66 PART 1 | Materials of Music

period, then, is the total language of all its artists as they react to the artistic,
political, economic, religious, and philosophical forces that shape their environ-
HISTORY
ment. We will find that a knowledge of historical styles will help us place a musi-
cal work within the context (time and place) in which it was created.
Historical periods The timeline below shows the generally accepted style periods in the history of
OFWestern music. Each represents a conception of form and technique, an ideal of
beauty, a manner of expression and performance attuned to the cultural climate of

CLASSICAL MUSIC
the period—in a word, a style!

Critical Thinking
1. What is the difference between the genre, the form, and the medium for a composition?
2. How does a composer create a unique musical style? Give an example.

MUSICAL STYLES IN HISTORY

400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

Middle Ages (400–1450)

Early Christian period (400–600)

Gregorian chant (600–850)

Romanesque period—development of polyphony (850–1150)

Renaissance period (1450–1600)

Baroque period (1600–1750)

Classical period (1750–1825)

Romantic period (1820–1900)

Post-Romantic and Impressionist period (1890–1915)

Twentieth century and beyond (1900–present)

Understanding Historical Style Periods (from BA iMusic):

Medieval: Kyrie (Hildegard)

Renaissance: Inviolata, integra et casta es Maria ( Josquin)
Baroque: Minuet in D (Anna Magdelena Notebook) • Concerto in C major for 2 Trumpets, I (Vivaldi)
Classical: Surprise Symphony No. 94 (Haydn) • Pathétique Sonata, I (Beethoven)
Romantic: A˚ se’s Death, from Peer Gynt Suite (Grieg) • Prelude in E minor, Op. 28, No. 4 (Chopin)
Early twentieth century: Jeux de vagues, from La mer (Debussy) • The Rite of Spring (Stravinsky)
Later twentieth century: Lux aeterna (Ligeti)

Understanding Categories of Music (from BA iMusic):

Sacred (religious) music: “Hallelujah Chorus,” from Messiah (Handel)
Secular (nonreligious) music: Moonlight Sonata (Beethoven)
Popular music: When the Saints Go Marching In ( Jazz band) • If I Had a Hammer (Pete Seeger)
Crossover: Tonight, from West Side Story (Bernstein)
Traditional music: Swing Low, Sweet Chariot (African-American spiritual) • Los Jilicatas (Peru)
 Medieval/Renaissance
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1420 1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600

(1098–1179) Hildegard of Bingen (Alleluia, O virga mediatrix)

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(1100–1300) Notre Dame School (Léonin, Pérotin)

(c. 1250) Anonymous (Sumer canon)

(c. 1300–1377) Guillaume de Machaut (Puis qu’en oubli)

(c. 1450–1521) Josquin des Prez (Ave Maria . . . virgo serena)

(c. 1507–1568) Jacques Arcadelt (Il bianco e dolce cigno)

(c. 1515–c. 1571) Tielman Susato (Danseryie)

(c. 1525–1594) Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Pope Marcellus Mass)

(c. 1570–1603) John Farmer (Fair Phyllis)

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1420 1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600

■ 476 Fall of the Roman Empire

■ 800 Charlemagne crowned first Holy Roman Emperor

■ 1271 Marco Polo to China

■ 1291 Last Crusade to the Holy Land

■ 1307 Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (Divine Comedy)

■ 1348 Black Death begins

EVENTS

1456 Gutenberg Bible printed ■

1492 Columbus discovers the New World ■

1501 First music book printed in Italy ■

1504 Michelangelo, Italian painter, sculptor (David ) ■

1545 Council of Trent begins ■

1558 Elizabeth I crowned in England ■

1601 Shakespeare’s Hamlet ■

 Baroque Era
1600 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750

(1567–1643) Claudio Monteverdi (The Coronation of Poppea)

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(1619–c. 1677) Barbara Strozzi (Sleepyhead, Cupid!)

(1659–1695) Henry Purcell (Dido and Aeneas)

(1678–1741) Antonio Vivaldi (The Four Seasons)

(1682–1738) Jean-Joseph Mouret (Suite de symphonies)

(1685–1750) Johann Sebastian Bach (Sleepers, Awake)

(1685–1759) George Frideric Handel (Water Music Suite, Messiah)

1600 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750

■ 1603 Death of Elizabeth I

■ 1607 First settlement in Jamestown, Virginia

■ 1611 Bible: King James Version

■ 1628 Dr. William Harvey explains the circulatory system

EVENTS

■ 1643 Reign of Louis XIV begins

■ 1649 Period of Commonwealth begins in England

■ 1667 John Milton’s Paradise Lost

■ 1684 Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation

Reign of Louis XV begins 1715 ■

John Gay’s Beggar’s Opera performed 1728 ■

146 PART 3 | The Baroque Era

A COMPARISON OF BAROQUE AND CLASSICAL STYLES

BAROQUE (c. 1600–1750) CLASSICAL (c. 1750–1825)

COMPOSERS Monteverdi, Purcell, Barbara Strozzi, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert

Vivaldi, Handel, Mouret, Bach

MELODY Speechlike melody in monody; Symmetrical melody in balanced phrases

continuous melody with wide leaps, and cadences; tuneful, diatonic, with
chromatic tones for emotional effect narrow leaps

RHYTHM Single rhythm predominant; steady, Dance rhythms favored; regularly recurring
energetic pulse; freer in vocal music accents

HARMONY Chromatic harmony for expressive effect; Diatonic harmony favored; tonic-dominant
major-minor system established with relationship expanded, becomes basis for
brief excursions to other keys large-scale form

TEXTURE Monodic texture (early Baroque); Homophonic texture; chordal-vertical

polyphonic texture (late Baroque); dimension
linear-horizontal dimension

INSTRUMENTAL Trio sonata, concerto grosso, suite, Symphony, solo concerto, solo sonata,
GENRES prelude, fugue, chaconne, passacaglia string quartet, other chamber music
genres

VOCAL GENRES Opera, Mass, oratorio, cantata Opera, Mass, oratorio

FORM Binary and ternary forms predominant Larger forms, including sonata-allegro
form, developed

DYNAMICS Subtle dynamic nuances; forte/piano Continuously changing dynamics through

contrasts; echo effects crescendo and decrescendo

TIMBRE Continuous tone color throughout Changing tone colors between sections
one movement of works

PERFORMING String orchestra, with added Orchestra standardized into four families;
FORCES woodwinds; organ and harpsichord introduction of clarinet, trombone; rise of
in use piano to prominence

IMPROVISATION Improvisation expected; harmonies Improvisation largely limited to cadenzas in

realized from figured bass concertos

EMOTION Single affection; emotional exuberance Emotional balance and restraint

and theatricality

Find an interactive version of this chart on StudySpace.

 Classical Era
1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850

(1732–1809) Joseph Haydn

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

Symphony No. 100, Military

The Creation

(1756–1791) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Piano Concerto, G major, K. 453
Don Giovanni
Eine kleine Nachtmusik
Requiem

(1770–1827) Ludwig van Beethoven

Moonlight Sonata
Symphony No. 5

(1797–1828) Franz Schubert

Elfking
The Trout

1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850

■ 1715 Reign of Louis XV begins

■ 1732 George Washington born

■ 1752 Benjamin Franklin’s electricity discoveries

■ 1762 Catherine II crowned empress of Russia

■ 1771 First edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica

EVENTS

■ 1775 American Revolution begins

■ 1785 Schiller writes Ode to Joy

■ 1789 French Revolution begins

■ 1796 Jenner discovers vaccination

for smallpox

■ 1804 Coronation of Napoleon

■ 1815 Defeat of Napoleon at

Battle of Waterloo
200 PART 4 | Eighteenth-Century Classicism

A COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC STYLES

CLASSICAL (c. 1750–1825) ROMANTIC (c. 1820–1900)

COMPOSERS Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert Beethoven, Schubert, Fanny Mendelssohn

Hensel, Felix Mendelssohn, Clara Schumann,
Robert Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Berlioz,
Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Verdi, Wagner

MELODY Symmetrical melody in balanced phrases and Expansive, singing melodies; wide ranging;
cadences; tuneful; diatonic, with narrow leaps more varied, with chromatic inflections

RHYTHM Clear rhythmically, with regularly Rhythmic diversity and elasticity; tempo
recurring accents; dance rhythms favored rubato

HARMONY Diatonic harmony favored; tonic- Increasing chromaticism; expanded

dominant relationships expanded, became concepts of tonality
basis for large-scale forms

TEXTURE Homophonic textures; chordal-vertical Homophony, turning to increased

perspective polyphony in later years of era

INSTRUMENTAL Symphony, solo concerto, solo sonata, Same large genres, adding one-movement
GENRES string quartet, other chamber music genres symphonic poem; solo piano works

VOCAL GENRES Opera, Mass, oratorio Same vocal forms, adding works for solo
voice and piano/orchestra

FORM Ternary form predominant; sonata-allegro Expansion of forms and interest in continuous
form developed; absolute forms preferred as well as miniature programmatic forms

AUDIENCE Secular music predominant; Secular music predominant;

aristocratic audience middle-class audience

DYNAMICS Continuously changing dynamics through Widely ranging dynamics for expressive
crescendo and decrescendo purposes

TIMBRE Changing tone colors between sections Continual change and blend of tone
of works colors; experiments with new instruments and
unusual ranges

PERFORMING String orchestra with woodwinds and Introduction of new instruments (tuba,
FORCES some brass; 30-to-40-member orchestra; English horn, valved brass, harp, piccolo);
rise of piano to prominence much larger orchestras; piano
predominant as solo instrument

VIRTUOSITY Improvisation largely limited to cadenzas Increased virtuosity; composers specified

in concertos more in scores

EXPRESSION Emotional balance and restraint Emotions, mood, atmosphere emphasized;

interest in the bizarre and macabre

Find an interactive version of this chart on StudySpace.

 Romantic Era
1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930

(1797–1828) Franz Schubert (Elfking)

(1803–1869) Hector Berlioz (Symphonie fantastique)

(1805–1847) Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel (The Year)

(1809–1847) Felix Mendelssohn (Violin Concerto)

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(1810–1849) Frédéric François Chopin (Mazurka, Op. 24, No. 4)

(1810–1856) Robert Schumann (A Poet’s Love)

(1813–1901) Giuseppe Verdi

(Rigoletto and Requiem Mass)
(1813–1883) Richard Wagner
(Die Walküre)
(1824–1884) Bedřich Smetana
(The Moldau)
(1826–1864) Stephen Collins Foster
(Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair)
(1833–1897) Johannes Brahms
(Symphony No. 3)
(1838–1875) Georges Bizet (Carmen)

(1840–1893) Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky

(The Nutcracker)
(1843–1904) Antonín Dvořák (Symphony No. 9)

(1858–1924) Giacomo Puccini (Madame Butterfly)

1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930

■ 1803 Louisiana Purchase

■ 1815 Defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo

■ 1830 Tuba first used in major orchestral work

EVENTS

■ 1840 Saxophone developed by Adolphe Sax

■ 1847 Emily Brontë’s novel Wuthering Heights

■ 1859 Darwin’s Origin of Species

■ 1861 American Civil War begins

■ 1862 Victor Hugo’s novel Les Misérables

■ 1877 Cylinder phonograph invented

 Impressionism and Early 20th Century
1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

(1862–1918) Claude Debussy

(Prelude to “The Afternoon of a Faun” )

(1874–1954) Charles Ives

(Country Band March)
COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(1874–1951) Arnold Schoenberg

(Pierrot lunaire)

(1875–1937) Maurice Ravel (Don Quixote to Dulcinea)

(1881–1945) Béla Bartók

(Concerto for Orchestra)

(1882–1971) Igor Stravinsky

(The Rite of Spring)

(1885–1935) Alban Berg (Wozzeck)

(1895–1982) Carl Orff (Carmina burana)

(1895–1978) William Grant Still

(Suite for Violin and Piano)

(1899–1940) Silvestre Revueltas

(Homage to Federico García Lorca)

(1900–1990) Aaron Copland (Appalachian Spring)

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

■ 1889 Paris World Exhibition

■ 1905 Einstein’s theory of relativity

EVENTS

■ 1917 U.S. enters World War I

■ 1920 Women’s suffrage: 19th Amendment passed

■ 1936 Spanish Civil War begins

■ 1939 World War II begins

 Music beyond the Concert Hall
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

(1898–1937) George Gershwin (Porgy and Bess)

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(1915–1967) Billy Strayhorn

(Take the A Train)

(1915–1959) Billie Holiday (Billie’s Blues)

(1918–1990) Leonard Bernstein

(West Side Story)

(b. 1932) John Williams (Raiders of the Lost Ark)

(b. 1941) Bob Dylan (Mr. Tambourine Man)

1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

■ 1917 U.S. enters World War I

■ 1920 Prohibition begins in the U.S.

19th Amendment passed, granting women the vote

■ 1929 Great Depression begins

■ 1939 World War II begins

EVENTS

■ 1946 First Fender electric guitar

1958 First stereo recordings released ■

1965 First Rolling Stones hit ■

1969 Woodstock Festival ■

1991 Soviet Union dissolved ■

1994 Kurt Cobain of Nirvana dies ■

2001 iTunes media player introduced ■

 World War II and Beyond
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

(1912–1982) John Cage (Sonatas and Interludes)

COMPOSERS AND WORKS

(b. 1928) John Corigliano (Prelude: Mr. Tambourine Man)

(b. 1929) George Crumb (Madrigals)

(b. 1935) Arvo Pärt (Cantate Domino canticum novum)

(b. 1947) John Adams (Doctor Atomic)

(b. 1952) Tod Machover (Begin Again Again . . .)

(b. 1955) Bright Sheng (China Dreams)

(b. 1962) Jennifer Higdon (blue cathedral)

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

■ 1917 U.S. enters World War I

■ 1941 Pearl Harbor attack by Japan

■ 1963 Assassination of President John F. Kennedy

■ 1965 First walk in space

■ 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.

EVENTS

1974 First home computers ■

1975 End of Vietnam War ■

1991 Soviet Union dissolved ■

2001 Terrorists attack World Trade Center ■

2003 Iraq War begins ■

2008 U.S. enters economic recession ■

2009 Barack Obama elected first African-American U.S. president ■

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