Instructor’s Manual

Introduction to Criminal
Justice 14th Edition Siegel
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CHAPTER FIVE
PUBLIC POLICING AND PRIVATE SECURITY

Learning Objectives
1. Recount the early development of the police in England.
2. Recount the development of the police in colonial America.
3. Discuss twentieth-century police reforms and the emergence of professionalism.
4. Identify the main events in policing between 1960 and the present.
5. Identify the various levels of law enforcement.
6. Identify the most prominent federal law enforcement agencies.
7. Discuss the differences among local, county, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.
8. Know the differences between public and private policing.
9. Identify various technologies currently used in law enforcement.

Key Terms
biometrics (p. 186) – automated methods of recognizing a person based on a physiological or
behavioral characteristic

community policing (p. 165) – a law enforcement program that seeks to integrate officers into
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the local community to reduce crime and gain good community relations. It typically involves
personalized service and decentralized policing, citizen empowerment, and an effort to reduce
community fear of crime, disorder, and decay

constable (p. 158) – in early English towns, an appointed peacekeeper who organized citizens
for protection and supervised the night watch

data mining (p. 181) – using sophisticated computer software to conduct analysis of behavior
patterns in an effort to identify crime patterns and link them to suspects

DNA profiling (p. 187) – the identification of criminal suspects by matching DNA samples
taken from their person with specimens found at crime scene

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (p. 166) – the arm of the Justice Department that
investigates violations of federal law, gathers crime statistics, runs a comprehensive crime
laboratory, and helps train local law enforcement officers

hue and cry (p. 158) – in medieval England, a call for mutual aid against trouble or danger

hundred (p. 158) – in medieval England, a group of 100 families responsible for maintaining
order and trying minor offenses

justice of the peace (p. 158) – official appointed to act as the judicial officer in a county

Metropolitan Police Act (p. 159) – Sir Robert Peel’s legislation that established the first
organized police force in London.

private policing (p. 175) – crime prevention, detection, and the apprehension of criminals
carried out by private organizations or individuals for commercial purposes

sheriff (p. 158) – the chief law enforcement officer in a county

shire reeve (p. 158) – in early England, the chief law enforcement official in a county,
forerunner of today's sheriff

thermal imager (p. 183) – a device that detects radiation in the infrared range of the
electromagnetic spectrum, used in law enforcement to detect variations in temperature (warm
images stand out against cool backgrounds)

tything (tithing) (p. 158) – in medieval England, a collective group of 10 families that pledged
to help one another and provide mutual aid

vigilantes (p. 161) – in the old west, members of a vigilance committee or posse called upon to
capture cattle thieves or other felons
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watch system (p. 158) – in medieval England, groups of men who organized in church parishes
to guard at night against disturbances and breaches of the peace under the direction of the local
constable

Wickersham Commission (p. 163) – formally known as the National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement, a commission created in 1929 by President Herbert Hoover to
study the U.S. criminal justice system, including the police

Chapter Outline
I. The history of police [LO 1]
• The origins of U.S. police agencies, like that of criminal law, can be traced
to early English society.
• In the pledge system, tythings were entrusted to police their own minor
problems.

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• Shires (counties) were controlled by the shire reeve who was a forerunner to
today’s sheriff.
• The watch system was created in the thirteenth century in England to
protect property.
• Watchmen patrolled at night and reported to a constable.
• In 1326 the office of the justice of the peace was created to assist the shire
reeve in controlling the county.

A. Private police and thief takers

1) Rising crime rates at the beginning of the 18th century encouraged
private police.
2) Private police, called thief takers, profited legally and illegally from
the lack of formal police departments.
3) Thief takers used violence
4) Henry Fielding sought to clean up the thief-taking system.
5) By the 19th century state police officers were needed.
B. The London Metropolitan Police
1) Helped pass the Metropolitan Police Act which established the first
police force in London.
2) This first police force was structure along military lines.
3) Early bobbies succumbed to corruption and were often influenced
by the wealthy.
4) Sir Robert Peel identified nine principles he felt should characterize
police forces:
a. Police exist to prevent crime and disorder
b. Police duties are dependent upon public approval of police
actions
c. Police must have willing cooperation of the public
d. Degree of public cooperation diminishes proportionately to
the necessity of the use of physical force
e. Police must demonstrate absolute impartial service to the law
f. Police use physical force to the extent necessary to secure
observance of the law or to restore order
g. The police are the public and the public are the police
h. Police should always direct their action strictly towards their
functions and never appear to usurp the powers of the
judiciary
i. The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and
disorder

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C. Law enforcement in Colonial America [LO 2]

1) Law enforcement paralleled the British model.
2) The sheriffs collected taxes, supervised elections, handled other
legal business, in addition to keeping the peace and fighting crime.
3) Sheriff did not patrol or seek out crime, but reacted to citizens’
complaints and investigated crimes that had occurred.
4) In the cities, law enforcement was the province of the town marshal
5) However, local governments had little power of administration
6) Enforcement of criminal law was largely an individual or
community responsibility.
7) In rural areas in the South, slave patrols charged with recapturing
escaped slaves were an early form of law enforcement.
8) There were also vigilantes who used force or intimidation to
eradicate social problems
9) The early 19th century was an era of widespread urban unrest and
mob violence.
10) Local leaders began to realize that a more structured police function
was needed to keep the peace.
D. Early police agencies
1) The modern police department was born out of the urban mob
violence that wracked the nation’s cities in the 19th century.
2) In the late nineteenth century, police work was highly desirable
because it paid more than most blue-collar jobs.
3) However, job security was uncertain because it depended on the
local political machine staying in power.
4) Police work was also considered primitive.
5) Early police lacked the technological advances present today and
were to maintain order while patrolling on foot, without backup or
the ability to summon backup.
6) Police were considered incompetent and corrupt.
7) The police role was to serve as the enforcement arm of the reigning
political power, thus creating tension between the police and the
public.
8) The first technological breakthroughs came in the area of
communications.
E. Twentieth-century reform [LO 3]
1) Reform included the takeover of some big-city police agencies by
state legislators and the creation of police administrative boards.
2) The Boston police strike of 1919 heightened interest in police
reform.
3) Public support however, turned against the police and the strike was
broken.
4) While commissions began to investigate the extent of crime and the
ability of the justice system to deal with it and made
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recommendations to improve police effectiveness.

5) Reform became less important with the onset of the Great
Depression.
F. The emergence of professionalism
1) Leaders called for measures to help improve and professionalize the
police.
2) In 1929 President Herbert Hoover created the Wickersham
Commission to study the U.S. criminal justice system and make
recommendations for improvement.
3) August Vollmer was one of the most famous police reformers of that
time.
4) Vollmer was instrumental in applying modern management and
administrative techniques to policing.

II. Policing from the 1960s to the 1990s [LO 4]

• The modern era of policing can be traced from the 60s to the 90s.
• Major events occurred during this important period of police history.

A. Policing in the 1960s

1) Turmoil and crisis were the hallmarks of policing during the 1960s.
2) The U.S. Supreme Court delivered decisions designed to control
police operations.
3) Officers were required to obey strict legal guidelines when
questioning suspects, conducting searches, wiretapping, etc.
4) Many police complained that they were handcuffed by the courts.
5) The crime rate was growing rapidly and civil unrest produced
growing tension between the public and the police.
B. Policing in the 1970s
1) The 1970s witnessed many structural changes in police agencies
themselves.
2) Increased support for criminal justice by the federal government
resulted in research on police work, advanced training of officers,
and increased technology.
3) The end of the Vietnam War significantly reduced tensions between
students and police, but the relationship between police and
minorities was still rocky.
4) More women and minorities were recruited to police work.
C. Policing in the 1980s
1) Community policing began.
2) Police unions continued to have a great impact on administration,
but state and local budgets experienced financial cuts.
3) Police-community relations continued to be a major problem,
especially in the inner-city neighborhoods.
D. Policing in the 1990s
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1) Community policing was embraced, diversity to police departments

increased, and demand for education increased.
2) Rodney King incident occurred in the early 1990s and prompted an
era of reform.
3) Ongoing effort was made to bring diversity to police departments.

III. Policing and law enforcement today [LO 5]

A. Policing and law enforcement today are organized into four broad
categories:
1) federal
2) state
3) county
4) local
B. No single agency has unlimited jurisdiction.
C. Federal police agencies have no particular rank or hierarchy of command or
responsibility.
D. The U.S. Justice Department
1) This is the legal arm of the federal government which is empowered
to enforce all federal laws, represent the U.S. when it is a party to
court action, and conduct independent investigations.
2) Headed by the attorney general.
a. The Federal Bureau of Investigation [LO 6]
i. Was first the Bureau of Investigation, which was
created in 1908 in order to prevent the transportation
of women between states for immoral purposes.
ii. Today, the FBI is an investigative agency, not a
police agency.
iii. The FBI has jurisdiction throughout the United States
for all law enforcement matters in which the U.S. is
or may be an interested party.
iv. Headquarters are in Washington D.C. with hundreds
of offices around the country and world.
v. The FBI offers a number of important services to
local law enforcement including gathering crime
statistics, running a comprehensive crime laboratory,
and training local law enforcement officers
vi. Has re-formulated its priorities since September 11,
2001 and the first commitment is currently the
protection of the U.S. from terrorist attack.

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4) Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF)

a. Helps control sales of untaxed liquor and cigarettes, and has
jurisdiction over the illegal sale, import, and criminal misuse
of firearms and explosives.
5) U.S. Marshals
a. The nation’s oldest federal law enforcement agency.
b. Responsible for judicial security, fugitive investigations,
witness security, prisoner services, justice prisoner and alien
transportation system, and the asset forfeiture program.
E. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
1) Created as a result of the September 11th attacks
2) Now is the third-largest cabinet department in the federal
government
3) Assigned the mission of preventing terrorist attacks within the
United States, reducing America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and
minimizing the damage and aiding the recovery from attacks that do
occur.
F. Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
1) Responsible for protecting the nation’s borders to prevent terrorism,
human and drug smuggling, illegal immigration, and agricultural
pests from entering the U.S., while improving the flow of legitimate
trade and travel.
G. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
1) Largest investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security.
2) Transportation, and infrastructure security
3) The four main components of ICE are the Office of Investigations, the
Office of Detention and Removal Operations, the Office of Intelligence,
and the Office of International Affairs.
H. The Secret Service
1) Two main operations are to (1) protect the President, Vice-President
and their families, heads of state, and other high-level officials, and
(2) investigate counterfeiting and other financial crimes.
I. State law enforcement agencies [LO 7]
1) Originally created to deal with the growing incidence of crime in
nonurban areas.
2) Citizens demanded effective and efficient law enforcement that was
not tied to local politics to avoid corruption.
3) Texas Rangers created in 1835 was one of the first state police
agencies formed.
4) State police agencies have the same general police powers as
municipal police, and most are primarily responsible for highway
patrol and traffic enforcement.
5) There are about 80,000 state police employees.
6) In the wake of 9/11 attacks, a number of states have increased their
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intelligence gathering capabilities and aimed them at homeland

security.
J. County law enforcement agencies
1) Usually restricted to unincorporated areas within a county, unless a
city or town police department requests help.
2) Typical duties include serving civil process, providing court
security, operating the county jail, and investigating crimes.
3) There are more than 3000 sheriffs’ offices operating nationwide.
4) Some counties are now engaging in anti-terror and homeland
security activities.
K. Metropolitan law enforcement agencies
1) Local police make up majority of the nation’s authorized law
enforcement personnel.
2) Today, there are more than 450,000 full-time local police officers.
3) Many departments also employ civilians who bring special skills to
the department.
4) Functions include traffic enforcement, narcotics and vice control,
accident investigation, radio communications, patrol and
peacekeeping, crime prevention, property and violent crime
investigation, fingerprint processing, death investigation, and search
and rescue.
a. Policing in small cities
i. An overwhelming number of police departments
have fewer than 50 officers and serve a population
under 25,000.
ii. Officers in small towns rarely face the same
problems as their big-city counterparts.
iii. Rural policing relies more on informal mechanisms,
rather than arrest.
b. Local law enforcement efforts to combat terrorism
i. Local law enforcement agencies are working
alongside federal law enforcement agencies in
responding to the threat of terrorism.

IV. Private policing [LO 8]

• Private security companies are supplementing local police forces
• Has become a multi-billion-dollar industry with 10,000 firms and more than
2 million employees, and even includes federal police services.

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A. Reasons for private policing

1) A preference for non-governmental provision of services.
2) The growth of mass private property that need security.
3) A belief that the government cannot provide the security the public
desires.
B. Private and public police compared
1) Puts the profit motive first, is client driven.
2) Public policing’s primary focus is enforcement of criminal law.
3) Private policing could replace government.
4) Four factors distinguish private police from public police:
a. Focus on loss instead of crime
b. Preventive methods
c. Private justice
d. Private property
C. Types of private policing
1) There are four primary types of private policing:
a. Protective policing
b. Intelligence policing
c. Publicly contracted policing
d. Corporate policing
D. Criticisms of private policing
1) Private policing is controversial
a. There is some concern that privatization puts the profit
motive ahead of public safety
b. Private police could eventually replace government police.
c. There will be more legal scrutiny as the private security
business blossoms.

V. Technology and law enforcement [LO 9]

• Budget realities demand that police leaders make the most effective use of
their forces.
• Technology seems to be one method of increasing production at a relatively
low cost.
• Law enforcement technology extends beyond computers
• There are two categories of technology:
➢ Hard technology – includes new materials and equipment that
police use to catch criminals and prevent crime.
➢ Soft technology – software and information systems.

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A. Identifying criminals
1) Police are becoming more sophisticated in their use of computer
software to identify and convict criminals.
2) Some departments are using data mining to conduct analysis of
behavior patterns.
B. Locating criminals
1) Gun detector technology “listens” for gunfire.
2) Thermal imagers use infrared technology to detect heat signals.
C. Crime scene investigation
1) High-definition surveying (HDS) creates a virtual crime scene to
permit investigators to maneuver every piece of evidence and limit
crime scene contamination.
D. Crime mapping
1) Computer mapping programs allow police departments to identify
crime “hot spots” where a majority of predatory crimes are
concentrated.
2) Most law enforcement agencies throughout the United States now
use mapping techniques.
a. Alternative mapping initiatives
i. Mapping may soon serve other purposes than
resource allocation.
ii. In Washington state mapping initiatives are been
used to help handle terrorist or emergency situations.
iii. Can also be combined with GPS technology for
emergency initiatives.
E. Biometrics
1) Automated methods of recognizing a person based on a
physiological or behavioral characteristic.
2) Can be used to identify individuals based on voice, retina, facial
features, and handwriting identification, as well as fingerprint
identification.
3) The process of recording biometrics occurs in four steps:
a. The raw biometric data are captured or recorded by a video
camera of fingerprint reading device.
b. The distinguishing characteristics of the raw data are used to
create a biometric template.
c. The template is changed into a mathematical representation
of the biometric sample and is stored in a database.
d. A verification process will occur when an individual
attempts to gain access to a restricted site.

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F. Automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS)

1) A database of more than 14 million computerized fingerprints across
the nation.
2) Some police departments report that computerized fingerprint
systems allow them to make over 100 identifications per month
from fingerprints taken at crime scenes.
G. DNA testing
1) DNA profiling is the identification of criminal suspects by matching
DNA samples taken from their person with specimens found at the
crime scene.
2) A significant number of unsolved homicides and rapes with forensic
evidence had not been submitted to laboratories for analysis.
H. Social media and networking
1) Police departments have used the Internet and websites to
communicate with the public.
2) They have recently jumped on the social media and social
networking bandwagon.
3) Facebook and Twitter have been used to post information on wanted
criminals and updates.

Chapter Summary

In early English history, law enforcement was a personal matter. Under the pledge system,
people were grouped into tythings (10) and hundreds (100). This rudimentary structure has, over
time, evolved into modern police departments. Shires were controlled by the shire reeve. Shires
resembled what are modern day counties. Thus, the shire reeve was the forerunner of the sheriff.
Under the 13th century watch system, watchmen patrolled at night and helped protect against
robberies, fires, and disturbances. Early in the 18th century, paid private police called “thief
takers” patrolled the streets. The Metropolitan Police Act established the first organized police
force in London. These developments contributed to the foundations of police in colonial
America.

Law enforcement in colonial America resembled the British model. The county sheriff
became the most important law enforcement official. Urban police departments were born out of
urban mob violence and increases in crime. The first city to create an urban police department
was Boston in 1838.

In the early years of the 20th century, various reforms were undertaken with the intent of
limiting local officials’ control over the police. The Boston police strike sparked an interest in
initiating police reform. Nationally recognized leaders mandated professionalizing the police
profession. The International Association of Chiefs of Police was formed, which became a key
professional society for law enforcement.

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Policing went through changes from the 1960s to the 1990s. Ultimately, police
professionalism was interpreted to mean tough, rule-oriented police work featuring advanced
technology and hardware. However, these measures did not quickly reduce crime. During the
1970s, federal support for local law enforcement benefitted police departments considerably.
Criminal justice programs were emerging in colleges and universities across the United States.
Between 1960 and the 1990s police had many problems, including criticism of their treatment of
minorities and questions concerning why police were not more effective in general. These
concerns paved the way for a radical change in policing and led to the development of
community policing.

There are four levels of law enforcement in the United States: federal, state, county, and
local. The majority of law enforcement is performed at the local level. The typical police
department is fairly small and employs fewer than 50 officers. Federal law enforcement
agencies are probably the most well-known. The most prominent federal law enforcement
agencies within the Department of Justice are the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), and the U.S. Marshals Service.
The most prominent federal law enforcement agencies within the Department of Homeland
Security are Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Immigration and Customs Enforcement
(ICE), and the Secret Service.

Police departments mainly differ in terms of their jurisdiction. Federal law enforcement
agencies primarily enforce federal law. State law enforcement agencies come in two varieties.
State police generally enforce state law and have broad police power. State patrols and highway
patrol focus mainly on traffic enforcement on state highways and interstates. County law
enforcement officials enforce state laws and county ordinances. Most of their enforcement
occurs in unincorporated areas. Some sheriff’s departments are mainly law enforcement
oriented. Some also operate the county jail system and provide security in county courthouses.
City and metropolitan police are the most common type of law enforcement official, and have
broad authority to enforce state and local laws.

In addition to government police departments, there are private police companies.

Private police outnumber public police by three to one. Private police have emerged in response
to the desire for nongovernmental service provisions; there has been a growth in mass private
property, and a corresponding belief that the private sector can do a better job than the
government in preventing and controlling crime. Private policing is not without controversy.
One concern is that profit motive will take precedence over crime control. Another important
concern is that private police may replace public police, and many fear that there are too few
constitutional restraints on private police, which could lead to violations of citizens’ rights.

Another important development for law enforcement is the technology that police
departments use to prevent and control crime. Today, most police departments rely on advanced
computer-based technology to identify suspects and collect evidence. Many police departments
use mappings software to identify geographic “hot spots” of crime and to track their progress in
crime control and prevention. Automated fingerprint systems and computerized identification
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systems have become widespread. Some believe that technology may make police overly
intrusive and interfere with civil liberties. DNA testing and DNA databases help law
enforcement officials identify criminals. Police are also relying increasingly on social media and
social networking, particularly for the purpose of catching suspected criminals.

Discussion Questions
1. How have police become more professional over the years? [LO 3]

2. Compare and contrast federal law enforcement responsibilities with local law
enforcement responsibilities. [LO 5, 6, 7]

3. Discuss the origin of the FBI and the evolution of the agency. How did 9-11 change the
FBI? [LO 6]

4. What are some of the technological advancements that modern policing relies on? In your
opinion, do these advancements have disadvantages, or are they primarily beneficial?
[LO 9]

5. Discuss the pros and cons of private policing. [LO 8]

Assignments
1. Create a presentation on one of the federal law enforcement agencies in the Department
of Justice. Discuss its history, organization, hiring procedures, hiring requirements and
the focus of the agency. [LO 6]

2. Interview a police officer from a local police department. Ask the officer how their job is
different from federal agents who work in the same jurisdiction. Write a report on your
findings. [LO 5, 6, 7]

3. Use http://www.dhs.gov/ to research the Department of Homeland Security. Choose one

law enforcement agency within this department and discuss the selected agencies’ role in
the war on terror. [LO 6, 7]

4. Imagine you are an assistant to the governor and are being asked to research the
differences between public and private policing. Present your research to the class as if
they are the governor, and make a decision as to whether or not policing in your state law
enforcement agencies should remain public, or should be contracted out to the private
sector. [LO 8]

5. The CSI Effect – Visit the following Department of Justice website and read the article
entitled “The CSI Effect: Does it Really Exist?”

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(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/journals/259/csi-effect.htm). Then answer the following

questions:
• Do you believe the law-type shows referred to in the article have done more harm
than good in “informing” the public?
• Are there any television shows that you believe do a good job of representing the
“real” issues in the criminal justice system? Defend your position. [LO 9]

Media Tools

1. http://www.metpolicecareers.co.uk/aboutus.html is the website for the London

Metropolitan Police Service. Navigate around the site and compare it to the local police
department in your community. [LO 1, 7]

2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFhUCu8KCNk discusses the use of private policing

used in the United Kingdom. What are some of the problems associated with the use of
private policing? [LO 8]

3. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_pQdjVrfl4 is a video of technological

advancements in policing. How did the advancements portrayed in the video clip assist law
enforcement officers in performing their duties? [LO 2, 9]

4. http://www.justice.gov/about/budget-rollout-presentation.pdf is a report of the budget for

the U.S. Department of Justice. Be prepared to discuss with the class the key proprieties
of the Department of Justice for the fiscal year of 2013. [LO 5, 6]

5. http://policeforum.org/library/critical-issues-in-policing-series/Technology_web2.pdf is a
document that discusses in detail innovations in police technology. Read the article and
be prepared to discuss how various agencies have utilized advancements in technology.
[LO 9]

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