Idea of Kingship and State Organization in Delhi Sultanate

In theory the Muslim state was theocracy, i.e. the head of state was also the religious
head and derived his position and authority from god. Thus the caliph was the supreme
head of the whole Muslim world. Although the sultans of Delhi professed formal
allegiance to the Caliphate, the sultanate was always in independent state for all
practical purposes. Further, the political need and the ignorance of the sultans about the
Shariat had resulted in a division of the functions of the head of state. The religious side
was looked after by the ulema and the administrative side was managed, organized and
supervised by the sultan.
The ideal of Kingship
The ideal of kingship in the Delhi sultanate was derived from the Islamic world whereby
the rulers claimed divine origin for themselves. The ruler was the representative god and
was endowed with Farr, thus he was to be obeyed and respected due to divine origin of
kingship. During the reign of IItutmish, the position of the sultan was not considered much
higher than that of an exalted noble. He treated the great Turkish nobles as his equals
and professed his shyness to sit on the throne. However, Balban was fully aware of its
dangerous implications. He had, therefore, to place the monarchy at a higher level than
the nobility. He proclaimed himself as the vice-regent and the shadow of god on
earth. He believed that the king’s heart is the mirror of divine attributes.
The same idea was followed by Alauddin Khilji also. He also dreamt himself to be another
prophet but his advisors brought him back to reality. Nevertheless, he assumed the title
of Sikander-i-sani (the second Alexander) and kept away Ulema from his decision
making periphery.
However, this trend was softened by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, who was soft on Ulema and
extremely social with nobles. The same was reversed by Firuz shah, who strictly worked
in guidance of Ulema and weakened the monarchy.
Under Lodis, kingship assumed the racial basis. They believed in superiority of their races
and this lowered the dignity of the Sultans.
The sultan was a despot and bound by no law. He was not subject to any ministerial or
other checks. The people had no rights but only obligations. Only two pressure groups
existed with varying impacts in various times viz. nobility and Ulema.
Central / Provincial Government
Sultan was on apex of the central government who worked with imperial Diwans. The
four Diwans viz. Diwani-I-Wizarat, Diwan-I-Arz, Diwan-I-Insha, Diwan-I-Risalat served as
four pillars of central government.
The Delhi sultanate was divided into smaller units called Wilayat or Iqlim or Iqtas. The
number of Iqtas changed, for instance, under Alauddin Khilji, there were 12 Iqtas.
Each Iqta was under a Wali, Muqti or Naib and was divided into Shiqs (districts) under a
Shiqdar. Each Shiq was further divided into Pargana under an Alim and then further into
a village under Khuts and Muqaddams.
Military, Police and Justice
The military organization of Delhi sultanate was based on Turkish model. The survival of
the government was based on military, it got maximum importance.
Iltutmish, a Turkish ruler had thought of organizing the army of sultanate as King’s army,
which is centrally recruited and centrally paid. What he organized was called “Iqta army”.
However, usually army ranks would be disbanded as soon as a campaign was over.
Balban increased the number of soldiers in army. It was Alauddin Khilji, who took more
interest in army than any other Sultan. He was the first sultan to set up a permanent
standing army of Delhi Sultanate. He did not disband the soldiers after a campaign was
over and he recruited directly and paid them in cash from public treasury. The same
policy was followed by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq but Firuz Shah adopted granting hereditary
assignments of land to the soldiers. This particular decision ruined the army’s position.
During Lodi regime, too much emphasis was on tribal traditions and army of the
Sultanate was turned into a tribal militia.
As far as Police organization is concerned, the head of the police was a Kotwal, who were
responsible for maintenance of law and order in towns. The judicial department was
headed by Qazi-ul-Quzzat. Sultan was the supreme or highest court of justice and he
sat in a court called Mazalim.
Ghiyas ud din Balban
Ghiyas ud din Balban was the 9th Sultan of Delhi. He was born in 1216 in the Central Asia Turkic
tribe. Balban belongs to the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi. He acted as the regent of Nasiruddin
Mahmud, the last Shasmi Sultan. Ghiyas ud din Balban was very competitive and took extreme
measures to get rid of his rivals and predecessor Imaduddin Raihan.
However, Ghiyas ud din Balban wasn’t his original name. His original name was Baha ud Din. He
belongs to the Ilbhari Turks. Balban was captured by the Mongols at a very young age and taken
to Ghazni. He was enslaved and went through a chain of being sold to different people and was
finally purchased by Iltutmish.
He was one of the 40 Turkish slaves Iltutmish had. Balban made several conquests as Vizier. He
took care of the Mewats, reconquered Bengal, and successfully fought off the Mongol threat. This
series of conquests made him one of the most famous rulers of Delhi.

The Early Life of Balban

After he was brought to the Sultan of Delhi as an enslaved person, she was appointed as a simple
water carrier. He better become the lord of the hunt, which came with many political and military
responsibilities.
Balban played a very important role in overthrowing Ala ud din Masud as the Sultan of Delhi and
replacing him with Nasiruddin Mahmud and then appointing himself as his Vizier. Some people
and the royals in the court accused Balban of being a usurper. The Sultan took notice of all these
rumours and dismissed Balban, and he was challenged in combat. However, Ghiyas ud din
Balban managed to negotiate with the Sultan and reinstall himself as the wazir.

The Military Campaigns of Ghiyas ud din Balban

 Ghiyas ud din Balban undertook only a few military campaigns; however,
how Balban reformed the civil and military lines made him more powerful.
 Balban’s reign was based on fear of governing power. He made the people believe that the
Sultan was the shadow of God and introduced rigorous court discipline.
 Balban’s army mostly consisted of people of Turkish origin, but later, he formed an army
made up of all castes. Most of Balban’s military achievements had been during his
wazirhood.
 When the governor of Bengal revokes the authority of Delhi, Balban reconquered Bengal
and killed the governor of Bengal, and placed his second son as the governor.
 One of the most famous military achievements of Balban was against the people of Mewat.
The people of Mewat used to harass the people of Delhi in broad daylight.
 Balban exterminated the tribes of Mewat and destroyed their villages. Balban took away
their lands and then gave them to the Afghans for settling down. He unsuccessfully tried to
besiege the fortress of Ranthambore, however successful in capturing Gwalior from
Rajputs.
 Balban was also successful in suppressing the rising of Chandela, chief of Kalinjar, in 1247.
 Balban repelled the Mongol army away from his territory. This was achieved as the cavalry
horses of Balban were better suited to the Indian climate than the Mongolian horses.
  The extreme heat during the summer in India also made it hard for the Mongolians to fight
the forces of Balban. Such was the early life, rise to power, and the military achievements
of Balban.
 Many great rulers could be found in the history of India, as India was always prone to
foreign invasions and internal conflicts. The throne of Delhi attracted a lot of attention from
internal leaders and foreign invaders. Many remarkable rulers have ascended the throne of
Delhi.
 Ghiyas ud din Balban was one of the rulers of the Sultanate of Delhi. He took the throne
after the death of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. His reign was full of terror among the nobles
and public equally. He successfully recaptured Bengal and fought the invasion of the
Mongol forces.
How did Ghiyas ud din Balban become the Sultan of Delhi?
Ghiyas ud din Balban ascended the throne of Delhi in 1266. Sultan Nasiruddin, who was installed on the throne
of Delhi with Balban’s help, had no male heir. So Ghiyas ud din Balban jumped at this opportunity and declared
himself the Sultan of Delhi.

What reformations did Balban make during his reign?

During his reign, a lot of formations were made by Balban to ensure that he ruled with an iron fist. Balban
employed spies to keep an eye on his officials. He placed reporters in every department. He re-organized the
revenue system of Iqtadars.

Important points of Balban Administra on -

h ps://yourexamguide.com/2021/10/02/ghiyas-ud-din-balban-notes-and-key-points-medieval-indian-history/

h p://u arakhand.pscnotes.com/main-notes/paper-ii/medival-history/balban-theory-of-kingship-and-judicial-
system/

Ziauddin Barni
Barani had the opportunity to live up to the reigns of eight Delhi Sultans, from Ghiyasuddin Balban
(1266-1286) to Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388). Nonetheless, Barani lived contrasting lives.
Barani (1285-1358) belonged to a reputed family of scholars and officials from Baran (modern
Bulandshahr; hence the epithet ‘Barani’). Muaiyad-ul Mulk, father of Barani, married the daughter
of sipah-salar Husamuddin (who later rose to the prominent position of wakil-i dar and later Hajib
[chamberlain] of Sultan Blban). Muaiyad-ul Mulk himself rose to the position of naib (deputy) to
Prince Arkali Khan, son of Jalaluddin Khalji. Under Alauddin Khalji, he was officer-in-charge (naib-
o-khwaja) of Baran. Barani’s paternal uncle Ain-ul Mulk held the office of governorship of Kara and
Awadh and later became the kotwal of Delhi during Alauddin Khalji’s reign. Barani himself received
a good education in Arabic and Persian. He was an expert in religious sciences and Islamic
theology. He had a deep sense and understanding of history. Barani was a man of ideas. He had
close proximity to the then poet-scholar laureates, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Sijzi. He also
adored the favour of the 219 famous Chishti saint Nizamuddin Auliya. He even had the honour of
being buried Ziauddin Barani near Nizamuddin Auliya’s tomb in the same complex next to his
father’s grave. He also enjoyed great respect in the court of Muhammad Tughlaq. Amir Khurd, his
younger contemporary, comments that he was a man of ‘elegant mind’ and unparallelled in ‘courtly
culture’. Amir Khurd also praises him for being a great conversationalist.

Ziauddin Barni, a 14th century historian and political theorist, had a generally positive view of
Ghiyasuddin Balban, the fifth sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. He praised Balban for his military
prowess, his administrative skills, and his commitment to upholding the Islamic faith.

In his book Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Barni wrote that Balban was "a brave and valiant warrior" who
"always fought in the forefront of his army." He also praised Balban's administrative skills, noting
that he "established a sound system of government" and "maintained law and order throughout his
realm."

Barni also admired Balban's commitment to Islam. He wrote that Balban "was a devout Muslim
who always followed the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah." He also noted that Balban "took
steps to promote Islamic learning and culture."

However, Barni did have some criticisms of Balban. He noted that Balban was "harsh and
tyrannical" in his rule, and that he "sometimes executed his own officials without due process." He
also criticized Balban for his policy of favoring Turks over other ethnic groups in his administration.

Overall, Ziauddin Barni had a generally positive view of Ghiyasuddin Balban. He believed that
Balban was a strong and capable ruler who helped to strengthen the Delhi Sultanate. However, he
also acknowledged that Balban had some flaws, such as his harshness and his favoritism towards
Turks.

Here are some specific quotes from Ziauddin Barni about Balban:

Sure, here are all the important quotes from Ziauddin Barni about Balban:

 "Ghiyasuddin Balban was a brave and valiant warrior who always fought in the forefront of
his army."

 "He established a sound system of government and maintained law and order throughout
his realm."

 "He was a devout Muslim who always followed the teachings of the Quran and the
Sunnah."

 "He took steps to promote Islamic learning and culture."

 "He was harsh and tyrannical in his rule, and he sometimes executed his own officials
without due process."

 "He favored Turks over other ethnic groups in his administration."

In addition to these quotes, Barni also praised Balban for his intelligence, his charisma, and his
ability to inspire loyalty in his followers. He wrote that Balban was "a man of great intelligence and
foresight" who was "able to read the minds of his enemies." He also noted that Balban was "a
charismatic leader who was able to inspire loyalty in his followers."

Overall, Ziauddin Barni had a generally positive view of Ghiyasuddin Balban. He believed that
Balban was a strong and capable ruler who helped to strengthen the Delhi Sultanate. He also
acknowledged that Balban had some flaws, such as his harshness and his favoritism towards
Turks. However, Barni believed that Balban's positive qualities outweighed his negative qualities,
and that he was a good ruler overall.

Sure, here are some quotes from Ziauddin Barni about Balban's flaws:

 "He was harsh and tyrannical in his rule, and he sometimes executed his own officials
without due process."

 "He favored Turks over other ethnic groups in his administration."

 "He was suspicious of his own nobles and courtiers, and he kept them under close
surveillance."

 "He was obsessed with security and control, and he built a large and powerful army to keep
his subjects in line."

 "He was not a popular ruler, and he was often criticized for his harshness and his
authoritarian style."

Barni's criticisms of Balban are significant because they come from a contemporary source who
had a close relationship with the sultan. Barni was a court historian and advisor to Balban, and he
had access to a lot of information about the sultan's reign. His criticisms are therefore likely to be
accurate and unbiased.

Barni's criticisms of Balban are also important because they highlight some of the challenges that
the Delhi Sultanate faced during Balban's reign. The sultanate was a vast and heterogeneous
empire, and it was difficult to rule effectively. Balban's harshness and his favoritism towards Turks
alienated some of his subjects, and it made it difficult for him to maintain the loyalty of his nobles.
These challenges contributed to the decline of the Delhi Sultanate after Balban's death.
Alauddin Khilji’s Rule
Alauddin Khilji was an emphatic ruler from the Khilji dynasty who used to rule the Delhi Sultanate. He was the
son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji, the founder of the Khilji dynasty. He killed his father-in-law and centralised his
power in Delhi. Alaudin Khilji evolved the Sultanate of Delhi and started annexing diverse kingdoms in India.
Alauddin had a very successful administrative measure, and historians praised his reign for its low prices and
efficient supplies of goods and services in the market. He successfully resisted the threat of Mongol invasions
more than 12 times. Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultanate from the Khilji dynasty to attack South India.

Alauddin Khiliji
Jalaluddin Khilji, the founder of the Khilji dynasty, was killed by his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji, who
carried on as the new ruler. Alauddin Khilji conquered the Delhi sultanate with many valiant achievements, and
he reached out to triumph over the various parts of Gujarat. Alauddin was also able to implement startling
economic reforms, although their effects were restricted to Delhi and its 100-mile radius. Alauddin re-organized
by carrying out market reforms to ensure fixed prices of products and prevent shortages. He also developed
warehousing facilities to guarantee ready stock of goods as the government penetrated the transportation
business and facilitated the swift movement of goods. The division of the Alauddin house into two camps led to
the collapse of the Khilji dynasty. In 1316 he died due to a critical health condition. The Successors of Alauddin
Khilji were weak, and Eventually, in 1320 A.D. The Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles to
conquer Delhi and capture the throne.

Victories and Policies of Alauddin Khilji

 Alauddin Khilji followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship

 To prevent repeated revolts, he introduced four ordinances

 He seized lands from the nobility and also restructured the spy system He prohibited social parties and
black marketing

 He began the system of Horse branding and a descriptive roster of personal soldiers to hinder corruption

 He established a permanent standing army that included 475,000 horse riders, according to the 16th-
century chronicler Firishta

 He managed a large army by paying relatively low salaries and introducing market prices to ensure that
his soldiers’ low salaries were acceptable

 He fixed basic prices for the necessary commodities

 He imposed discrimination against the Hindus and the Jizya, a grazing tax, and a house tax on the Hindu
community

 Alauddin also destroyed the intermediary Hindu rural chiefs and began to collect the Kharaj directly from
the cultivators

 He did not impose any other taxes on agriculture and nullified the cut that the intermediates received for
collecting revenue
Khilji Dynasty
Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder of the Khilji Dynasty. The Khilji dynasty ruled large parts of South Asia between
1290 and 1320. The Khilji dynasty is the second dynasty to govern the Delhi Sultanate of India. It was named
after a village in Afghanistan. Historians assume that they were Afghans, but Wolse Haig and Bharani claim that
this dynasty’s rulers came to India. The Khilji dynasty was a Central Asian Turkic dynasty but had a hometown in
Afghanistan and adopted some Afghan habits and customs. The Khilji dynasty was treated as Afghan in the
Delhi Court. Historians noted the three sultans of the Khalji dynasty for their faithlessness and ferocity. The Khilji
dynasty takeover was a movement toward the distinction of a balance of power attributable to the growth outside
the territory of the Delhi Sultanate and to the modifications which followed the installation of Turkic rule in
northern India. The founder of the Khalji Dynasty is from South Asia. Malik Firuz was initially the Ariz-i-Mumalik
selected by Kaiqubad during the days of the descent of the Slave Dynasty. He took benefit of the political
vacuum formed due to the incompetence of the inheritors of Balban. He only had to remove the newborn Sultan
Kaimurs to occupy the throne. Malik Firuz ascended the throne of Delhi in 1290 on June 13 as Jalaluddin Firuz
Shah. He maintained most of the officials by holding pivotal positions in the Slave Dynasty.

The last and the third ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah. He was the weakest ruler and
abolished all taxes and penalties. Khusru Khan ultimately murdered him, ending the Khilji dynasty in India.

Alauddin Khilji’s Administrative Policies And

Features
Alauddin Khilji was a powerful and capable monarch. He established a powerful central government. He
believed in the sultan as the state’s greatest authority. Therefore, he believed in divine right theory. The Sultan
regarded himself as a divine messenger or “Shadow of God.” As a result, he forbade secret gatherings or parties
and matrimonial contacts between nobility or officers. He assigned spies to keep an eye on them and seized
their assets. He forbade the consumption of alcohol or gambling. Alauddin Khilji avoided ulemas’ influence in
governance. Let’s discuss the reign of Alauddin khilji in Gujarat, Ranthambore, Chittor and many other places in
detail.

Alauddin Khilji’s Administrative Policies

Alauddin Khilji was a ruthless ruler who wielded absolute power over his huge realm.

 Suppressed rebellions: Alauddin was a man of efficiency and sternness. With a heavy hand, he put
down rebellions
 Various laws were enacted: To avoid such problems, he passed regulations prohibiting the
consumption of wine, prohibiting social gatherings among the nobles, and perhaps even prohibiting inter-
marriage among them without his consent
 Spies: He had a slew of spies who kept him up to date on his subjects’ actions
 Taxes: As a result, he imposed high levies on his subjects. The wealthiest were, of course, charged the
higher taxes
 Army: Sultan Alauddin Khilji recognised the importance of having a well-trained army. Only at great
expenditure could it be accomplished. To save money on military expenditures, the Sultan set a price for
each item and tried to make things available at low prices
  The fountainhead of the administrative system: The Sultan was the apex of the administrative
hierarchy. Earlier Muslim kings administered according to Koranic principles, with the Ulemas, or Muslim
divines, having a considerable role in policy development
Alauddin Khilji, on the other hand, was different from his forefathers in this regard. He refused to enable the
Ulemas to establish administrative norms. His attitude toward government and its aims is summed up in these
lines.

Conclusion
Though Alauddin Khilji captured the throne in an immoral way, the reforms brought by him are always
remarkable to any other ruler. Alauddin Khaiji was an emphatic ruler from the Khilji dynasty who used to rule the
Delhi Sultanate. Alaudin Khilji evolved the Delhi Sultanate and started annexing diverse kingdoms in India.
Alauddin had a very successful administrative measure, and historians praised his reign for its low prices and
efficient supplies of goods and services in the market. He was one of the most notable rulers in Indian history.

Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)

o Alauddin was the most powerful ruler of the Khilji Dynasty.

o His real name was Ali Gurshasp, and he held the title of Sikandar-e-Sani.

o His reign marked the rise of Indian Muslims to higher ranks in Delhi.

o Jalaluddin appointed him the governor of Kara in 1292.

o Alauddin called himself the deputy of Khalifa and followed the divine theory of kingship.

o Alauddin was the first Muslim ruler to extend his Empire up to the extreme south of the
Indian subcontinent.

o Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered land measurements and tax
collection based on land measurements.

o Land revenue was collected in cash only.

o Alauddin Khilji also led many successful military campaigns all over India on the back of his
able military generals, including Nusrat Khan, Ulugh Khan and Malik Kafur. The military
campaigns are discussed later in this article. Alauddin also successfully defended Delhi
from Mongolian vision 12 times.

o Alauddin Khilji died in January 1316.

Domestic Policies of Alauddin Khilji

Alauddin Khilji was the powerful ruler of the Khilji dynasty. He led successful military
campaigns and carried out extensive administrative and domestic reforms. Fear of rebellion
prompted him to introduce major policy changes and centralize power in his hands. Domestic
policies under Alauddin Khilji can be classified into the following categories:

Administrative Measures

o Prohibition of liquor and intoxicants.

o Parties and marriages among nobles without the Sultan's permission were forbidden.

o Confiscation of jagirs and pensions, revoking religious endowments and land grants.

Agrarian/Revenue Reforms

o Introduction of Biswa as the standard unit of measurement for cultivable land.

o Fixing land revenue (Kharaj) at half of the produce.

o Direct contact with cultivators, curbing middlemen.

o Establishment of a new revenue department, Diwan-e- Mustakhraj.

Market Control

o Establishment of separate markets for different goods, controlled by Diwan-i-Riyasat and

Shahna-i-Mandi.

o Registration of merchants with the state.

o Strict regulations against hoarding and unfair practices.

o Stockpiling of food grains by the state for emergencies.

Military Reforms

o Introduction of cash payment for soldiers.

o Direct recruitment of soldiers by the military commander, Ariz-e-Mamlik.

o Implementation of horse branding (Daag) and soldier description (Huliya).

o Classification of soldiers into three grades based on their equipment and horses.

o Foot Soldier

o Soldiers with one horse (ek-aspa).

o Soldiers with two horses (do-aspa).

Ziauddin Barni about Alauddin Khilji:
Some specific quotes from Ziauddin Barni about Alauddin Khilji:

 "Alauddin Khilji was a brave and valiant warrior who always fought in the forefront of his
army."

 "He established a sound system of government and maintained law and order throughout
his realm."

 "He was a devout Muslim who always followed the teachings of the Quran and the
Sunnah."

 "He took steps to promote Islamic learning and culture."

 "He was harsh and tyrannical in his rule, and he sometimes executed his own officials
without due process."

 "He favored Turks over other ethnic groups in his administration."

 "He was a master of deception and manipulation, and he was willing to use any means
necessary to achieve his goals."

 "His reign was marked by both great achievements and great cruelty."

Barni's quotes about Alauddin Khilji highlight the sultan's complex and contradictory personality.
He was a brilliant military strategist and a capable administrator, but he was also ruthless and
authoritarian. He was a master of deception and manipulation, and he was willing to use any
means necessary to achieve his goals. His reign was marked by both great achievements and
great cruelty.

Here are some additional quotes from Ziauddin Barni about Alauddin Khilji that you might find
interesting:

 "Alauddin Khilji was a lion in the battlefield and a fox in the court."

 "He was a man of great intelligence and foresight."

 "He was a charismatic leader who was able to inspire loyalty in his followers."

 "He was a devout Muslim who believed that he was doing God's work by expanding the
Delhi Sultanate."

 "He was a ruthless and tyrannical ruler who did not hesitate to execute his own officials if
they displeased him."

 "He was a master of deception and manipulation who was willing to lie and cheat to achieve
his goals."

 "His reign was marked by both great achievements and great cruelty."
These quotes provide a more nuanced portrait of Alauddin Khilji than the one that is often
presented in popular culture. He was a complex and contradictory figure who was both admired
and feared by his contemporaries. His legacy is still debated today, but there is no doubt that he
was one of the most important figures in the history of the Delhi Sultanate.

Here are some quotes from Ziauddin Barani about Alauddin Khilji's flaws:

 "He was harsh and tyrannical in his rule, and he sometimes executed his own officials
without due process."

 "He favored Turks over other ethnic groups in his administration."

 "He was suspicious of his own nobles and courtiers, and he kept them under close
surveillance."

 "He was obsessed with security and control, and he built a large and powerful army to keep
his subjects in line."

 "He was not a popular ruler, and he was often criticized for his harshness and his
authoritarian style."

Here is a specific quote from Barani that highlights Alauddin Khilji's ruthlessness:

"He was a lion in the battlefield and a fox in the court. He was a man of great intelligence and
foresight, but he was also a ruthless and tyrannical ruler. He did not hesitate to execute his own
officials if they displeased him, and he was suspicious of everyone around him."

This quote shows that Barani was aware of Alauddin Khilji's cruelty, and he was not afraid to
criticize him for it. This is significant because it shows that even a court historian who was close to
Alauddin Khilji was not afraid to speak out against his flaws.

Barani also criticized Alauddin Khilji for his persecution of Hindus. He wrote that Alauddin Khilji
"was a cruel and oppressive ruler who persecuted Hindus and other non-Muslims." He also wrote
that Alauddin Khilji "destroyed temples and mosques, and he forced Hindus to convert to Islam."

Barani's criticisms of Alauddin Khilji are important because they provide us with a more nuanced
understanding of the sultan's character. He was a complex and contradictory figure who was both
admired and feared by his contemporaries. His legacy is still debated today, but there is no doubt
that he was one of the most important figures in the history of the Delhi Sultanate.
 Zamindari System in Mughal Era
Zamindars during the Mughal era were petty landholders in the villages, descendants of
old ruling families who retained small portions of their ancestral lands. These also
include the rajput and other chiefs who exercised autonomous administrative authority
in their principalities. They had hereditary rights of collecting land revenues which could
go up to 25 percent of the revenue. They generally made collection from the individual
peasants at rates fixed by custom or by themselves and paid a fixed tax to the
Government. The difference between his collections and the amount he paid to the state
was his personal income.
If the state demand reached the maximum that the peasant could pay, a deduction of
10 percent was made from the total amount of revenue and paid to the Zamindars
as malikana .
Please note that in Mughal Era, the Zamindar was not the owner of the land and the
peasants could not be dispossessed of land as long as they paid land revenue. Only
later Zamidars became prominent and some of them had militaries and forces.
Sometimes the state had to use military force against recalcitrant Zamindars for the
realization of revenue.

In some respects of Zamindars and the peasants were natural allies in any struggle
against the Mughal government. Hereditary succession to Zamindari was the general
rule. Zamindari was divisible among legal heirs and could also be freely bought and sold.
Normally in the Mughal empire villages were divided into zamindari and raiyati (non-
zamindari) areas.
Social Reforms During Mughals
Despite his numerous activities, Akbar found time to implement several social reform
measures aimed at eradicating the evils of both Muslim and non-Muslim societies. His
religious tolerance principle, however, did not blind him to certain evils in Hindu society. All
inland customs and taxes on trades and professions were abolished by Mughal Emperor Akbar.
While the removal of these impositions provided economic relief to the people by lowering
prices, free movement of goods produced an indirect sense of oneness among the people. In this
article, we will discuss Integration of Social Reforms During Mughals which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

Features
Integration of Social Reforms - Features

 Akbar instituted a number of social and educational reforms. He prohibited sati (the burning of a
widow) unless she expressly desired it of her own free will.
 Furthermore, Akbar made it a strict rule that widows of childbearing age who had not shared the
bed with their husbands were not to be burned at all. Widow remarriage was also legalised by
Akbar.
 Akbar was opposed to second marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife
was barren.
 Akbar raised the marriage age to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
 Akbar prohibited the sale of wine and spirits.
 Akbar revised the educational curriculum, focusing more on moral education and mathematics, as
well as secular subjects like agriculture, geometry, astronomy, government rules, logic, history, and
so on.
 As his court was infused with famous and scholar people, more popularly known as
the 'navaratna,' Akbar gave patronage to artists, poets, painters, and musicians.
 According to many historians, Akbar's empire was essentially secular, liberal, and proponent of
cultural integration. It was enlightened on social and cultural issues.

Abolition of Tax

Abolition of Tax

 Akbar was hunting near Mathura in 1563. He noticed that a tax was being collected from the
pilgrims who had gathered there.
 Akbar had no idea about the tax collected from Hindu pilgrims from all over the world. When
Akbar inquired, he was told that it had been the custom of every Muslim ruler to collect pilgrim tax
from Hindus at every Hindu pilgrimage site.
 The tax was not set in stone. It was determined arbitrarily based on the pilgrim's rank and wealth.
 The pilgrim tax, according to Akbar, was morally wrong because it was imposed on people who
came "in search of the light of God" and because it was not uniform but arbitrary, variable
according to the whim of the tax collector.
 Throughout his empire, he abolished the pilgrim tax.
 Akbar also abolished jizya, the poll tax levied on non-Muslims, because its imposition, in his
opinion, hampered the emotional integration of his subjects into one united brotherhood.
 An influential section of the court was strongly opposed to the repeal of this tax on religious and
financial grounds. But Akbar stayed true to his word.
Child Marriage
Child Marriage

 Akbar was opposed to child marriage, which was common among both Hindus and Muslims.
 Akbar issued orders prohibiting marriage before the age of 12 and between cousins, despite the
fact that such marriage is permitted under Muslim law.
 Later, the minimum marriage age was raised to 16 for boys and 14 for girls. Akbar appeared to
have a very modern mind.
 Before marriage could take place, the parents of the boy and girl, as well as their mutual consent,
was required. A nominal marriage tax with varying rates was implemented.

Emphasis on Secular Studies

Emphasis on Secular Studies

 It should be noted that Akbar's emphasis on secular studies was not well received by the orthodox
school of thought, but Akbar had no intention of destroying Arabic literature.
 In fact, the Imperial Library housed a large number of Arabic works. Akbar not only broadened the
curriculum of studies, but also opened the doors to educational institutions that had previously
been exclusively reserved for Muslims.
 For the first time, Hindu and Muslim children sat side by side in the same educational institutions
under his leadership. During his time, Sialkot was a well-known centre of learning.
 Because of Akbar's devotion to education, Abul Fazl wrote in praise, "All civilised nations have
schools for the education of youths, but Hindustan is particularly famous for its seminaries."
 A large college, the likes of which few travellers can recall, was established on the hill at
Fathepur."
 Agra had a number of Madrasas, the most famous of which was in Gujarat. There were many
private schools in addition to the Madrasas and educational institutions established by Akbar and
the nobles.
 Education for women was also promoted. Muslim nobility sent their daughters to school as was
customary.
 Princess Gul Badan contributed the famous Humayun-Nama to Abul Fazl's Akbarnama.
 Salima Sultana was a well-known Persian poet, and Maham Anaga, Akbar's chief nurse, was also
a well-educated lady.

Practice of Sati
Practice of Sati

 One of Akbar's most memorable reforms was his opposition to the inhuman Sati practise.
 Jajman, Raja Bhagawan Das' cousin, died too soon. His widow was reluctant to become a Suttee,
that is, to burn herself in the funeral pyre of her late husband, but her step son Udai Singh and
other relatives almost forced her to agree.
 As soon as the news reached Akbar, he rushed to the scene and, risking being misunderstood by
his Rajput relations, intervened and had those who were forcing the widow to become a Satee
arrested (Akbarnama).
 In another case, Akbar intervened to persuade Birbhadra of Panna's young widow not to immolate
herself in her husband's pyre.
 Although Akbar did not issue a formal decree prohibiting the practise of Sati, he strongly
discouraged it.

Slavery
Slavery

 In 1562, Akbar outlawed the age-old practise of enslaving prisoners of war, selling their wives and
children, and so on.
 This pernicious practise that had been practised for centuries was abolished, saving many innocent
unfortunate people from slavery.

Prohibition of Sale of Wine

Prohibition of Sale of Wine

 Akbar recognised the social evils of intoxicants, whether they were drinks or not, but he also
recognised that total prohibition would be impossible to enforce, so he made a compromise.
 He only allowed wine to be consumed by those who had doctors' approval. Excessive drinking,
disorderly behaviour after drinking, and the use of booze were all made illegal.
 When purchasing wine, the names of the purchasers had to be recorded in the shop.

Conclusion
Conclusion
The evil of gambling was recognised by Akbar, but it was so widespread that he found it
impossible to suppress the evil. Gambling destroyed families and caused strife, yet it was almost
universal. Akbar established a state bank from which gamblers could obtain loans, and each
gambling establishment was required to pay a fixed charge. The social reforms instituted by
Akbar give the impression of a new world or modernism.
The Bhakti Movement (1200–1500)
The Bhakti movement was started by a group of Hindu saints, who wanted to bring religious
reforms by using the method of devotion to achieve salvation. It was founded on the belief that
the best way to connect with God is through love and worship, rather than through rituals or
religious ceremonies. It emphasised the mutual intense emotional attachment and love of a
devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee.

Background
Bhakti Movement - Background

 The term 'Bhakti' means 'devotion.'

 The bhakti movement was led by a group of well-known saints known as the Nayanmars and
Alvars. These saints were opposed to austerity.
 They saw religion as a living bond based on love between the god and the worshipper, rather than
as cold, formal worship. Siva and Vishnu were the primary deities they worshipped.
 The development of the Bhakti movement took place in south India between the 7th and 12th
centuries CE.
 After the 12th century CE, the Bhakti movement gained popularity in the northern portions of the
country and peaked between the 15th and 17th centuries CE.
 The Bhakti movement evolved regionally around various gods and goddesses, with some sub-
sects including Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and
Smartism.
 The expansion of Islam in India affected the northern medieval Bhakti movement.
 Many poet-saints inspired the movement, championing philosophical positions ranging from
Dvaita's theistic dualism to Advaita Vedanta's absolute monism.
 The Bhakti Saints opposed the Buddhist and Jain schools' austerities, claiming that ultimate
devotion to God was the only way to salvation.
 The saints of the Bhakti movement advocated for a pure and simple way of life.
 The saints emphasised that pilgrimages to holy places are not required for salvation.
 The movement brought about social reforms in the country.
 Some of the important Bhakti saints were Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva, Vallabhacharya,
Ramananda, Chaitanya, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Mira Bai, Tulsidas, Sur Das.
 Ramanuja, who was born in Sri Perumbudur, Southern India, in 1017 AD, was the first exponent
of the Bhakti movement.
 There were two schools of thought popular during the Bhakti movement: Nirgunabhakthi and
Sagunabhakthi.
 Nirgunabhakthi saints were those who practised formless worship. Adi Shankara popularised it
and other saints who preached this school of thought include Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu Dayal, and
others.
 Sagunabhakthi saints were devoted to the worship of form. It was believed that God is the most
perfect manifestation of everything.
o Philosophers such as Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva, Vallabha, Meera Bhai, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas and Surdas belonged to this school of thought.

Causes for Rise of Bhakti Movement

 People were tired of Shankracharya's highly philosophical exposition of Hinduism and desired a
system that could be easily understood by all.
  The society of Medieval India was highly caste-ridden, with members of the higher castes
committing all manner of atrocities against members of the lower castes.
 The Bhakti movement, which rejected caste and other distinctions, was a natural progression.
 To avoid the wrath of the rigid caste system, a large number of low-caste Hindus converted to
Islam.
 Through the Bhakti movement, saints and reformers reduced the rigours of the caste system,
paving the way for their retention in the fold of Hinduism.
 The Muslims destroyed a large number of Hindu temples and idols, forcing the people to resort to
the Bhakti movement.
 Another factor that contributed to the rise of the Bhakti movement was the impact of Muslim rule
and Islam instilled fear in the hearts of the Hindu masses. The Hindus had suffered greatly under
some fanatical rulers.
 They desired solace in order to heal their broken hearts. The Bhakti movement gave them hope,
encouragement, and inner strength to save Hinduism.
 Hindu saints and philosophers took on the task of reforming Hinduism in order to save it and
modify it in response to changing circumstances.
 These saints and reformers attempted to cleanse Hinduism of all evil practises, particularly those
related to caste and image worship, and thus launched the Bhakti Movement.

Impact
Impact of Bhakti Movement

 The most significant social impact of the Bhakti movement was that its followers rejected the
caste distinction. They started mixing on the basis of equality. They shared their meals from the
common kitchen.
 The spirit of harmony among various segments of society and religion gained momentum. Sati's
evil practice suffered a setback and women's rights were prioritised.
 Promotion of regional language took place as the Bhakti saints preached in the local language
instead of Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian.
 For example, Kabir's language was a mash-up of several everyday languages. Surdas spoke in the
'Brij' dialect. Goswami Tulsi Das wrote his music in Awadhi.
 Under the influence of the Bhakti movement, many rulers adopted liberal religious policies.
 The movement attempted to instil a religious spirit in people's daily lives.
 It emphasised the importance of acquiring wealth through hard work and honest means.
 It promoted the importance of providing social services to the poor and needy.
 It emphasised the virtues of contentment and self-control.
 The movement sparked a realisation among Hindus and Muslims about the futility of rituals and
superstitions and promoted religious tolerance.
 Guru Granth Saheb, the holiest book of the Sikhs, was later compiled and included messages from
saints of various sects. This was due to the spirit of tolerance preached by Bhakti saints.

Conclusion

Conclusion
The Bhakti movement began in South India between the seventh and tenth centuries CE,
primarily in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. It was preached in local languages in order for
the message to reach the masses. It has long been regarded as an influential social reformation
movement, providing individuals an alternative path to spirituality regardless of birth or gender.
Though the Bhakti movement provided a much-needed emphasis on changing the regressive
form of religion in society, it was unable to achieve its true goal. This can be attributed to a
variety of factors, including a lack of organisation on a larger scale, stern opposition from
orthodox classes in society, persecution by royal classes, and so on.