and NRC in Canada [7]
    Canada  [7]  have given newer perspec-  2.1. Conversion schemes
    tivess of North
    tive North Americ
    America’s a’s tida
    tidall current
    current energy potential
    potential.. While
    While a
    number
    numb er of projects are being actively pursu pursued,ed, notable progress The energy flux contained in a fluid stream is directly depen-
    has been made in Bay-of-Fundy (Nova Scotia) and in Puget Sound dent on the den
    dent density
    sity of the fluid, cros
    cross-se
    s-sectio
    ctional
    nal area, and fluid
    (Washington) [8,9]
    (Washington)  [8,9].. Recently (2003–2007), preliminary investiga- velocity cubed. In addition, the conversion efficiency of hydrody-
    tionss on the use of hydrok
    tion hydrokineinetic
    tic tech
    technol
    nologi
    ogies
    es for in-in-lan
    landd wat
    waterer namic, mechanical, or electrical processes reduce the overall out-
    resource
    reso urcess hav
    havee been conduc
    conductedted by organi
    organizati
    zation
    on such
    such as, US Depart
    Depart-- put.. Wh
    put While
    ile turbin
    turbinee syst
    systems
    ems are con
    conceiv
    ceived
    ed as prim
    primee cho
    choices
    ices for
    ment of Energy [10],[10], EPRI [11]
    EPRI [11],, Idaho National
    National Laboratory
    Laboratory [12] [12],, and such conversion, other non-turbine approaches are also being pur-
    National
    Nation al Hydropowe
    Hydropowerr Association
    Association   [13]
    [13].. In resp
    respons
    onse e to int
    interes
    erests
    ts sued with keen interest.
    interest. A brief description of ten (10) interrelated
    from a numnumberber of pro
    project
    ject develop
    developers,ers, US Fed
    Federa
    erall Ene
    Energy
    rgy Reg
    Regula
    ulatory
    tory concepts categorized
    concepts categorized in two broader classes (turbine/non-
    (turbine/non-turbin
    turbine)
    e)
    Commission
    Comm ission (FERC) has stated this techno technology
    logy as of tremendou
    tremendouss is given below:
    potential [14].
    [14]. Also,
    Also, the US concongrgress
    ess ha
    hass en
    endo
    dorse
    rsedd th
    thee Ener
    Energy gy In
    Inde
    de--
    pe
    pend
    ndenence
    ce and
    and Secur
    Security
    ity Ac
    Actt of 2007
    2007 (the
    (the ‘‘EIS
    ‘‘EISAct
    Act”” [15])
    [15]) bringin
    bringing g fur-
    fur-    Turbine Systems
    ther encouragement to the development of this technology. At the –   Axial (Horizontal): Rotational axis of rotor is parallel to the
    same
    sam e time
    time variou
    variouss project
    projectss and proposals
    proposals are in place place witwithin
    hin a incoming water stream (employing lift or drag type blades)
    number of jurisdictions in North America ([16–20] ([16–20]). ). [22].
    [22].
    While
    Wh ile the enthusias
    enthusiasm m in this
    this field
    field is obviou
    obvious, s, skep
    skepticis
    ticism
    m on –   Vertical:  Rotational axis of rotor is vertical to the water sur-
    technological viability is also prevalent. In addition to several fun- fac
    face
    e and
    and also
    also orth
    orthog
    ogon
    onal
    al to the
    the inco
    incomi
    ming ng water
    water stream
    stream
    damental
    damen tal inquiries (resource
    (resource availability,
    availability, definit
    definitionion of technolo-
    technolo- (employing lift or drag type blades)  [23]  [23]..
    gies,, field of applicat
    gies applicationion,, etc.
    etc.),
    ), a num
    numberber of technol
    technology
    ogy-sp-specifi
    ecificc –   Cross-flow: Rotational axis of rotor is parallel to the water
    questio
    que stions
    ns (suc
    (suchh as, wha
    whatt conver
    converterter typ
    type e is best suited
    suited,, whwheth
    ether
    er surfa
    surfacece but
    but orth
    orthogogon
    onalal to thethe incom
    incomin ing
    g wate
    waterr stream
    stream
    duct augmentation
    augmentation is worth attempting,
    attempting, how to place a turbin turbine e (employing lift or drag type blades)  [24]  [24]..
    in a channel) are continuously being put forward. In this paper, –   Venturi: Accelera
    Acceleratedted water resuresultin
    ltingg from a cho choke
    ke syst
    system
    em
    based on a comprehensive technology survey, the approach of a (that creates pressure gradient) is used to run an in-built or
    number of technology developers as well as R&D institutions are on-shore turbine [25]
    turbine  [25]..
    –   Gravitational vortex: Artificially induced vortex effect is used
    in driving a vertical turbine [26]
    turbine  [26]..
       Non-turbine Systems
    –   Flut
    Flutter
    ter Vane: Sy Syste
    stems
    ms that
    that are
    are based
    based on the the prin
    princip
    ciple
    le of 
    powerr genera
    powe generation
    tion from hydro
    hydroelastic
    elastic resonance (flutter) in
    free-flowing water [27]
    water  [27]..
    –   Piezoelectric : Piezo-property of polymers is utilized for elec-
    tricity
    tricity gen
    genera
    eration
    tion when a shee sheett of such mate material
    rial is plac
    placed
    ed
    in the water stream [28]
    stream  [28]..
    –   Vortex induced vibr vibration
    ation: Employs vibrations resulting from
    vortices forming and shedding on the downstream side of a
     [29]..
    bluff body in a current  [29]
    –   Oscillating hy
    hydrofoil
    drofoil: Vertical oscillation of hydrofoils can be
    utilized in generating pressurized fluids and subsequent tur-
    bine operation   [30].
    [30]. A variant of this class includes biomi-
    metic devices for energy harvesting [31]
    harvesting  [31]..
    –   Sails: Employs
    Employs dra drag
    g motion
    motion of line linearly
    arly/cir
    /circula
    cularly
    rly movin
    moving g
    sheets of foils placed in a water stream [32]
    stream  [32]..

    At pre
    present
    sent,, variou
    variouss turbin
    turbine
    e con
    concept
    ceptss and desi
    designs
    gns are bein
    beingg
    widely pursue
    widely pursued Fig.
    d (Fig. 2) while
    while the non-t
    non-turb
    urbine
    ine system
    systemss (Fi
    Fig.
    g. 3)
    Fig. 1.  Outline of a hydrokinetic energy converter system  [37]
     [37].. are mostly at the proof-
    proof-of-con
    of-concept
    cept stage (with some exceptions
     

    M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009


    (2009)) 1823–1835   1825

    [22]; (b) KoboldTM [23]


    Fig. 2.  Example of turbine systems: (a) Free FlowTM [22]; [23];; (c) AtlantisstromTM [24]
    [24];; (d) HydroVenturiTM [25]
    [25];; (e) Neo-AerodynamicTM [26]
    [26]..

    Fig. 3.  Example of non-turbine systems: (a) OCPSTM [27];


    [27]; (b) EEL TM [28]
    [28];; (c) VIVACETM [29];
    [29]; (d) SeasnailTM [30]
    [30];; (e) Tidal SailsTM [32].
    [32].

    [30]
    [30]).
    ). Therefore, the former
    former type of devices are given due attent
    attention
    ion In a 1981 US Deportment of Energy report   [34] [34],, this class of 
    as they hold promise for deployment in the near future. technology has been defined as ‘Low pressure run-of-the-river ul-
    tra-low-head
    tra-low -head turbine that will operat operate e on the equiva
    equivalent
    lent of less
     2.2. Terminologies for turbine systems than
    tha n 0.2 m of he head’.
    ad’. A more
    more rece
    recent
    nt (2
    (2006
    006)) assessme
    assessment nt by this
    this org
    orga-
    a-
    nization [10] has clasclassifie
    sified d these
    these dev
    devices
    ices as ‘Low Pow
    Power/Uer/Unco
    nconve
    nven-
    n-
    The term ‘Hydrokinetic Turbine’ has long been interchangeably tional Systems’ that may use hydro resources with less than 8 feet
    used with other synonyms such as, ‘Water Current Turbine’ (WCT) head.
    hea d. As indicat
    indicated
    ed in Fig.
    in Fig. 4
    4,, the USDoE report uses the hydr hydropowe
    opowerr
    [19,33]
    [19,33],, ‘Ultra-l
    ‘Ultra-low-he
    ow-headad Hydro Turbine’ 
    Turbine’   [34],
    [34], ‘Fre
    ‘Freee Flow
    Flow/Str
    /Stream
    eam po
    poten
    tentia
    tiall and
    and worki
    workingng hydr
    hydrau aulic
    lic he
    head
    ad of a po
    poten
    tentia
    tiall proje
    project
    ct as mea-
    mea-
    Turbin
    Tur bine’
    e’ (im
    (imply
    plying
    ing use of no dam,
    dam, rese
    reservo
    rvoir
    ir or augme
    augmentantation
    tion)) sures of technology classification. This also indicates that the con-
    [35],
    [35], ‘Zero Head Hydro Turbine’ [33,36]
    Turbine’  [33,36],, or ‘In-stream Hydro Tur- ventional hydroelectric plants use higher head and/or capacity in
    bine’ [11]
    bine’  [11].. For tidal applications, these converters are often termed sharp
    sha rp concontra
    trast
    st to the unc unconvonvent
    ention
    ional
    al low
    low-he
    -head/h
    ad/hydr
    ydrokin
    okinetic
    etic
    as Tidal In-stream Energy Converte (TISEC)   [5]
    Converterr (TISEC) [5]   or simply ‘Tidal schemes.
    Current Turbine’. For rivers or artificial waterways the same tech- In keeping with the present norms [5,10–12,35]
    norms  [5,10–12,35] and  and adopting a
    nology
    nolog y is generall
    generally y identified
    identified as ‘River Current
    Current Turbine
    Turbine (RCT)’, ‘Riv‘Riv-- concise
    con cise ter
    term,
    m, the word ‘Hy ‘Hydro
    drokin
    kinetic
    etic’’ is use
    usedd here.
    here. WhWhile
    ile oth
    other
    er
    er Curren
    Currentt EneEnergy
    rgy Conver
    Conversion
    sion Syst
    System
    em’’ (RC
    (RCECS
    ECS))   [37]
    [37],, ‘R
    ‘Rive
    iverr In
    In-- terms may deem suitable for application-specific cases (river, arti-
    stream Energy Converter’ (RISEC) 
    (RISEC)   [11]
    [11],, or in brief,‘River Turbine’. ficial channel, tidal, or marine current), this approach envelopes a
    Other
    Oth er common
    common but som somewh
    ewhat
    at mis
    mislead
    leading
    ing identifi
    identifiersers incl
    include
    ude broaderr spectru
    broade spectrumm where all kinetic energy conversion schemes
    ‘Watermill’, ‘Water-wheel’, or even ‘Water Turbine’ [33]
    Turbine’  [33].. for use in free-flowing/zero-head hydro streams are considered.

    Fig. 4.  Conventional hydro versus hydrokinetic energy conversion schemes [10]


    schemes  [10]..
     

    1826   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

     2.3. Areas of application on how


    how the
    the techn
    technolo
    ology
    gy evolv
    evolves,
    es, this
    this typ
    typee of alter
    alterna
    nativ
    tive
    e
    schemes may also fall within the distributed generation sce-
    Two main areas wherewhere hyd
    hydroki
    rokinet
    netic
    ic devices
    devices can be used in narios
    nar ios in the nea
    nearr future
    future.. Bul
    Bulk
    k pow
    power er gen
    genera
    eration
    tion throu
    throughgh
    power generat
    power generation
    ion purpose
    purposess are, (a) tida
    tidall current
    current,, and (b) river
    river tidal power plants are expected in longer time horizons. It
    stream. Ocean current represent another potential source of ocean is expected that these technologies will face similar network
    energy
    ene rgy where
    where the flow is uni
    unidire
    directio
    ctional,
    nal, as opp
    oppose
    osed
    d to bidirect
    bidirection
    ional
    al integration challenges as wind power systems and will take
    tidal variations. In addition to these, other resources include, man- advantage of higher resource predictability [39]
    predictability  [39]..
    made channels, irrigation canals, and industrial outflows   [22,38]
    [22,38].. –   Other purposes: Hydrok
    Hydrokine
    inetic
    tic turbine
    turbiness can potent
    potentiall
    ially
    y be used
    While all hydrokinetic devices operated on the same conversion in conjunction with an existing large hydroelectric facility,
    principles regardless of their areas of application, a set of subtle where the tailrace of a stream can be utilized for capacity
    differences may appear in the forms of design and operational fea- augmentation
    augmentatio n (i.e, resource
    resource usage maximization [10,19]).
    maximization))   [10,19]).
    tures. These include, Direct
    Direct wat
    water
    er pum
    pumpin
    pingg for irrigat
    irrigation
    ion,, des
    desalin
    alinatio
    ation
    n of seaw
    seawate
    ater,
    r,
    and space heating are other potential areas of end-use.
       Design
    –   Size: In order to achachieve
    ieve econom
    economies ies of scale, tidal current
    current tur-
    bines are currently being designed with larger capacity (sev- 3. Technology survey 
    er
    eral
    al MW).
    MW). River
    River tu turb
    rbin
    ines
    es on th the e othe
    otherr ha
    hand
    nd,, ar
    aree being
    being
    considered in the range of few kW to several hundred kW In ord
    order
    er to aid the adv
    advance
    ancemen
    mentt of hyd
    hydrok
    rokine
    inetic
    tic con
    conver
    version
    sion
    [5,19]..
    [5,19] technologies and develop suitable solutions to various
    technologies various relevan
    relevantt
    –   Directionality: River flow is unidirectional
    unidirectional and and this eliminates
    eliminates problems, it is important to identify the current status of this field
    the requirement for rotor yawing. In tidal streams, a turbine of en
    engi
    gine
    neeri
    ering
    ng and
    and res
    resea
    earch
    rch.. A surv
    survey
    ey that
    that prov
    providides
    es insig
    insight
    ht into
    into the
    the
    may operate during both flood and ebb tides, if such yaw/ historicall perspective and also indicates the industry trends can be
    historica
    pitch mechanism is in place. very useful in that regard. As part of this work, a comprehensive
    –   Placement : Dependin
    Depending g on the cha
    channe
    nnell cross-
    cross-sect
    section
    ion,, a tida
    tidall or technol
    tech nology
    ogy review has beebeen n con
    conduc
    ducted
    ted and most
    most of the major
    river current turbine may only be placed at the seafloor/riv- scheme
    sche mess report
    reported
    ed to dat
    date
    e have
    have bee
    beenn con
    conside
    sidered
    red.. Thi
    Thiss surv
    survey
    ey esse
    essen-
    n-
    erbed
    erbe d or in other
    other arrang
    arrangemement
    entss (floatin
    (floating g or mount
    mounted ed to a work  [37],, complements a set
    tially overlaps the authors’ previous work [37]
    near-surface structure). This arises from a multitude of tech- of more recent reports published by EPRI  [5], [5], Verdant Power [19]
    Power  [19],,
    nical (power generation capacity, instrumentation) and non- and Powertech Labs   [20]
    [20],, and identi
    identifies
    fies sub
    subtle
    tle adv
    advanc
    anceme
    ement
    nt in
    techn
    technica
    icall (shipp
    (shippin ing,
    g, fish
    fishing
    ing,, an
    andd recre
    recreati
    ation
    onal
    al bo boat
    atin
    ing)
    g) contrast to some previous reviews [34,40]
    reviews  [34,40]..
    constraints.
       Operation  3.1. Survey methodology
    –   Flow characte
    characteristics
    ristics: The flow characteristic of a river stream
    is significantly different from tidal variations. While the for- The survey conducted in this work not only identifies commer-
    mer has strong stochastic variation (seasonal (seasonal to daily), the cial syst
    systems
    ems,, but also acco
    accomm
    mmoda
    odates
    tes variou
    variouss R&D initiati
    initiatives
    ves
    latter undergoes fluctuations
    fluctuations of dominant
    dominant periodic natur nature e undertaken in the academia. As indicated in Appendix  A  A,, total of 
    (diurnal to semidiurnal). In addition, stage of a stream may seventy six different devices and schemes were analyzed. Due to
    have diversely varying profile for these two cases. availability
    availability of limited inform
    information
    ation for many devices, mostly the
    –   Water density: The density of seawater is higher than that of  primary conversion hardware and their peripherals (rotors, ducts,
    freshwa
    fres hwater.
    ter. Thi
    Thiss implies,
    implies, lesser
    lesser pow
    power er generat
    generation
    ion capacit
    capacity y for placement method in a stream, etc.) are evaluated.
    a tidal
    tidal tu
    turb
    rbin
    inee un
    unitit when
    when placed
    placed in a river
    river stream
    stream.. In adaddi
    ditio
    tion,
    n, The
    The infor
    informa
    matio
    tion
    n gath
    gathere
    ered
    d alo
    along
    ng the
    the proce
    process
    ss is organ
    organize
    izedd
    depending
    depend ing on the level of salinity and temperatu
    temperature, re, seawater
    seawater through
    throug h the followin
    followingg headin
    headings:
    gs:
    in differen
    differentt loca
    location
    tion and time time may have varying varying energ
    energy y
    content.    Application: In the previous section, various areas of application
    –   Control: Tidal
    Tidal turbin
    turbines es are can
    candid
    didate
    atess for ope
    operati
    rating
    ng und
    underer for hydrokinetic devices have been identified. This discussion is
    forecasted tide conditions. River turbines may not fall into carried
    carried forward
    forward into the survey
    survey by categor
    categorizin
    izing
    g the pot
    potent
    ential
    ial
    such paradigm
    paradigmss of control
    control and moremore dynam
    dynamic ic contro
    controll sys- use of a given device into (a) tidal current (for tidal and ocean
    tems may need to be synthesized. current resources) (b) river stream (for free-flowing/zero-head
    –   Resource prediction: Tidal conditions can be almost entirely rivers), and (c) multi-application (river, tidal, and other applica-
    predicted and readily available charts can be used in coordi- tions).
    tion s). Wh
    While
    ile the info
    inform
    rmatio
    ationn diss
    dissem
    eminat
    inated
    ed throug
    through h the rele
    relevan
    vantt
    nating the operation of a tidal power plant. For river applica- technology
    techno logy develo
    developer,
    per, researchinstitut
    research institute,e, or public-d
    public-domain
    omaindocu-
    docu-
    tions, forecasting the flow conditions is more involved and ment has
    has been the basis of this classificatio
    classification,n, several am
    ambiguo
    biguous us
    many
    man y geogra
    geographiphical
    cal loca
    locatio
    tions
    ns may
    may not havehave such arrang
    arrange- e- cases have been conside
    considered
    red as ‘Mult
    ‘Multi-applica
    i-application’.
    tion’.
    ments. For a hydrokinetic converter, the level of power out-    Te
    Technology
    chnology type: In liglight
    ht of the
    the di
    discu
    scussi
    ssion
    on prese
    present
    nted
    ed earli
    earlier
    er,, all of 
    pu
    putt is direc
    directly
    tly rel
    relate
    atedd to floflow w veloc
    velocity
    ity (and
    (and stage
    stage).). Even
    Even th
    the
    e 76 dedevi
    vices
    ces or co
    conce
    ncept
    ptss ha
    have
    ve been
    been attri
    attribu
    buted
    ted to one
    one of the
    the ten
    though
    tho ugh volvolum
    umetri
    etricc flow inform
    informatio
    ation n is ava
    availab
    ilable
    le for many
    many (10) conversion schemes. However, further division into ‘tur-
    location
    loca tions,s, wat
    waterer velocit
    velocity y varies
    varies fro
    fromm one potential
    potential site to bine’ or ‘non-turbine’ systems has not been carried out.
    the other depending on the cross-sectional area. Therefore,    Duct : Ducts are engineered structures that elevate the energy
    un
    unles
    lesss a co corre
    rrelat
    lation
    ion betw
    between
    een flo floww varia
    variatio
    tions
    ns an andd sit
    sitee density of a water stream as observed by a hydrokinetic con-
    bathymetry
    bathym etry is established,
    established, and turbines are operatedoperated accord- verter. Considerations
    Considerations for these devices is of high significa significance
    nce
    ingly, only sub-optimal operation can be achieved. primarily because of two opposing reasons (a) potential to aug-

    ment
    ment the
    the po
    powe
    werr cap
    capaci
    acity
    ty and
    and henc
    hencee redu
    reduce
    ce the
    the co
    cost
    st of energ
    energy y (b)
      End-use lack of confidence as far as their survivability and design/dem-
    –   Grid-connectivity: While tidal current systems may see large-
    scale deployment (analogous to large wind farms), hydroki- onstration
    onstrat ion are concern
    concerned.
    ed. In this survey, attempts were made
    netic converters used in river streams may become feasible to identify whether a given scheme is considered for duct aug-
    in powering remote areas or stand-alone loads. Depending mentation (unknown cases were identified separately) or not.
     

    M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009


    (2009)) 1823–1835   1827

       Placement : The
    The meth
    method
    od of placem
    placemenentt of a hy
    hydr
    drok
    okine
    ineti
    tic
    c de
    devi
    vice,
    ce, in
    relation to a channel cross-section, is a very significant compo-
    nent for two basic reasons:
    – The energy
    energy flux in the surface
    surface of a stream is higher
    higher than th
    that
    at
    of a channel-bottom. In addition, this quantity takes diverse
    values depending on the distance from the shore and chan-
    nel-geography. Therefore, water velocity has a highly local-
    ized and site-spe
    site-specific
    cific three-d
    three-dime
    imensi
    nsiona
    onall profile
    profile and rotor
    rotor
    positioning against such variations will dictate the amount
    of energy that can be effectively extracted.
    – Compet
    Competinging users of the water stream (recreati
    (recreationa
    onall boa
    boats,
    ts,
    fishing
    fish ing vess
    vessels,
    els, brid
    bridges
    ges & culv
    culvert
    erts,
    s, etc.
    etc.)) wou
    wouldld essenti
    essentially
    ally
    reduce
    red uce the effectiv
    effective
    e usable
    usable area for a turbin
    turbinee inst
    installa
    allatio
    tion
    n
    [19,20]. In this
    [19,20]. this work
    work,, th
    thre
    ree
    e classe
    classess of moun
    mountinting
    g ar
    arran
    rangegeme
    mentntss
    are considered: (i) BSM – Bottom Structure Mounted (Fixed)
    Fig. 6.  Use of ducts and applications.
    (ii) FSM – Flo
    Floatin
    atingg Stru
    Structur
    cture
    e Mo
    Mountunted
    ed (Buoya
    (Buoyant)
    nt),, and (iii
    (iii))
    NSM – Near-surface Structure Mounted (Fixed). Each of the
    devices or schemes has been assigned to one of these meth- Thepresent trend
    Thepresent trend cleaclearly
    rly ind
    indicat
    icates
    es tha
    thatt theareaof
    the areaof mumultip
    ltiple
    le applica-
    applica-
    ods, whereas unknown systems are identified separately. tion (such as, river, tidal, artificial waterways, dam tailrace, and
    industrial
    indust rial outflows) is of high impor importance,
    tance, as these technolog
    technologies ies
    In ad
    addit
    ditio
    ion
    n to the
    the aspect
    aspectss ment
    mention
    ioned
    ed above
    above,, each
    each of th
    the
    e R&
    R&DD in
    ini-
    i- can probably be tailored to suit resource-specific needs.
    tiatives is
    is observed
    observed for its present
    present stat
    status
    us of dev
    developm
    elopment
    ent and chro- In addition to realizing various rotor concepts, considerations
    nol
    nology
    ogy of progre
    progressio
    ssion.
    n. The summar
    summary y of these
    these asse
    assessm
    ssment
    entss are fo
    forr incor
    incorpoporat
    ratin
    ing
    g duct
    duct augm
    augmen entat
    tatio
    ionn to these
    these sys
    system
    temss is a very
    very sig
    sig--
    given in the following section. nificantt aspect of this technology’s
    nifican technology’s overall advancemen
    advancement. t. As shown
    in
    in Fig.
     Fig. 55,, vertical axis systems are given more emphasis for such
     3.2. Analysis of survey arrangemen
    arrang ements, ts, whereas
    whereas significa
    significant nt portion of axial-flo
    axial-flow w turbin
    turbines es
    are considered for non-ducted application.
    Although a number of novel concepts have emerged recently, Regard
    Reg ardless
    less of the field of app applicat
    lication
    ion (riv
    (river,
    er, tida
    tidall or oth
    others)
    ers),, duc
    ductt
    hydrokinetic energy conversion has mostly seen advancements in augmen
    aug mentat tation
    ion has nat natura
    urally
    lly seen less
    lesser
    er shar
    share e of con
    conside
    siderati
    ration
    on
    the domain of axial (horizontal) and vertical axis turbine systems. (Fig. 6).
    6). This arises from the fact that most of the turbine concepts
    The sign
    significa
    ificantl
    ntly
    y higher
    higher num
    numberber of initiati
    initiatives
    ves and seve
    several
    ral com
    commer
    mer-- are still at the R&D level, whereas ducts are peripherals to such
    cial/pre-commercial deployments have brought these systems at systems.
    the forefront this emerging industry. Place
    Placeme ment nt of a turb
    turbinine
    e syste
    system,m, in re
    relat
    lation
    ion to a given
    given open
    open-ch-chanan--
    The commercial systems (existing/discontinued) mostly repre- nel, is another field of progression where basic design (structural
    sent several small-scale
    small-scale river turbines employing inclinedinclined   [41– strength, floatation, and anchoring) and feasibility studies (surviv-
    44]   and floating
    44] floating [45,46]
     [45,46]   horizontal
    horizontal axis turbin
    turbines.
    es. These systems ability, provisio
    provisions ns for compet
    competinging users, etc.) a are
    re being investigated.
    investigated.
    were developed
    developed for remote
    remote powering applications
    applications in various coun- As seen in Fig.
    in  Fig. 77,,  most vertical axis turbines are being considered
    triess (Sudan
    trie (Sudan,, Peru,
    Peru, etc.
    etc.).
    ). However
    However,, the curren
    currentt market-
    market-stat
    status
    us of  for eith
    either
    er floa
    floating
    ting (FSM) or nea near-su
    r-surfac
    rfacee (NS
    (NSM)M) pla
    placem
    cementents.s. On
    many these devices is unknown. the contrary, about one-third of the axial turbines are considered
    One interesting observation derived from the survey is that a for seabed/riverbed installations.
    installations. Other concepts have indicated indicated
    great number of technology
    technology developers and researchers
    researchers view their early stage plans on their placement methods, which needs to be
    initiatives
    initiativ es as solutions
    solutions for a wide spectrum of applications
    applications,, beyond re-eva
    re-evalualuated
    ted as the thesese syst
    systems
    ems attain
    attain furthe
    furtherr adv
    advanc
    anceme
    ement nt (see
    river
    river or tida
    tidall applica
    application
    tionss onl
    only.
    y. Reflecti
    Reflecting
    ng thelesser leve
    levell of resourc
    resource
    e Fig. 8).
    8).
    availability, the number of technologies being developed specifi- From
    From app applica
    lication
    tionss point
    point of view,
    view, rive
    riverr turbin
    turbineses hav
    have e bee
    beenn
    cally for river applications is less than that of tidal energy systems. desig
    designened d andand de deve velop
    loped
    ed for eithe
    eitherr flofloati
    ating
    ng or ne near-
    ar-su
    surfa
    rface
    ce

    Fig. 5.  Use of ducts and conversion schemes.


     

    1828   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

    Fig. 7.  System placement and conversion schemes.

    ment, and demon


    demonstration
    stration (RD&D) initiativ es   [20].
    initiatives [20].   In addition to
    aiming for specific
    aiming specific applica
    applicatio
    tions
    ns (such
    (such as, tida
    tidall curren
    currents ts or rive
    riverr
    streams), a great number of development efforts are directed to-
    ward realizing solutions that may serve both of these areas. Duct
    augmentation is another area, which apparently did not find much
    success in the wind energy domain. However, it is perceived as a
    critical element to hydrokinetic conversion concepts.
    In th
    this
    is ar
    arti
    ticl
    cle,
    e, an at
    atte
    tem
    mpt is made
    made to shed
    shed liligh
    ghtt on mamany
    ny of th
    thes
    ese
    e
    issues using qualitative and broad observations. This article, how-
    ever,
    eve r, do
    does
    es not atte
    attemp
    mptt to ind
    indicat
    icate
    e sup
    superio
    eriority
    rity of one
    one opt
    option
    ion aga
    against
    inst
    the other. Rather, observations of generic nature are provided for
    the reader and these may appear useful depending on the scope
    and nature of any RD&D effort in this domain. The following dis-
    cussions focus on rotor configconfiguration
    urations,
    s, duct augmenta
    augmentations,tions, and
    placement schemes, followed by a qualitative discussion on vari-
    Fig. 8.  System placement and applications. ous technical advantages and disadvantages of these options.

    arrangements. On the contrary, many tidal turbines are being con- 4.1. Rotor configurations
    sidered for placement at the bottom of the channel. This reflects
    the constraints imposed by other competing sea users (shipping, As discussed in Section 3
    Section  3,, hydrokinetic energy conversion may
    fishing, and other usage) as well as design challenges associated employ eith
    employ either
    er rotary
    rotary turbo
    turbo machin
    machinery
    ery or can use non non-tu
    -turbin
    rbine
    e
    with large floating
    floating or near-surface-fi
    near-surface-fixed xed structures, especially in schemes.
    scheme s. While the forme formerr class (turbine system) encompasses
    encompasses
    harsh sea conditions. variouss classical rotary technologies,
    variou technologies, the latter group (non-t (non-tur-
    ur-
    While both vertical and axial turbines have long been consid- bine system) is mostly based on various unconventional concepts.
    ered as primar
    primaryy choices
    choices for hydrok
    hydrokineinetic
    tic ene
    energy
    rgy conver
    conversion
    sion,, a Such schemes include,include, oscillating
    oscillating hydrofoil
    hydrofoil   [30]
    [30],, vor
    vortex
    tex induced
    induced
    number
    num ber of unc
    unconv
    onvent
    ention
    ional
    al con
    concept
    ceptss (su
    (such
    ch as, vortex
    vortex ind
    induce
    uced d vibra-
    vibra- vibration [29]
    vibration  [29],,  piezo polymer conversion [28]
    conversion  [28],, and variable geom-
    tion, and piezoele
    piezoelectric
    ctric conversion) have appear
    appeared ed recently
    recently.. Several sails  [32].. Presently, most of these technologies are either at
    etry sails [32]
    early river turbine prototypes were deployed and operated from their
    their pro
    proof-
    of-of-c
    of-cononcept
    cept stage
    stage or bein
    beingg dev
    develop
    eloped ed as part-sca
    part-scale
    le
    late
    late 1970
    1970ss to late
    late 1990
    1990ss   [41,45]   until
    until the
    these
    se wer
    were e even
    eventua
    tually
    lly models.
    mod els. On the oth other
    er han
    hand,
    d, rotary
    rotary turbin
    turbine e syst
    systems
    ems employ
    employing
    ing
    decommissioned. Various non-turbine concepts (namely, oscillat- horizontal, vertical, or cross flow turbines are occupying most of 
    ing hydrofoil and piezoelectric
    piezoelectric conversion) had gained good atten- th
    the
    e dis
    discus
    cussio
    sion.
    n. A bro broadad surv
    survey
    ey of exexist
    istin
    ingg and
    and didisco
    scont
    ntin
    inue
    uedd
    ti
    tion
    on in th
    thee pa
    past
    st   [28,30,47].
    [28,30,47]. HoHowe
    weve ver,
    r, th
    their
    eir pr
    prese
    esent
    nt statu
    statuss of  RD&D initiatives are explored and classified in various maturity
    development
    develop ment is unkno
    unknown.wn. Analyzing the modern day history of  groups
    groups (fro
    (fromm ‘con
    ‘concep
    cept’
    t’ to ‘com
    ‘comme
    mercia
    rcial’)
    l’) in   Fig
    Fig.. 9a. It shou
    should
    ld be
    hydrokinetic energy conversion, it can be clearly noticed that the noted that many of the ‘commercial’ systems, as shown in the fig-
    present decade has so far seen the greatest level of research and ure,, emp
    ure employloy incl
    incline
    inedd horizon
    horizontal
    tal axis turbine
    turbiness and probab
    probablyly no
    development initiatives. These efforts have enveloped a multitude longer exist in the market.
    of technological concepts as well as diverse fields of applications In
    In   Fig.
    Fig. 9b, perc
    percent
    entage
    agess of the turbin
    turbine e syst
    systems
    ems among
    among all the

    where hydrokinetic technologies may prosper in future. studied RD&D


    horizontal andefforts (76
    vertical systems)
    axis areconsist
    turbines shown. ofItthe
    cangreater
    be seenshare
    that
    4. Horizontal and vertical axis turbines (43% and 33%, respectively). Although this result is not surprising,
    the point of interest is that vertical axis systems are seeing re-
    At the present state of this technolo
    technology,
    gy, both horizo
    horizontal
    ntal and ver- newed
    new ed interes
    interest,
    t, espe
    especial
    cially
    ly when
    when the win
    wind
    d energy
    energy ind
    industr
    ustry
    y has
    ticall axis turbin
    tica turbines
    es are key conten
    contender
    derss for furthe
    furtherr rese
    research
    arch,, dev
    develop
    elop-- effectively discarded this technology.
     

    M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009


    (2009)) 1823–1835   1829

    Fig. 9.  General technology status of hydrokinetic turbine technologies.

    The choice
    choice of turbin
    turbinee rot
    rotor
    or configu
    configurat ration
    ion requires
    requires conside
    consider-
    r- Based on the alignment of the rotor axis with respect to water
    ations of a broad array of technical and economical factors. As an flow, three generic classes could be formed (a) horizontal axis, (b)
    emerg
    emerginging field
    field of energy
    energy conver
    conversion
    sion,, the
    these
    se issues
    issues beco
    become
    me eve
    even
    n vertical axis, and (c) cross flow turbin
    turbines.
    es. The horizont
    horizontalal axis (alter-
    more dominant for hydrokinetic turbines. A general classification nately called as axial-flow) turbines have axes parallel to the fluid
    of these
    these tur
    turbine
    biness based
    based on their
    their phy
    physical
    sical arrang
    arrangemement
    entss is given
    given flow and employ propeller type rotors. Various arrangem arrangements
    ents of 
    in Fi
    Fig.
    g. 10
    10.. This
    This list
    list is by no me
    mean
    anss ex
    exha
    haususti
    tive
    ve,, an
    and
    d man
    any
    y of th
    the
    e con-
    con- axial turbines for use in hydro environment are shown in  Fig. 11. 11.
    cepts are adopted from the wind engineering domain. Inclined axis turbines have mostly been studied for small river
    energy converters. Literature on the design and performance anal-
    ysis could be found in in   [33,48,49]
    [33,48,49].. Information on several commer-
    cial products utilizing such topologies is available in   [42–44,50].
    [42–44,50].
    Most of these devices were tested in river streams and were com-
    mercialized in limited scales. The turbine system reported in [50] in  [50]
    was used for water pumping, while the others  [42–44]  [42–44] were
     were pro-
    moeted
    moeted for remremote
    ote area elec electrifi
    trificati
    cation
    on.. It is how
    howeve
    everr not clear
    whether these latter devices are still being commercialized.
    Horizontal
    Horizo ntal axis turbin
    turbines es are common in tidal energy converters
    and are very similar to modern day wind turbines from concept
    and design point of view. Turbines with solid mooring structures
    require the generator unit to be placed near the riverbed or sea-
    floor. Reports and information on rigidly moored tidal/river tur-
    in   [22,34,51–55].
    bines are available in  [22,34,51–55]. Horizontal axis rotors with a
    buoyant mooring mechanism may allow a non-submerged gener-
    Fig. 10.  Classification of turbine rotors.
    ator
    ator to be pla
    placed
    ced closer
    closer to thethe water
    water surfa
    surface.
    ce. Info
    Inform
    rmatation
    ion on

    Fig. 11.  Horizontal axis turbines.   Fig. 12.  Vertical axis turbines.
     

    1830   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

    N/A
    3% N/A
    16%

    Yes
    33%
    No
    36%
    Nc Yes
    64% 48%

    Fig. 13.  Reported consideration for duct augmentation for (a) horizontal axis and (b) vertical axis turbines.

    submerged generator systems can be found in  [56,57]  [56,57] and


     and that of 
    non-submerged types are presented in [35,58] in  [35,58]..
    The cross flow turbin
    turbineses have rotor axes orthogo
    orthogonal nal to the water
    flow but paralle
    parallell to the water surfacsurface.e. These
    These turbine
    turbiness are also
    known as floating waterwheels. These are mainly drag based de-
    vicess and inherently
    vice inherently less efficefficient
    ient than the their
    ir lift base
    based d counte
    counter-
    r-
    parts. The large amount of material usage is another problem for
    turbiness   [33,35,59].
    such turbine [33,35,59]. Da Darrrrie
    ieus
    us tuturb
    rbin
    ines
    es wiwith
    th cros
    crosss flow
    flow
    arrangements may also fall under this category.
    Various arrangements under the vertical axis turbine category
    are given in Fig.
    in  Fig. 12.
    12. In the vertical axis domain, Darrieus turbines
    are the mos
    mostt promin
    prominent
    ent opt
    option
    ions.
    s. Alth
    Althoug
    ough h use of H-Darri
    H-Darrieuseus or
    Squirrel-cage Darrieus (straight bladed) turbine is very common,
    examples
    examp les of Darrieu
    Darrieuss turbine
    turbine (curved or parabo paraboliclic blades) being
    used in hydro
    hydro appapplicat
    lication
    ionss is non
    non-exi
    -existen
    stent.t. In pub
    publica
    lication
    tionss such
    as,
    as, [35,60–68]
     [35,60–68] a wide
    wide array of design,
    design, operation
    operational al and per
    perform
    formanc
    ance
    e Fig. 14.  Augmentation channel classification.

    issues regarding straight bladed Darrieus turbines are discussed.


    The Gorlov turbine is another member of the vertical axis family, bines where
    bines where the chan channelnelss are of rectan
    rectangu gular
    lar cross-
    cross-sect
    sectionion.. Thi
    Thiss im-
    where the blades are of helical structure [36,69,70]
    structure  [36,69,70].. Savoni
    Savoniousous tur- poses a design asymmetry
    asymmetry and subsequent structural vulnerabi vulnerability lity
    bines
    bin es ar
    aree dr
    drag
    ag type
    type dedevi
    vices
    ces,, which
    which maymay co cons
    nsist
    ist of straig
    straight
    ht or for the form
    former er type
    type.. The
    The lesse
    lesserr num
    number ber ooff duc
    ductt augm
    augment entatio
    ation n bein
    being g
    blades   [62,63,71].
    skewed blades  [62,63,71]. considered for horizontal axis turbines can be attributed to this is-
    Hydrokinetic turbines may also be classified based on their lift/ sues.. The
    sues Thesese resu
    results
    lts onl
    only y ind
    indicat
    icate e accumu
    accumulate latedd experie
    experience nce and
    drag properties, orientation to up/dow up/down n flow, and fixed/variable understandin
    under standing g of duct augment
    augmentation ation options for horizo horizontal
    ntal and
    (active/passive) blade pitching mechanisms. Different types of ro- vert
    vertica
    icall axis
    axis turb
    turbine
    ines,s, as pe
    perce
    rceiv
    ived
    ed to da date.
    te. It is belie
    believe
    ved d that
    that furth
    furtherer
    tors may also be hybridized (such as, Darrieus–Savonious hybrid) RD&D
    RD& D on this
    this ararea
    ea will
    will go han
    hand d in hand
    hand wit
    with h turbin
    turbine e dev
    develo
    elopme
    pment.nt.
    in order to achieve certain performance features. A sim
    simplifi
    plifieded classific
    classificatio
    ation n of variou
    variouss chachannennell desi
    designs
    gnsareare given
    given in
    Fi
    Figs
    gs.. 14and15
    14and15.. A simplechan
    simplechanne nell may
    may co consi
    nsistst of a sin
    singlgle
    e nozz
    nozzle,cyl-
    le,cyl-
    4.2. Duct augmentation in
    inde
    derr (or
    (or straig
    straightht path
    path)) with
    with br brim
    im or di diffu
    ffuser
    ser.. In a hy
    hybrbrid
    id de
    desig
    sign,
    n, all
    three options may be incorporated in one unit. Test results on a
    Augmentati
    Augmen tation
    on channe
    channelsls induce
    induce a sub
    sub-atm
    -atmosph
    ospheric
    eric pressur
    pressuree number of hydrodynamic models can be found in  in   [72,73]
    [72,73] and
     and an
    within a constrained area and thereby increase the flow velocity. example shape is given in Fig. in  Fig. 15a.
    15a. This work has reported a maxi-
    If a turbine is placed in such a channel, the flow velocity around mum
    mu m velocity
    velocity increas
    increase e fact
    factor
    or of 1.67 (i.e, pow powerer coef
    coefficie
    ficientnt1 in-
    the rotor is higher than that of a free rotor. This increases the pos- creases 4.63 times). In  [74]  [74]   various hybrid models with rectilinear
    sible total power capture significantly. In addition, it may help to paths are experimented (Fig. (Fig. 15
    15b).
    b). Diffusers with multi-unit hydro-
    regulate the speed of the rotor and impose lesser system design foils (Fig.
    (Fig. 15
    15c)
    c) are also possible when higher efficiency is required.
    constraints as the upper ceiling on flow velocity is reduced   [72].[72]. A st
    stra
    raig
    ightmode
    htmodell wi witha
    tha br
    brim Fig.. 15
    im (Fig 15d)d) mayhave a veloci
    velocity ty amp
    amplifi lifica-
    ca-
    Such devices have been widely tested in the wind energy domain. tion factor of 1.32. Analytic and test results of various rectilinear dif-
    Terms such as, duct, shroud, wind-lens, nozzle, concentrator, dif- fus
    fuser
    er mod
    models
    els (Fig
    Fig.. 15
    15e)canbe
    e)canbe fo foun
    und d in [75,76]
    [75,76].. It has
    has be
    beenfoun
    enfound d th
    that
    at,,
    fuser, and augm
    augmentati
    entation
    on channel are used synon
    synonymou
    ymously
    sly for these a diffuser with an inlet and brim performs the best in this category.
    devices. Discussions on duct augmentation in river/tidal applica- Inform
    Informati ation
    on on variouvariouss ann annula
    ularr ring
    ring shashaped
    ped diffus
    diffuserer modmodelsels
    tions
    tions can be found
    found in [34,72–74]
    [34,72–74].. A sur
    survey
    vey condu
    conducted
    cted with
    with sevent
    seventyy (Fig. 15f)
    15f) can be found in [34,77]
    in  [34,77].. In [34]
    In  [34],,  it has been shown that a
    six hydrokinetic system concepts show that around one-third of  power coefficient as high as 1.69 is possible, exceeding the Betz limit
    the horizontal
    horizontal axis turbines are being considered for such arrange- of 0.59.
    Each of thesethese models
    models come with with unique
    unique set of perform performanc ance e
    ments.. Onwhen
    ments
    attention the contrary,
    it comesvertica
    verticall axis
    to duct turbines areAlmost
    augmentation. being given
    give
    halfnof
    morethe merits and design limitations. For instance, the hybrid types per-
    studied
    stud ied systems
    systems con
    conside
    siderr som
    somee formof aug
    augmen
    mentattation
    ion scheme
    scheme to be form
    form betbette
    terr at the
    the exp
    expenensese of bi
    bigg
    ggerer siz
    sizee (as h hig
    igh
    h as 6 times
    times thethe ro-
    ro-
    (see  Fig. 13
    incorporated with the vertical turbine (see Fig. 13).
    ).
    Theduc
    The ducts
    ts for horizo
    horizonta
    ntall axis turbin
    turbines
    es mostly
    mostly takecon
    take conical
    ical shapes
    shapes 1
    A measure of extracted power against the theoretical fluid power considering
    (for operati
    operation
    on under
    under unidir
    unidirecti
    ectiona
    onall flow)
    flow) as opp
    oppose
    osedd to vertica
    verticall tur
    tur-- free-stream/unducted water velocity.
     

    M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009


    (2009)) 1823–1835   1831

    Fig. 15.  Channel shapes (top and side view).

    of the vertical axis turbines are being considered for near-surface


    pla
    placem
    cement
    ent.. Thi
    Thiss pro
    probab
    bably
    ly aris
    arises
    es from
    from the
    thefactthat
    factthat this
    this opt
    optionallows
    ionallows
    th
    the
    e gene
    genera
    rato
    torr and
    and oth
    other
    er ap
    appa
    pararatu
    tuss to be plac
    placed
    ed above
    above the
    the water
    water le-
    vel.
    vel. How
    Howeve
    ever,r, at thepresen
    thepresentt stat
    state
    e of thistechn
    thistechnolog
    ology,
    y, there
    there is no clea
    clearr
    direction on the most attractive option. Several subtle aspects that
    can be observed in this regard are highlighted
    highlighted below (see
    (see Fig.
     Fig. 17
    17):
    ):

      Energy capture: The energy flux in a river/tidal channel is higher


    near the surface. This suggests that the FSM option is the best
    option as long energy extraction is the prime concern. In con-
    trast, the BSM method allows only sub-optimal energy capture.
    Fig. 16.  Turbine mounting options. Also, energy capture using the NSM scheme would see fluctuat-
    ing output subject to variations in river stage or tide height.
       Competing users: While
    While placin
    placingg a turbi
    turbine
    ne at the
    the surfa
    surface
    ce of a
    tor diam
    diameter
    eter).
    ). The ann
    annula
    ularr shapes
    shapes also perform
    perform very
    very wel
    welll when
    when channel
    chann el seems attractive,
    attractive, competing
    competing uusers
    sers of the water
    water resource
    hydrodynam
    hydro dynamicic shapes are optimally
    optimally design
    designed.
    ed. Neve
    Nevertheless,
    rtheless, de- may object to such arrangement. Fishing, shipping, recreational
    ta
    taile
    iled
    d in
    inve
    vesti
    stiga
    gatio
    tion
    n on optim
    optimalal siz
    size,
    e, shape
    shape an
    and
    d de
    desig
    sign
    n is still
    still an un
    un-- boating, and many other activities may leave the BSM or NSM
    solved problem. methods as the only option. Floating structures are still possible
    but these need to be placed closer to the shore where energy
    4.3. Rotor placement options resources may appear limited.
       Construction challenge: Experience
    Experience of floating structu
    structure
    re design
    While the type of rotor to be deployed and duct augmentation for energy harvesting is limited. In contrast, knowledge in civil
    to be incorpo
    incorporate
    rated
    d are of paramo
    paramount
    unt import
    importance
    ance,, plac
    placeme
    ement
    nt of  engi
    engine
    neeri
    ering
    ng do
    doma
    main
    in for botto
    bottom
    m momoun
    unted
    ted struc
    structu
    tures
    res (e
    (e.g
    .g,,
    the system in a channe
    channell also deser
    deserves
    ves due atte
    attenti
    ntion.
    on. A tur
    turbine
    bine bridges, offshore oil and gas platforms) are quite abundant.
    may incorporate bottom structure mounting (BSM) arrangement    Footprint : Any trenching, piling, or excavation at the riverbed/
    where the converter is fixed near the seafloor/riverbed. Also, tur- oceanflo
    ocea nflooror may beco
    become
    me sub
    subject
    ject to env
    environ
    ironme
    menta
    ntall scru
    scrutiny
    tiny..

    bine
    ture units may operate
    mounting (FSM) isunder variable
    devised. elevation
    The last optionif is
    a floating struc-
    to mount the Floating or near-surface structures appear more permissible in
    this context.
    converter with a structure that is closer to the surface (near-sur-    Design and operational constraints: Depending on where a tur-
    face structure mounting, NSM). bine is to be placed various power conversion apparatus (gener-
    The technology survey conducted as part of this work indicates ator, bearing, gearbo
    gearboxes,
    xes, and power
    power conditio
    conditioning
    ning equipmen
    equipment)t)
    that axial-flow turbines are given almost equal consideration for would require special design considerations such as, water seal-
    th
    the
    e th
    thre
    ree
    e optio
    options
    ns outli
    outline
    ned
    d abo
    above
    ve (Fig.
    Fig. 16
    16).
    ). Ho
    Howe
    wevever,
    r, more
    more th
    than
    an ha
    half 
    lf  ing, lubrication, and protection. Also, variation of water velocity

    N/A
    3% BSM
    N/A
    8%
    12%

    NSM
    BSM
    27%
    37% FSM
    28%

    NSM
    52%
    FSM
    33%

    Fig. 17.  Percentage of turbines considered for various placement arrangements (a) horizontal axis and (b) vertical axis.
     

    1832   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

    and stage will impose operational constraints. Due attention is The disadvantages
    disadvantages associated with vertical axis turbin
    turbines
    es are:
    also req
    require
    uired
    d to address
    address the cha
    challen
    llenges
    ges asso
    associat
    ciated
    ed with
    with sever
    sever low starting torque,
    torque, torque ripple, and lower efficiency.
    efficiency. Depending
    storm conditions,
    conditions, especially for the near surface and floating- on their design, these turbines generally possess poor starting per-
    type systems. formance. This may require special arrangement for external elec-
    trical, mechanical, or electromechanical starting mechanisms. The
    The areas of application will have specific repercussions on use blades
    blad es of a vertica
    verticall turbine
    turbine unit are subj
    subject
    ect to cycli
    cyclic
    c tangen
    tangential
    tial
    of duct
    duct augme
    augmenta ntatio
    tions
    ns devdevices
    ices and correspo
    correspondi
    nding
    ng placem
    placement
    ent pulls and generate significant torque ripple in the output. Cavita-
    schemes. For instance, tidal and marine current turbines work un- tion and fatigue loading due to unsteady hydrodynamics are other
    de
    derr th
    thee na
    natu
    tura
    rall ev
    even
    entsts of da
    daily
    ily tide
    tide flo
    flow
    w an
    andd season
    seasonal
    al ocean
    ocean cu
    curre
    rrent
    nt concerning issues associated vertical turbines. Axial-flow turbines
    variations,
    variatio ns, respectiv
    respectively.
    ely. River turbines
    turbines operate under the influen
    influencece on the oth
    other
    er han
    hand,
    d, elim
    eliminat
    inate
    e man
    manyy of the
    these
    se draw
    drawback
    backs.
    s. In add
    additio
    ition,
    n,
    of varyi
    varyingng vo
    volu
    lume
    metrtric
    ic wate
    waterr flo
    flow w th
    thro
    roug
    ughh a river
    river ch
    chan
    anne
    nell su
    subje
    bject
    ct to various merits of such rotors are:
    variou
    variouss exte
    externa
    rnall factors
    factors such as, channe
    channell cross-se
    cross-sectio
    ction,
    n, rainfall,
    rainfall, and
    artificial incidences (such as, transportation, upstream dam open-    Knowledgebase: Literatu
    Literaturere on syst
    system
    em desi
    design
    gn and perfor
    performan
    mance
    ce
    ing, etc.). River water is less dense than seawater and therefore it information of axial type rotors is abundant. Advancements in
    has lower
    lower ene
    energy
    rgy den
    density
    sity.. Siting
    Siting is more
    more stri
    stringe
    ngent
    nt in river
    river channels
    channels wind engineering and marine propellers have significantly con-
    as the usable space is limited and river transportation may further tributed to this field. Use of such rotors have been successfully
    constra
    con strainin the usabilit
    usabilityy of the sites. There could also be varyin varyingg demons
    dem onstra
    trated
    ted for larg
    large
    e scale applicat
    application
    ionss (10
    (10–35
    –3500 kW)
    kW),, espe
    espe--
    types of suspended particles and materials (fish, debris, rock, ice, cially for tidal energy conversion [52]
    conversion  [52]..
    etc.) in river and sea channels depending on the geography of a    Performance: One key advantage of axial type turbines is that all
    site. It remains to be seen, how these factors will affect the design, the blades are designed to have sufficient taper and twist such
    operation, and commercialization of various turbine concepts. thatt lift forc
    tha forces
    es are exerted
    exerted eve
    evenly
    nly alon
    along g the blade. Therefo
    Therefore,
    re,
    these
    the se turbin
    turbineses are self
    self-sta
    -starti
    rting.
    ng. Also
    Also,, the
    their
    ir opt
    optimu
    imumm perfor
    perfor--
    mance
    mance is achieve
    achievedd at higher
    higher rotor speeds
    speeds,, and this easeeasess the
    5. Technical advantages and disadvantages of horizontal and problem
    proble m of ge
    generator
    nerator matchi
    matching,
    ng, a
    allowing
    llowing reduced
    reduced gear couplin
    coupling.g.
     vertical turbines    Control:  Vario
     Various
    us con
    contro
    troll met
    method
    hodss (sta
    (stall
    ll or pitc
    pitch
    h regula
    regulated)
    ted) of 
    axiall typ
    axia typee turbin
    turbines
    es hav
    havee been studi
    studied
    ed in great
    great det
    details.
    ails. Active
    It is worth
    worthwhile
    while to investigate
    investigate the opportuniti
    opportunities
    es and challenges
    associated with various hydrokinetic
    hydrokinetic turbine systems, especially control
    protection by blade pitching
    and efficient allows greater
    operation  [52].. flexibility in over speed
    operation [52]
    when
    whe n this
    this sector
    sector of energy
    energy engineer
    engineering
    ing is mostly
    mostly at the design   Annular ring augmentation channels: Annular ring type augmen-
    and development phase. Of particular interest is a review of both tat
    tation
    ion chan
    channels
    nels provid
    provide e gre
    greater
    ater aug
    augmen
    mentat
    tation
    ion of flui
    fluid
    d velocit
    velocity
    y as
    horizo
    hor izonta
    ntall and vertica
    verticall axis con
    configu
    figurat
    ration
    ionss with
    with regard
    regard to the
    their
    ir these
    the se systems
    systems allo
    allow w concen
    concentra
    trated
    ted/dif
    /diffuse
    fused
    d flow in a three-three-
    technical merits and drawbacks. In this section these two configu- dimensional manner   [34] [34].. The circul
    circular
    ar shape of the prope
    propeller
    ller
    rations will be studied further. roto
    rotor’
    r’ss di
    disc
    sc pe
    perm
    rmititss th
    the
    e use
    use of th
    this
    is ty
    type
    pe of du
    duct
    ct,, whic
    which
    h is not
    not po
    pos-
    s-
    Vertical axis turbines, especially the straight
    straight bladed Darrieu
    Darrieuss sible for vertical axis turbines.
    types have gained considerable attention owing to various favor-
    able features such as: The major technical challenges encountered with axial type ro-
    tors are:
    are: blad
    blade
    e design,
    design, und
    underw
    erwater
    ater gen
    generat
    erator
    or inst
    installa
    allation
    tion and
       Design simplicity: As an emerging technology, design simplicity underwater cabling. While different types of rotors come with un-
    and system cost are important factors that may determine the ique features, only extensive theoretical understanding,
    understanding, experi-
    success of hydrokinetic turbine technology. In contrast to hori- mental validation, and design expertise would allow selection of 
    zont
    zontal
    al axis
    axis tu
    turb
    rbine
    iness where
    where bla
    blade
    de de
    desig
    sign
    n in
    invo
    volve
    lvess de
    delic
    licate
    ate an ideal system. As the industry matures, greater insight into var-
    machining and manufacturing, use of straight blades make the ious rotor systems will be available.
    design potentially simpler and less expensive.

     Generator
    pling withcoupling 
    pling with th
    the e tu
    turb :ine
    rbin For
    e rohyd
    hydrok
    torrrokine
    roto po inetic
    sestic
    poses applica
    application
    a speci
    special tions,
    al ch
    challs,
    allen generat
    gen
    engege..erator
    or
    In the cou
    the cou-
    hor--
    hor- 6. Conclusions
    izontal axis turbines, this could be achieved by a right-angled
    gear coupling, long inclined shaft or underwater placement of  In this paper, the state of the hydrokinetic energy conversion
    the generat
    generator.
    or. In vertica
    verticall axis turbin
    turbines,
    es, the genera
    generator tor can be technologies has been revisited with an emph
    technologies emphasis
    asis on indicati
    indicating
    ng
    placed
    plac ed in one end of the shaft shaft,, allo
    allowin
    wing g the generato
    generatorr to be the current trends in research and development initiatives. While
    placed above the water surface. This reduces the need and sub- the initial discussions encompassed various definitions and classi-
    sequent cost in arranging water-sealed electric machines. fications, the core analysis has been undertaken based on a com-
       Flotation and augmentation equipment : The cylindrical shape of  prehensive
    prehen sive literature survey. The major conclusions that can be
    the Dar
    Darrieu
    rieuss turbin
    turbine e allo
    allows
    ws con
    conven
    venient
    ient mount
    mountinging of variou
    variouss cur-
    cur- derived from the discussions presented earlier are:
    viline
    vilinear
    ar or re recti
    ctilin
    linea
    earr du
    ducts
    cts.. These
    These chchan
    anne
    nels
    ls can also also be
    employed
    emplo yed for mooring
    mooring and floating purpo purposes  [72].. For axial-flow
    ses [72]    Except for some early commer
    commercial
    cial systems (small-scale remote
    turbines, ducts can not be easily used for floatation purposes. power generation from river streams), most of the technologies
       Noise emission: Vertical turbines generally emit less noise than are at the proof-of-concept or part-system R&D stage.
    the horizontal turbine concepts due to reduced blade tip losses    A number of novel schemes (such as, piezo-electric,
    piezo-electric, biomim
    biomimetic
    etic
    [78].
    [78]. Subject
    Subject to furthe
    furtherr research
    research and inv investi
    estigat
    gation
    ion,, this may
    may and vortex-induced-vibration) have surfaced in recent times, in
    prove to be beneficial in preserving the marine-life habitat. additio
    add ition
    n to the con
    continu
    tinued
    ed progre
    progressss on clas
    classica
    sicall hydrok
    hydrokine
    inetic
    tic

      Skewed flow: The vertical profile of water velocity variation in a energy
    ene rgy con
    etc.).
    conver
    version
    sion approa
    approache
    chess (vertic
    (vertical,
    al, axia
    axial-flo
    l-floww turbin
    turbines,
    es,
    channel may have significant impact on turbine operation. In a
    shallow channel, the upper part of a turbine faces higher veloc-    In the presence of a wide variety of termin
    terminologies
    ologies attribu
    attributed
    ted to
    ity than the lower section. Vertical turbines, especially the ones the fundam
    fundament
    ental
    al pro
    process
    cess of kine
    kinetic
    tic ene
    energy
    rgy con
    conver
    version
    sion from
    from
    with
    wit h heli
    helical/i
    cal/incli
    nclined
    ned blades
    blades are rep
    report
    ortedly
    edly mor
    more
    e suitable
    suitable for water streams, the term ‘Hydrokin
    ‘Hydrokinetic’
    etic’ energy
    energy conver
    conversion
    sion can
    operation under such conditions [79]
    conditions  [79].. be used as long as sufficient caveats are given for diverse fields
     

    M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009


    (2009)) 1823–1835   1833

    TM
    of application such as, rivers, artificial channels, tides, and mar- 24. Hammerfest
    Hammerfest , Hammerfest Strøm AS, Norway.
    TM
    ine curren
    currents.
    ts. 25. Harmonica
    Harmonica , Tidal Sails AS, Norway.
       In addition to the specific focus on river or tidal current conv conver-
    er- 26. Hydra , Statkraft, Norway.
    TM

    sion, strong emphasis is given to technologies


    technologies that may serve 27. Hydrokinetic
    Hydrokinetic Generator , Kinetic Energy Systems Corpora-
    TM

    both of these areas as well as other potential resources (such tion, FL, USA.
    TM
    as, man-
    man-ma
    made de can
    canalsals,, irr
    irrig
    igat
    ation
    ion ch
    chananne
    nels,
    ls, an
    and
    d inindu
    dustr
    strial
    ial 28. Hydro Venturi
    Venturi , Hydro Venturi Ltd., UK.
    TM
    outflows). 29. Impulsa
    Impulsa Turbine , UNAM Engineering Institute, Mexico.
       While both axial and vertical axis turbines are being developed 30. Inha Univ
    University,
    ersity, South Korea.
    for hydroki
    hydrokinet
    netic
    ic ene
    energy
    rgy conconver
    version
    sion,, con
    conside
    siderat
    ration
    ionss for duc
    ductt 31. ITDG-Guba
    ITDG-Guba,Sudan
    ,Sudan;; Supported
    Supported by ITDG,
    ITDG, UK.
    TM
    usage have seen higher preference for the latter class. 32. Jack Rabbit
    Rabbit , Ampair, UK.
    TM
       Various
    Various options for turbine
    turbine placement with respect to a channel channel 33. Kobold turbine
    turbine , Ponte di Archimede S.p.A., Italy.
    cross-section (bottom, floating, or near-surface/fixed) are being 34. Memorial
    Memorial Univ. of Newf Newfoundla
    oundland,
    nd, NL, Canada.
    Canada.
    given
    given alm
    almost
    ost equal
    equal empha
    emphasis. sis. Howeve
    However, r, axia
    axiall turbin
    turbines
    es are 35. Miscellaneous
    Miscellaneous Demonstration
    Demonstration projects.
    mostly being considered for placement at the bottom of a chan- 36. Munich
    Munich University of Technology
    Technology,, Germ
    Germany.
    any.
    TM
    nel
    nel,, whereas
    whereas vertica
    verticall tur
    turbine
    biness are bein
    being g designe
    designedd for either
    either floa
    float-
    t- 37. Neo-Aerodyn
    Neo-Aerodynamic amic converter
    converter , Neo-Aerodynamic Ltd. Com-
    ing or near-surface mounting arrangements. pany; TX, USA
    TM
       Recent
    Recent technological
    technological advancemen
    advancementt and project-project-develo
    developmen
    pmentt 38. Neptune Pro
    Neptune Proteu
    teuss Tid
    Tidal
    al Power
    Power Pon
    Pontoo
    toon
    n , Neptun
    Neptunee Ren
    Renewa
    ewable
    ble
    initiatives clearly indicate a rejuvenated interest in the domain Energy, UK
    of hydrok
    hydrokinetic
    inetic energ
    energy y conversion.
    conversion. 39. Nihon
    Nihon University,
    University, Japan
    40. North
    Northern
    ern Territory Universit
    University,
    y, Darwin N.T., Australia.
    TM
    As the hydrokinetic
    hydrokinetic technolog
    technologies
    ies evolve over time, new solu- 41. OCPS , Arnold Cooper Hydropower Systems, USA
    TM
    tio
    tions
    ns emerge
    emerge,, and old con
    concept
    ceptss resu
    resurfac
    rface/di
    e/disap
    sappear
    pear,, the review
    review 42. Open Hydro
    Hydro Turbine , OpenHydro Group Ltd., UK
    TM
    presen
    pre sented
    ted in this
    this wor
    workk may need to be re-e re-eval
    valuat
    uated.
    ed. How
    Howeve
    ever,
    r, 43. Optimset
    Optimset , Optimset, ON, Canada
    TM
    the major observations made in this work may still appear useful 44. PEEHR  , Rua Lúcio de Azevedo,Lisboa, Portugal
    TM
    in identifying the technology trend being followed in this field of  45. Pole Mer Bretagne
    Bretagne , Pole Mer Bretagne, France
    TM
    energy engineering. To conclude this discussion, it can be stated 46. Pulse Generator
    Generator , Pulse Generation Ltd.,UK
    TM
    thatt hydrok
    tha hydrokine
    inetic
    tic ene
    energy
    rgy technol
    technologi
    ogies
    es are emerg
    emerging
    ing as a viable
    viable 47. RiverStar
    RiverStar , Bourne Energy Pvt. Ltd.; Malibu, CA
    TM
    solution for renewable power generation and significant research, 48. Rotech , Tidal Turbine Lunar Energy Limited, UK
    develop
    dev elopmen
    ment,
    t, and deploym
    deployment
    ent init
    initiati
    iatives
    ves nee
    need
    d to be emb
    embarke
    arkedd 49. Russian cross flow turbine
    turbine Russian cross flow turbine
    upon before realizing true commercial success in this sector. 50. Rutten Com
    Company,
    pany, Belgium
    51. Scotrenewable
    Scotrenewabless , Scotrenewables Tidal Turbine (SRTT), UK
    TM

     Acknowledgement 52. TM
    SeaFlow , Marine Current Turbines Ltd., UK
    TM
    53. Seasnail
    Seasnail , Robert Gordon University, UK
    TM
    Fund
    Fundin
    ing
    g cont
    contri
    ribu
    buti
    tion
    onss from
    from NSERC
    SERC and
    and AIF is duly
    uly 54. Stringray
    Stringray , The Engineering Business (EB), UK
    acknowledged. 55. Swanturbine
    Swanturbiness , Swanturbines Ltd., UK
    TM

    TM
    56. TGL turbine
    turbine , Tidal Generation Ltd., UK
    TM
     Appendix A. List of surveyed technologies (in alphabetic order) 57. Thropton
    Thropton Turbin
    Turbine e , Thropton Energy Services, UK
    TM
    58. Tidal Fence
    Fence , Blue Energy International, BC, Canada
    1. Alternative
    Alternative Hydro Solutio
    Solutions
    ns Ltd., ON, Canada
    Canada 59. Tidal Stream Generat
    Generator or , Tid
    Tidal
    al Hyd
    Hydrau
    raulic
    lic Gen
    Generat
    erators
    TM
    ors Ltd
    Ltd..
    2. Amazon
    Amazon Aquacharger TM
    Aquacharger , Marlec Engineering, UK (THGL), UK
    TM
    3. Aquanator TM
    Aquanator Atlantis Energy, Australia 60. Tidal Str
    Stream
    eam , J A Consult, UK (Tidal Stream Turbine)
    TM
    4. Atlantisstrom
    Atlantisstrom,, Germany
    Germany 61. Tidel , SMD Hydrovision, UK
    5. Bangladesh
    Bangladesh Univ. of Engg. & Tech, Dhaka, Bangla
    Bangladesh
    desh 62. Tocardo
    Tocardo , Teamwork Technology, NL 
    TM

    TM

    6. BioPower
    BioPower Systems, Austra
    Australia
    lia 63.
    64. Transverpello
    Transverpello
    Tyson Turbine Germany
    Turbine , Australia TM
    7. Brazi
    Brazil-p
    l-prot
    rototy
    otype
    pe (cro
    (cross
    ss flow),
    flow), Center
    Center of Research
    Research in Electri
    Electrical
    cal
    Energy - CEPEL, Brazil 65. Underwater
    Underwater Elect
    Electric
    ric Kite, US
    8. Brazil-protot
    Brazil-prototype
    ype (ducted axial), Department
    Department of Mech. Engg.
    Engg. 66. University
    University College London
    London,, London UK
    from the Univ. of Brasilia UNB, Brazil 67. University
    University of British Colum
    Columbia,
    bia, Canada
    9. CADDET
    CADDET Centre for Renewable Energ Energy,
    y, UK. 68. College
    College of Eng
    Engine
    ineerin
    ering,
    g, Uni
    Univer
    versity
    sity of Bueno
    Buenoss Aires,
    Aires, Argent
    Argentina
    ina
    10. Clean Current
    Current Power Systems Inc., BC, Canada. 69. Department
    Department of Mech. and Manu Manu.. Eng., Universi
    University
    ty of Mani-
    11. Cross
    Cross Flo
    Flow
    w Turbin
    Turbines
    es , Coa
    Coastal
    stal Hyd
    Hydrop
    TM
    ropowe
    owerr Corpor
    Corporatio
    ation,
    n, toba, Canada
    Canada
    Canada. 70. Unive
    University
    rsity of South
    Southampt
    ampton,
    on, UK
    12. Current
    Current , Hydro Green Energy, LLC, TX, US.
    TM 71. Uppsala
    Uppsala University, Sweden
    Sweden
    13. Cycloidal
    Cycloidal Turbine , QinetiQ Ltd., UK.
    TM 72. Vertical
    Vertical Axis Ring Cam Turbine,
    Turbine, Edinburgh Unive
    University,
    rsity, UK
    TM
    14. EEL  , OPT Ocean Power Technologies Inc., US.
    TM 73. VIVACE
    VIVACE ,Vortex Hydro Energy LLC; Ann Arbor, MI, USA
    15. EnCurrent TM
    EnCurrent , New Energy Corporation Inc., Canada. 74. Wanxiang
    Wanxiang Vertical Turbin
    Turbine e Harbin Engineerin
    Engineeringg Unive
    University
    rsity
    16. Evopod
    Evopod , Oceanflow Energy, Overberg Ltd., UK.
    TM (HEU), China
    17. EXIM
    EXIM , Tidal Turbine Sea Power, Sweden.
    TM 75. Wild Water Power,
    Power, Canada
    18. Free
    Free Flow , Verdant Power LLC, US.
    TM 76. WPI Turbine-
    Turbine- Water Power Indus Industries,
    tries, Norway
    TM
    19. Gentec
    Gentec Venturi , Greenheat Systems Limited, UK.
    20. Gorlov-
    Gorlov- Amaz
    Amazon
    on demonstratio
    demonstrations,
    ns, Miscella
    Miscellaneous.
    neous.
    21. Gorlov
    Gorlov Turbine , GCK Technology Inc., US.
    TM References
    22.
    22. Gravi
    Gravitat
    tation
    ion water
    water vo
    vort
    rtex
    ex po
    powe
    werr pl
    plan
    antt , ZOT
    ZOTLOE
    LOETER
    TERER,
    ER,
    TM

    [1] Int
    Intern
    ernati
    ation
    onal
    al Energ
    Energy
    y Age
    Agencncy:
    y: Ocean
    Ocean Energ
    Energy
    y Sys
    System
    temss Imple
    Impleme
    menti
    nting
    ng
    Austria. Agreement, Annual Report; January 2007–2008. <http://w
    <http://www.iea-ocean
    ww.iea-oceans.org/
    s.org/
    23. School of Engineering,
    Engineering, Griffith Univ
    University,
    ersity, Australia. _fich/6/IEA-OES_Annual_Report_2007.pdf> .
     

    1834   M.J. Khan et al. / Applied Energy 86 (2009) 1823–1835

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