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Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

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Thermal performance, economic and environmental life cycle analysis

of thermosiphon solar water heaters
Soteris Kalogirou *
Cyprus University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Sciences and Engineering,
P.O. Box 50329, Lemesos 3603, Cyprus

Received 29 January 2007; received in revised form 5 November 2007; accepted 23 June 2008
Available online 18 July 2008

Communicated by: Associate Editor Dr. D. Yogi Goswami

Abstract

In this paper, the environmental benefits or renewable energy systems are initially presented followed by a study of the thermal per-
formance, economics and environmental protection offered by thermosiphon solar water heating systems. The system investigated is of
the domestic size, suitable to satisfy most of the hot water needs of a family of four persons. The results presented in this paper show that
considerable percentage of the hot water needs of the family are covered with solar energy. This is expressed as the solar contribution and
its annual value is 79%. Additionally, the system investigated give positive and very promising financial characteristics with payback time
of 2.7 years and life cycle savings of 2240 € with electricity backup and payback time of 4.5 years and life cycle savings of 1056 € with
diesel backup. From the results it can also be shown that by using solar energy considerable amounts of greenhouse polluting gasses are
avoided. The saving, compared to a conventional system, is about 70% for electricity or diesel backup. With respect to life cycle assess-
ment of the systems, the energy spent for the manufacture and installation of the solar systems is recouped in about 13 months, whereas
the payback time with respect to emissions produced from the embodied energy required for the manufacture and installation of the
systems varies from a few months to 3.2 years according to the fuel and the particular pollutant considered. It can therefore be concluded
that thermosiphon solar water hearting systems offer significant protection to the environment and should be employed whenever pos-
sible in order to achieve a sustainable future.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermosiphon; Solar water heating; Thermal performance; Economic analysis; Embodied energy; Environmental life cycle analysis

1. Introduction to 40% of the total energy consumption (Argiriou et al.,

All nations of the world depend on fossil fuels for their
energy needs. However, the obligation to reduce CO2 and
other gaseous emissions, in order to be in conformity with
the Kyoto agreement is the reason behind which countries
turn to non-polluting renewable energy sources.
In developed countries, energy consumption in the
building sector represents a major part of the total energy
budget. In the European Union this is approximately equal
*
Tel. +357 2500 2621; fax: +357 2500 2769.
E-mail addresses: skalogir@spidernet.com.cy, soteris.kalogirou@
cut.ac.cy
1997). A considerable percentage of this amount is spent
for hot water production. One way to reduce this amount
of energy is to employ solar energy.
In literature, there are numerous studies on the environ-
mental life cycle analysis of a variety of thermal systems.
Some of them deal with solar water heating systems (Mir-
asgedis et al., 1996; Taborianski and Prado, 2004; Tsilling-
irides et al., 2004). Particularly, the latter study examined
the life cycle environmental impact of a thermosiphon
domestic solar hot water system in comparison with electri-
cal and gas heating in Greece. In some other studies only
the economic life cycle savings are reported (Hasan, 2000;
Keyanpour-Rad et al., 2000).

0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2008.06.005
40 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

Nomenclature

A collector area (m2) LCS life cycle savings (€)

b0 constant of incident angle modifier equation N number of years
C investment cost (€) g collector efficiency
Ca collector area dependent cost (€/m2) PW present worth (€)
Caux cost of auxiliary energy (€) Qins total radiation incident on the collector (kJ)
c0 intercept efficiency Qenv heat losses from storage tank (kJ)
c1 negative of the first-order coefficient of the effi- Qu useful energy supplied form solar collectors (kJ)
ciency (W/m2 °C) Qaux auxiliary energy (kJ)
c2 negative of the second-order coefficient of the Qload energy required to cover load (kJ)
efficiency (W/m2 °C2) Qloss the annual energy lost from the storage tank and
Cf collector area independent cost (€) pipes (kJ)
CFA cost rate of auxiliary energy (€/kJ) Ta ambient temperature (°C)
CFL cost rate of conventional fuel (€/kJ) Ti inlet temperature to the collector (°C)
CFC chlorofluorocarbons TMY typical meteorological year
Cload cost of fuel to cover load (€) UL heat loss coefficient (W/m2 °C)
Cm maintenance cost (€) UV ultraviolet
Cs collector investment cost (€) VOC volatile organic compound
d market discount rate (%)
f solar contribution Greek symbols
FR heat removal factor DT temperature difference [=Ti  Ta] (°C)
Gt total global solar radiation (W/m2) h incidence angle (degrees)
i interest rate (%) sa transmittance–absorptance product
kas incidence angle modifier

In this paper, initially the environmental benefits of
renewable energy systems are shortly discussed, followed
by the analysis of the thermal performance, economics
and environmental benefits resulting from the use of ther-
mosiphon solar water heating systems. Additionally, the
amount of pollution saved because of the use of solar
energy against the pollution caused for the manufacture
of the systems is examined.
2. Environmental benefits of renewable energy technologies
Renewable energy technologies produce marketable
energy by converting natural phenomena into useful forms
of energy. These technologies use the sun’s energy and its
direct and indirect effects on the earth as the resources from
which energy is produced. These resources have massive
energy potential, however, they are generally diffused and
not fully accessible, most of them are intermittent, and
have distinct regional variabilities. These characteristics
give rise to difficult, but solvable, technical and economical
challenges. Today, significant progress is made by improv-
ing the collection and conversion efficiencies, lowering the
initial and maintenance costs and increasing the reliability
and applicability of renewable energy systems (Kalogirou,
2004b).
Two potential solutions to the current environmental
problems associated with the harmful pollutant emissions
from the burning of fossil fuels are renewable energy and
energy conservation technologies. Many countries consider
today solar, wind and other renewable energy technologies
as the key to a clean energy future. Renewable energy sys-
tems can have a beneficial impact on the environmental,
economic, and political issues of the world (Kalogirou,
2004b). The benefits arising from the installation and oper-
ation of renewable energy systems can be distinguished into
three categories: energy saving, generation of new working
posts and the decrease of environmental pollution (Diak-
oulaki et al., 2001).
The most important benefit of renewable energy sys-
tems is the decrease of environmental pollution. This is
achieved by the reduction of air emissions due to the sub-
stitution of electricity and conventional fuels. The most
important effects of air pollutants on the human and nat-
ural environment are their impact on the public health,
agriculture, buildings and historical monuments, as well
as on forests and ecosystems (Diakoulaki et al., 2001).
It is relatively simple to measure the financial impact of
these effects when they affect tradable goods such as the
agricultural crops; but this is much more complicated
when it comes to non-tradable goods like human health
and ecosystems.
This paper deals with thermosiphon solar water heat-
ing systems, which are very popular systems, used exten-
sively in many countries with good sunshine potential
such as the Mediterranean countries. A domestic size sys-
tem is considered, which is analysed with respect to its
 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48
energy performance, economics and environmental
impact.
3. Thermosiphon solar water heating systems
Thermosiphon, or natural circulation, solar water heat-
ing systems (also called passive systems) are the simplest
and most widely used solar energy collection and utiliza-
tion devices (Fig. 1). They are intended to supply hot water
for domestic use, and are based on natural circulation or
thermosiphon principle. They supply hot water at a tem-
perature of about 60 °C and consist of a collector, storage
tank, and connecting pipes.
A schematic diagram of the thermosiphon systems is
shown in Fig. 1a. These systems heat potable water or a
heat transfer fluid and use natural convection to transport
it from the collector to storage. Thermosiphoning occurs
when the water in the collector expands becoming less
dense as heat is added by solar energy and rises through
the collector header into the top of the storage tank. There
it is replaced by the cooler water that has sunk to the bot-
tom of the tank from which it flows down the collector.
Circulation continuous as long as the sun is shining. Since
the driving force is only a small density difference between
the hot and cold water, larger than normal pipe sizes must
be used to minimize pipe friction. In the storage tank, hot
water accumulates near the top when water is heated dur-
ing the day by solar radiation. To take into account periods
of low solar radiation levels, storage tanks are normally
sized to hold about two days’ supply of hot water. It should
be noted that the water flowing through the collectors is
potable water that goes to the user and any quantity of
hot water used is replaced through the freshwater inlet
(from the cold water storage tank or mains supply) which
enters the storage tank near the bottom so as not to break
the stratification.
Mixing device
Storage
tank
Auxiliary
Cold water
Collector
(a) Schematic diagram
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram and a photograph of a thermosiphon solar water heater.
41
Connecting lines must be well insulated to prevent heat
losses and sloped to prevent formation of air pockets which
would stop circulation. At night, or whenever the collector
is cooler than the water in the tank the direction of the
thermosiphon flow will reverse, thus cooling the stored
water, unless the top of the collector is placed well below
(about 30 cm) the bottom of the storage tank (Kalogirou,
2004a).
The size of a thermosiphon solar system depends on the
prevailing weather conditions and the hot water require-
ments. The collector area is determined primarily by the
daily hot water demand, which varies from place to place
depending on local customs and lifestyles and is normally
about 30 l/person/day. A typical unit operating in a good
environment (Mediterranean area) usually consists of two
flat-plate solar collectors having an absorber area between
2.5 and 4 m2, and a storage tank with capacity between 150
and 180 l. An auxiliary electric immersion heater and/or a
heat exchanger, for central heating assisted hot water pro-
duction, are used in winter during periods of low solar
insolation. Such a system covers about 80% of the hot
water requirements of a four-person family. The flat-plate
collector is generally fixed permanently in position, and
therefore the tilt of the collector is determined primarily
by consideration of the predominant season of hot water
use. For year-round use, the collector tilt is kept equal to
the latitude of the location plus 5°. In the northern hemi-
sphere, the collector faces direct south (azimuth
angle = 0°), although a shift of a few degrees towards east
or west does not greatly influence its performance (Kalog-
irou, 2004a). The daily overall system efficiency of a domes-
tic solar hot water system is about 30–40%, and the
temperature difference between the collector outlet and
inlet is about 10 °C. The storage tank is placed horizontally
or vertically. Though the shallow depth of the horizontal
tanks degrades stratification, for horizontal tanks with
Hot water
outlet
inlet
(b) Photograph
42 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

diameters greater than 500 mm there is only a small perfor-

Hot water consumption (l)

15
mance loss in comparison with vertical tanks.
The main disadvantage of thermosiphon systems is the 10
fact that they are comparatively tall units, which makes
them not very attractive aesthetically. Usually, a cold water 5

storage tank is installed on top of the solar collector, sup- 0

plying both the hot water cylinder and the cold water needs 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
of the house, thus making the collector unit taller and even Hours
less attractive (see Fig. 1b). Additionally, extremely hard or
acidic water can cause scale deposits that may clog or cor- Fig. 2. Hot water daily consumption profile.
rode the absorber fluid passages. For direct systems, pres-
sure-reducing valves are required when the city water is pattern is somewhat higher. However, during this period,
used directly and pressure is greater than the working pres- the temperature requirement for hot water is not as high
sure of the collectors. as during winter. Consequently, the total thermal energy
The unit considered in this work employs flat-plate col- requirement is reasonably constant throughout the year.
lectors which are by far the most used type of collector. The For the present simulation, the hot water consumption
instantaneous efficiency of the collector considered is given profile illustrated in Fig. 2 is employed, which assumes a
by the following equation obtained by testing the collector daily hot water consumption of 120 l at 50 °C for a family
at the Applied Energy Centre of the Ministry of Commerce of four (30 l/person).
and Industry, Nicosia, Cyprus: Traditional hot water systems comprise a hot water cyl-
   2
DT DT inder powered either by electricity or by diesel oil through
n ¼ 0:792  6:65  0:06 ð1Þ the central heating boiler. Therefore, the extra equipments
Gt Gt
required for the solar system are the solar collectors and
where DT is temperature difference between the collector the piping to connect the collectors with the storage tank.
inlet (Ti) and ambient (Ta) temperatures, i.e., DT =
(Ti  Ta), and Gt is the global solar radiation. 4. Thermal and economic analysis of the solar system
The storage tank is well insulated to reduce thermal
loses to the environment and is equipped with heat The system is modelled with the well-known TRNSYS
exchangers for heating the water with auxiliary energy. simulation program. TRNSYS is employing the standard
The auxiliary can be either electricity or diesel. In the case second-order collector performance equation to model
where diesel is considered this is used in a central heating the collector, given by (TRNSYS, 2005)
boiler, which supplies the energy for the heating needs of 2
a house and is not used only as the solar system backup. ðT i  T a Þ ðT i  T a Þ
n ¼ c0 K h  c1  c2 ð2Þ
What is of interest to note is that if the temperature of Gt Gt
the water in the storage tank is more than the desired tem- where Kh is the incidence angle modifier given by
perature this is mixed with the make-up water to obtain the  
required temperature. This is done at the tap by the user 1
K h ¼ 1  b0 1 ð3Þ
(through the mixer) but in the simulation, it is done with cosðhÞ
the mixing devise shown in Fig. 1a. The specifications of The values of c0, c1, c2 and b0 are obtained by experimental
the various components of the solar system are shown in testing of collectors in accredited laboratories. For the
Table 1. present application the factors shown in Eq. (1) are used,
With regard to the thermal load, although the hot water for c0, c1 and c2, whereas b0 is equal to 0.1, also determined
demand is subject to a high degree of variation from day to from testing the system in the test centre described above.
day and from consumer to consumer it is impractical to use The useful energy extracted from the collectors is given
anything but a repetitive load profile. This is not quite cor- by
rect during the summer period, where the consumption
Qu ¼ F R A½Gt ðsaÞK h  U L ðT i  T a Þ ð4Þ

Table 1 The total useful energy for the whole year is obtained from
Specifications of the thermosiphon solar water system considered 365 X
X 24
Parameter Domestic hot water system Qu;a ¼ Qu ð5Þ
2 d¼1 h¼1
Collector area (m ) 2.7 (2 panels)
Collector slope (°) 40 and the auxiliary energy required, Qaux is
Storage capacity (l) 150
Auxiliary capacity (kW) 3 Qaux ¼ Qload  ½Qu;a  Qloss  ð6Þ
Heat exchanger Internal
Heat exchanger area (m2) 3.6 where Qload is the energy required by the load and Qloss is
Hot water demand (l) 120 (4 persons) the energy lost from the storage tank and pipes.
 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48
As can be seen from the above equations the energy
obtained from the solar collector field depends on the col-
lector area (A), collector slope (affects cosh), flow rate
(affects FR) and the storage tank size (affects Ti). The col-
lector inlet temperature depends also on the load pattern,
make-up water temperature and the losses from the storage
tank and pipes. The storage tank losses depend on the tem-
perature of the stored water, i.e., it depends on the energy
collected and storage tank size.
The main component that models the thermosiphon sys-
tem is TYPE 45. This component models a system consist-
ing from a flat-plate solar collector, a stratified storage tank
(either vertical or horizontal cylinder), and a check valve to
prevent reverse flow, which employs water as the working
fluid. In fact TYPE 45a is used in which the head and flow
rate are calculated internally by the program.
Flow in the loop is assumed to be steady state. The sys-
tem is analysed by dividing the thermosiphon loop into a
number of segments normal to the flow direction and
applying Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible flow to
each segment.
The flow rate is obtained by numerical solution of the
resulting set of equations. The stratification in the tank is
modelled using TYPE 38 algebraic component, which is
embodied in TYPE 45. The number of segments (nodes)
in this model is not fixed, but depends on many factors,
i.e., the simulation time step, the size of the collector, load
flow rates, heat losses and auxiliary input (Fanney and
Klein, 1983). In this model the simulation starts with a cer-
tain number of segments. As the hot water leaves the top of
the collector and enters the storage tank from a certain
point at the top, it mixes with water at this level if their
temperatures are within 0.5 °C. If its temperature is lower
than that at the top by more than 0.5 °C it flows down
and mixes with water of a segment where the temperature
is within 0.5 °C of it. In the case when the temperature of
water entering the storage tank is higher than that at the
top of the storage tank by more than 0.5 °C, a new segment
is created at the top, increasing the number of segments by
one. When hot water is drawn to the load, the same case
applies for cold water from the mains entering the tank
at the bottom, this water mixes with that at the bottom if
their temperatures are within 0.5 °C of each other, other-
wise a new segment is created.
The system presented in this paper is simulated with
TRNSYS using typical meteorological year (TMY) data
for Nicosia, Cyprus. TMY is defined as a year, which sums
up all the climatic information characterizing a period as
long as the mean life of the system. The selection of typical
weather conditions for a given location is very crucial in
computer simulations for performance predictions and
has led various investigators either to run long periods of
observational data or to select a particular year, which
appears to be typical from several years of data. The
TMY for Nicosia, Cyprus, was generated from hourly
measurements, of solar irradiance (global and diffuse on
horizontal surface), ambient temperature, wind speed and
43
direction and humidity ratio, for a seven-year period, from
1986 to 1992 using the Filkenstein–Schafer statistical
method (Kalogirou, 2003b). The measurements were
recorded by the Cyprus Meteorological Service at the
Athalassa region, an area at the suburbs of the town of
Nicosia. The TMY is considered as a representative year
for the Cypriot environment.
4.1. Economic analysis
For this analysis, a life cycle analysis, in which the var-
ious costs are estimated annually, is considered. A life cycle
analysis is performed in order to obtain the total cost (or
life cycle cost) and the life cycle savings (LCS) of the sys-
tem. This kind of economic analysis can be performed
either within the TRNSYS environment or in a spreadsheet
program (Kalogirou, 1996). The TRNSYS application is
preferred here, as its output is given directly and avoids
subsequent transfer of the thermal performance results to
a spreadsheet.
In general, the present worth (or discounted cost) of an
investment or cost C at the end of year N, at a discount rate
of d and interest rate of i is obtained by
Cð1 þ iÞN 1
PWN ¼ ð7Þ
ð1 þ dÞN
In this method, the various costs and savings are estimated
annually. From the addition of fuel savings incurred be-
cause of the use of the system and the tax savings, the mort-
gage, maintenance and parasitic costs are subtracted and
thus the annual solar savings of the system are estimated
which are converted into present worth values of the sys-
tem. These are added up to obtain the life cycle savings
according to the equation
XN
Solar Savings
PWLCS ¼ N ð8Þ
N ¼1 ð1 þ dÞ
The fuel savings are obtained by subtracting the annual
cost of the conventional fuel used for the auxiliary energy
from the fuel needs of a fuel only system. The integrated
cost of the auxiliary energy use for the first year, i.e., solar
backup, is given by the formula
Z t
C aux ¼ C FA Qaux dt ð9Þ
0
The integrated cost of the total load for the first year, i.e.,
cost of conventional fuel without solar, is
Z t
C load ¼ C FL Qload dt ð10Þ
0
where CFA and CFL are the cost rates for auxiliary energy
and conventional fuel, respectively. In case that the same
fuel is used for both CFA = CFL.
The investment cost of the solar system in this case is
estimated from the following equation:
44 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

Cs ¼ Cf þ CaA ð11Þ Referring to the curve of hot water load (Qload), there is
a decrease of hot water load demand during the summer
where Cf is the collector area independent and Ca the col-
months. This is attributed to the fact that during the sum-
lector area dependent costs. The values used here are
mer months the total incidence solar radiation is higher
Cf = 153 € and Ca = 128 €/m2.
which results to higher temperatures in the cold water stor-
The maintenance cost (Cm), must also be considered.
age tank. Consequently, the hot water demand from the
This is estimated to be 1% of the initial investment and is
hot water storage tank during these months is reduced.
assumed to increase at a rate of 1% per year of the system
The variation of the annual solar contribution is also
operation. The total annual cost is given by
shown in Fig. 3. The solar fraction, f, is defined as the ratio
C ¼ Cs þ Cm ð12Þ of the useful solar energy supplied to the system to the
energy needed to heat the water if no solar energy is used.
4.2. Results of the thermal and economic analysis In other words, f is a measure of the fractional energy sav-
ings relative to that used for a conventional system. It can
Fig. 3 illustrates the monthly energy flows, which be calculated from the following relationship:
include the total radiation incident on the collector (Qins), Qload  Qaux
the useful energy supplied from the collectors (Qu), the f ¼ ð13Þ
Qload
hot water energy requirements (Qload), the auxiliary energy
demand (Qaux) and the heat losses from the storage tank
Fig. 3 implies that the solar fraction is lower in the winter
(Qenv). As it can be seen from the graph of total radiation
months and higher, reaching 100%, in the summer months.
incident on collector (Qins), the maximum value occurs in
The annual solar fraction is determined to be 79%. It
the month of August (1.88 GJ). The useful energy supplied
should be noted that in domestic hot water systems, by
from the collectors (Qu) is maximized in the month of April
adjusting slightly the consumption profile, contributions
(0.62 GJ). It can be also seen from Fig. 3 that there is a
of 100% could be obtained in the months May–October,
reduction in the incident solar radiation and consequently
which is what actually happens in practice. The program
the useful energy collected during the month of May. This
however considers a standard consumption throughout
is a characteristic of the climatic conditions of Nicosia and
all months that is why values slightly below 100% are
is due to the development of clouds as a result of excessive
given.
heating of the ground and thus excessive convection, espe-
The economic scenario used in this project is that all the
cially in the afternoon hours. The annual value of the use-
cost of the solar system is paid from the beginning (i.e., no
ful energy supplied by solar energy (Qu) is equal to
credit payments are assumed). The thermal performance
6480 MJ.
degradation of the system is assumed to be 1% per year,
From the curve of the energy lost from storage tank
the period of economic analysis is taken as 20 years (aver-
(Qenv) it can be seen that during summer months the energy
age life of locally produced systems), whereas all the other
lost from storage to surroundings is maximized. This is due
percentage figures (inflation rates and market discount
to the fact that at these months the temperature in the stor-
rate) are mean values of the previous decade (Statistical
age tank is higher and consequently more energy is lost.
abstracts, 2001). Electricity at a price of 0.153 €/kW h

2.00 1.00

1.80 0.90

1.60 0.80
ff
1.40 0.70
Qins
Qins
Energy Flows (GJ)

Solar Fraction

1.20 Qu
Qu 0.60

1.00 Qload
Qload 0.50
Qaux
Qaux
0.80 0.40
Qenv
Qenv
0.60 0.30

0.40 0.20

0.20 0.10

0.00 0.00
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YR
Months

Fig. 3. Energy flows of the thermosiphon solar water heater.

 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48 45

Table 2 Table 3
Results of economic analysis Environmental impact of the thermosiphon solar water heater with
electricity backup
Output parameter Electricity Diesel
backup backup Emissions Units Conventional Solar Savings
system (%)
Initial cost of the system (€) 498 498
Resale or salvage value (€) 98 98 Carbon dioxide tons/ 1.546 0.449 70.1
Rate of return of solar investment (%) 39.9 23.4 (CO2) year
Years until undiscounted fuel 2.7 4.5 Carbon monoxide g/year 374.6 109.7 70.7
savings = investment (CO)
Undiscounted cumulative net cash flow (€) 4616 2417 Nitrogen oxides g/year 56.3 16.3 71.1
Present worth of total costs with solar (€) 1209 929 (NOx)
Present worth of total costs without solar 3450 1985 Nitrous oxide (N2O) g/year 6.3 2.1 66.7
(€) Methane (CH4) g/year 9.3 2.7 71.0
Annualized total cost with solar (€/GJ) 18.7 14.5 Hydrocarbons g/year 37.7 11.0 70.8
Annualized total cost without solar (€/GJ) 54.4 31.5 Sulphur dioxide g/year 562.7 164.5 70.8
Present worth of cumulative cash flow (€) 2240 1056 (SO2)
Fuel price considered in the analysis 0.153 €/kW h 0.76 €/l Dust g/year 188.1 54.8 70.9
Savings in GHG % – – 70.3
and diesel at a price of 0.76 €/l are assumed to be used for
auxiliary. Table 2 gives a summary of economic figures as Table 4
calculated by TRNSYS. Environmental impact of the thermosiphon solar water heater with diesel
The results of the economic analysis shown in Table 2 backup
were obtained by using the above (current) fuel and elec- Emissions Units Conventional Solar Savings
tricity rates, a 20-year period a market discount rate of system (%)
6% and interest rate of 8%. No subsidies were considered. Carbon dioxide tons/ 0.889 0.293 67.1
As can be seen the solar system gives much lower specific (CO2) year
Carbon monoxide g/year 1688 581.3 65.6
energy cost than the conventional system for both types (CO)
of auxiliary energy considered. The payback time is very Nitrogen oxides g/year 1636 544.8 66.7
low and is equal to two years and eight months for electric- (NOx)
ity backup and four years and six months for diesel Nitrous oxide (N2O) g/year 6.1 1.2 80.0
backup. The life cycle savings represent the money that Methane (CH4) g/year 13.6 3.3 75.7
Hydrocarbons g/year 52.7 12.9 75.5
the owner will save by installing the solar system instead Sulphur dioxide g/year 651.4 169.9 73.9
of buying electricity/fuel to satisfy his hot water needs (SO2)
and is equal to 2240 € for electricity backup and 1056 € Dust g/year 180.0 73.5 59.2
for diesel backup. The difference in payback time and life Savings in GHG % – – 70.5
cycle savings is due to the fact that in the case of diesel a
fuel of lower price is replaced by the solar system. important greenhouse gasses are considered. For the case
of electricity backup (Table 3), Polysun considers a mixture
5. Environmental benefits of thermosiphon solar water of European power stations (coal-based, nuclear, hydro-
heating systems electric, etc.) in order to estimate the emissions of the con-
ventional system (Polysun, 2000).
To investigate the environmental benefit of utilizing As can be seen in both cases by using solar energy
solar energy instead of conventional sources of energy, instead of conventional fuel very large amount of pollu-
the different emissions resulting from the solar system oper- tants are avoided. The amount of emissions depends on
ation are estimated and compared to those of a conven- the type of fuel used as auxiliary. The percentage saving
tional electricity/fuel system. These are obtained by obtained in the cases where electricity or diesel backup is
correlations derived by using program Polysun (2000) used is about 70%. It should be noted however that the
given in (Kalogirou, 2004b). The emissions reported are quantities of emissions in the various substances emitted
those which are responsible for the most important envi- are completely different and the proximity of the total per-
ronmental problems as outlined in the previous sections. centage numbers obtained is due to the generation effi-
The environmental interventions are expressed in physical ciency of each system. Electrical energy is produced at a
units of the emitted substances per year. maximum efficiency of about 35% whereas in the case of
The quantities of the emissions depend on the solar col- diesel backup a boiler efficiency of 85% is considered.
lector size and the required auxiliary energy and are com-
pared to a non-solar system which is using conventional 6. Pollution created from thermosiphon solar water heating
electricity/fuel. The environmental analysis of the system systems
which includes the different pollutants as calculated by
the program is tabulated in Tables 3 and 4 for electricity The negative environmental impact of any solar energy
and diesel backup, respectively. In the tables the eight most system includes land displacement, and possible air and
46 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

water pollution resulting from the manufacture, normal Table 5

maintenance operations and demolition of the systems. Embodied energy content of one flat-plate collector 1.35 m2 in area
However, land use is not a problem when collectors are Description Mass Embodied energy Embodied
mounted on the roof of a building, maintenance required (kg) index (MJ/kg) energy content
(MJ)
is minimal and pollution caused by demolition is not
greater than the pollution caused from demolishing a con- 1.6  0.85  0.05 m 4.3 117 503.1
insulation
ventional system of the same capacity, and the great major- 1.6  0.85  0.005 m 9.5 15.9 151.1
ity of the solar system components can be recycled, glass
therefore not disposed to the environment. The pollution 1.8 m, 22 mm copper 2.16 70.6 152.5
created for the manufacture of the solar collectors is esti- pipe
mated by calculating the embodied energy invested in the 16 m, 15 mm copper 9.9 70.6 698.8
pipe
manufacture and assembly of the collectors and estimating 2  1.05  0.005 m 8.2 34.8 285.4
the pollution produced by this energy. galvanized steel
Initially, the embodied energy of one solar collector sheet
panel, 1.35 m2 in area is determined. This is the same col- 5 m rubber sealant 0.5 110 55
lector considered in the performance analysis of the system. Black paint 0.3 44 13.2
Casing paint 0.9 44 39.6
The analysis is based on the primary and intermediate 20 No. screws 0.00125 34.8 Ignored
embodied energy of the components and materials as illus- 169  0.85  0.003 m 3.6 70.6 254.2
trated in Fig. 4. In the present analysis no allowance is copper absorber
made for the unit packing, transportation and maintenance Total 2153
as these have insignificant contribution compared to the Add 10% for contingencies 215
total. Unit manufacture using a net to gross value of 295
The total embodied energy required to produce a com- conversion rate of 27%
plete flat-plate collector is calculated using primary and Grant total 2663
intermediate production stages. The primary stage is estab-
lished from an assessment of the various materials used and
their corresponding mass. Using the embodied energy energy used in the production and assembly of the compo-
index (MJ/kg) defined by Alcorn (1995) the material nent parts during the construction stage and was deter-
embodied energy content within the unit is determined. mined through a stage-by-stage appraisal of the power
Table 5 summarizes the unit materials used and lists their sources used. Inherent within this intermediate stage is
corresponding mass and embodied energy content. The the fabrication of purchased components like screws, glass
total embodied energy content for the production of one and insulation.
flat-plate collector panel is calculated at 2663 MJ. This An analysis of the embodied energy content of a com-
comprise the primary embodied energy of materials and plete thermosiphon solar water heating system is shown
the intermediate embodied energy, i.e., the amount of in Table 6. It should be noted that only the extra compo-

PRIMARY PRODUCTION INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTION

Paint, sealant,
coatings

Primary raw Glass

materials
extraction Copper pipes
Absorber
and
production Copper Sheet

Insulation
Casing Packing
Galvanized
sheet Transportation

Installation

Maintenance

Demolition

Disposal/recycling

Fig. 4. Factors considered in the calculation of embodied energy of a flat-plate collector.

 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48 47

Table 6 Table 7
Embodied energy content for the construction and installation of the Pollution created for the construction and installation of the thermosi-
complete thermosiphon solar water heating system phon solar water heating system and payback for the two types of backup
Description Mass Embodied energy Embodied energy fuels considered
(kg) index (MJ/kg) content (MJ) Emission Pollution created from solar Savings and
system embodied energy payback of solar
2 No. solar – – 5326
panels system
4 m, 22 mm 3.8 70.6 268.3 Electricity Diesel
copper pipe
Carbon 1.9 tons 1.097 0.596
4 m, pipe 1 120 120
dioxide (1.7) (3.2)
insulation
(CO2)
Steel frame 30 34.8 1044
Carbon 460.1 g 264.9 1106.7
Total 6758.3 monoxide (1.7) (0.4)
Installation 187.7 (CO)
Nitrogen 69.2 g 40 (1.7) 1091.2
Grant total 6946 oxides (0.06)
(NOx)
Nitrous oxide 6.3 g 4.2 (1.5) 4.9
nents of the solar system are considered in this analysis as (N2O) (1.3)
the other components are standard and are also present in Methane 11.4 g 6.6 (1.7) 10.3
(CH4) (1.1)
conventional systems. Here, the objective is to compare the
Hydrocarbons 46.3 g 26.7 (1.7) 39.8
pollution created for the manufacture and installation of (1.2)
the solar system against its benefits due to the lower emis- Sulphur 691.2 g 398.2 481.5
sions realized during the operation of the system. As can be dioxide (1.7) (1.4)
seen the total embodied energy for the complete system is (SO2)
Dust 231.1 g 133.3 106.5
6946 MJ.
(1.7) (2.2)
For the life cycle assessment of the system considered
Note: (1) Number in parenthesis represent payback time in years. (2) The
the useful energy supplied by solar energy per year, shown
units of savings are in g/year except carbon dioxide which is tons/year.
in Fig. 3 (6480 MJ) is compared with the total embodied
energy of the system shown in Table 6. As can be seen
the total energy used in the manufacture and installation
Table 8
of the system is recouped in about 13 months which is con- Annual environmental pollution reduction because of the use of thermo-
sidered as very satisfactory. siphon systems in Cyprus
The emissions created from total embodied energy are Emission Savings
presented in Table 7. Additionally, these emissions are
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 160,835 tons
compared with the emissions produced from the auxiliary Carbon monoxide (CO) 130.3 tons
energy, according to the type of fuel used in the various Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 107.5 tons
cases investigated, in order to estimate the payback period Nitrous oxide (N2O) 864.5 kg
for each pollutant. In all cases the emissions are estimated Methane (CH4) 1605.5 kg
by considering that all embodied energy was produced Hydrocarbons 6317.5 kg
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 83.6 tons
from electricity. This is not quite correct but electricity is Dust 22.8 tons
chosen, as is the most polluting fuel, therefore it gives the
Notes: 1. Total number of units considered = 190,000. 2. Savings esti-
worst possible results. As can be seen from Table 7, the mated by considering that 50% of the systems are using electricity and 50%
payback periods for the cases investigated vary from a diesel as backup.
few months to 3.2 years according to the fuel and the par-
ticular pollutant considered.
The size of thermosiphon solar water heater considered tal pollution reduction occurs each year just for water
is the usual type encountered in Cyprus. Cyprus began heating.
manufacturing solar water heaters in the early sixties. Moreover, the cost of damage avoided by some of the
Today more than 93% of all houses have solar water heat- pollutants is investigated with respect to damages to crops,
ing systems installed and operating. The total number of materials, mortality (refers to premature deaths) and mor-
systems is equal to 190,000 units. In fact the number of bidity (refers to illness). The results of this analysis are
units in operation today corresponds to one heater for shown in Tables 9 and 10. As can be seen 36 € are avoided
every 3.7 people in the island, which is a world record (Kal- per year when the system is using electricity as auxiliary
ogirou, 2003a). If we consider that all systems are of the and 22.4 € when diesel is used for each thermosiphon solar
same size as the one investigated here and that 50% of water heating system. Therefore for a more correct analysis
the systems are using electricity as backup and 50% diesel of solar systems the damage cost avoided, shown in Table
then the amount of pollutants avoided per year are as 10, should be added to the annual fuel savings which will
shown in Table 8. As can be seen considerable environmen- reduce the payback time even more, thus there is a further
48 S. Kalogirou / Solar Energy 83 (2009) 39–48

Table 9 respect to damages to crops, materials, mortality and mor-

Typical damage costs per kilogram of pollution emitted by power plants in
Europe (Rabl and Spardaro, 2001)
Pollutant Impact
SO2 Crops, materials, mortality and morbidity
CO (primary) Morbidity
CO2 Global warming
Table 10
Damage cost avoided per year from some of the pollutants for
thermosiphon solar water heating systems
Pollutant Amount saved (kg) Damage cost avoided (€)
Electricity Diesel Electricity
CO2 1097 596 31.8
CO 0.265 1.107 0
SO2 0.398 0.482 4.2
Total 36
increase in the economic viability of the systems. It is
believed by the author that such type of analysis must
always be considered in feasibility studies of solar systems.
7. Conclusions
In the present study, the potential benefits that solar sys-
tems offer are discussed in detail. From the analysis pre-
sented in this paper it can be concluded that the
environmental impact of any energy system is an important
factor and solar systems have the potential to reduce envi-
ronmental pollution.
Additionally, in this study the environmental protection
offered by the most widely used renewable energy system,
i.e., the thermosiphon solar water heating system is pre-
sented. The results show that by using solar energy consid-
erable amounts of greenhouse polluting gasses are saved.
For the domestic solar heating system considered here,
with electricity or diesel backup the saving, compared to
a conventional system, is about 70%. Additionally, the sys-
tem investigated give positive and very promising perfor-
mance and financial characteristics. The annual solar
contribution is 79% whereas the payback time of the sys-
tem is 2.7 year and the life cycle savings are 2240 € for elec-
tricity backup and 4.5 years and 1056 € for diesel backup,
respectively. With respect to life cycle assessment of the sys-
tems, the energy spent for the manufacture and installation
of the solar systems is recouped in about 13 months,
whereas the payback time with respect to emissions pro-
duced from the embodied energy required for the manufac-
ture and installation of the systems varies from a few
months to 3.2 years according to the fuel and the particular
pollutant considered. Moreover, the cost of damage
avoided by some of the pollutants is investigated with
bidity and found that 36 € are avoided per year when the
system is using electricity as auxiliary and 22.4 € when
Cost (€/kg) using diesel.
10.55 It can therefore be concluded that solar energy systems
0.002 are efficient, cost effective and friendlier to the environ-
0.029
ment. The reduction of greenhouse gasses pollution is the
main advantage of utilizing solar energy. Therefore, solar
energy systems should be employed whenever possible in
order to achieve a sustainable future.
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