Chittagong Grammar School

Bangladesh Studies

History and Culture

Contents
Topic Page
1 The struggle for control of the Indian 2
subcontinent, 1204-1784
2 The years of growing opposition, 99
1784–1911
3 In search of independence, 1911–71
4 Post-independence Bangladesh,
1971–2001

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Topic 1 The struggle for control of the Indian
subcontinent between 1204-1784

Purpose of this topic

Topic 1 begins with a focus on the rule of the Sultans, c.1204–1538, asking what
they achieved. It goes on to ask about the struggles the Mughals had to establish
their empire from 1526, what they achieved and why their empire declined. It follows
by considering the pull factors that brought Europeans to the Indian subcontinent
and how the East India Company developed and extended its trading empire. The
topic ends with the handover of authority to the British government. Throughout
Topic 1, the lives of the people who lived in the Indian subcontinent during this
period are explored.

1.1 Establishment of Muslim rule between c1204 and

1538
Summary
In 1204, the first Muslim ruler, Bakhtiyar, a Turk, captured Nadia and established
Muslim rule. After his death, the Sultan of Delhi extended his authority into Bengal.
However, it was a period of instability and there was in-fighting amongst rivals for
the Delhi Sultanate, so the Turkish rulers of Bengal were almost independent. The
spread of Islam in Bengal was also enabled by Muslim saints called Sufis.

Focus Point 1: The achievements of Bakhtiyar Khilji

Muslim rule in northern India

Bakhtiyar Khalji's arrival in the Bengal frontier was part of the same
Turkish advance that saw the expansion of Islam into India. Towards
the end of the twelfth century, Muhammad Ghuri had captured Delhi and
established Muslim rule in northern India. He was succeeded by his
General, Kutubuddin Aibak. During the time of Kutubuddin, Bakhtiyar
was granted a small territory near Bihar, from where he started invading
surrounding areas. At one point, he thought of capturing Bengal and in
1204 he attacked the Sena capital, Nadia.

 Turkish conquest under Bakhtiyar Khilji and the Sultans

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Bakhtiyar captured Nadia in a unique way. Sensing the presence of a
strong army of Lakshmana Sena on the main route to Nadia, Bakhtyar
proceeded instead through the jungle of Jharkhand. He divided his army
into several groups, and he himself led a group of horsemen and
advanced towards Nadia in the guise of horse-traders. In this manner,
Bakhtiyar had no problem in entering through the gates of the royal
palace. Shortly afterwards, Bakhityar's main army also joined him and
within a short while Nadia was captured.

 Further expansion
After capturing Nadia, Bakhtiyar advanced towards Gauda (Lakhnuti),
another capital of the Sena kingdom, conquered it and made it his
capital in 1205. Next year, Bakhtiyar set out for an expedition to capture
Tibet, but this attempt failed and he had to return to Bengal with poor
health and a reduced army. Shortly afterwards, he was killed by one of
his commanders, Ali Mardan Khalji.

 Internal feud
The death of Bakhtiyar was followed by an internal feud among three of
his lieutenants. In the in-fight, Iwaz Khalji emerged victorious and he
ruled Bengal from 1212 to 1227, at which time he was killed while
fighting an army sent out from Delhi by Sultan Iltutmish, who wanted to
extend his authority on Bengal.

 Delhi influence
After the death of Iwaz Khalji until the year 1287, Bengal remained
politically unstable. During this period, 15 rulers of Turkish origin ruled
Bengal. Some of these rulers were obedient to the Delhi Sultan, but
others wanted to get rid of Delhi's influence. As the Delhi Sultans were
often fighting amongst themselves for control of the Sultanate, they did
not always concentrate on controlling Bengal. So some Turkish rulers
ruled Bengal almost independently.

Notable among the rulers of Bengal of this period were Nasiruddin, son
of Delhi Sultan Iltutmish, Jalaluddin and Tughral Khan. It was during
Tughral Khan's time that Balban, the Sultan of Delhi, invaded Bengal
following Tughal's declaration of independence from Delhi. Tughral was
defeated and Bengal now came firmly under the control of Delhi
Sultanate.

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  Independence from Delhi and expansion
However, after the departure of Balban, his son Bughra Khan and
grandson Kaikaus ruled Bengal virtually independently from Delhi.
These two members of the family of Balban ruled Bengal until 1301,
when Shamsuddin Firuz Shah took over.

Firuz brought about an expansion of Muslim territories second only to

the expansion achieved one hundred years earlier by Bakhtiyar Khalji.
Before Firuz, the Lakhnauti dominion was confined within Bihar, north
and northwestern Bengal, and Lakhnor in southwestern Bengal.
Occupation of Satgaon in Hughli and Sonargaon had started in the reign
of Kaikaus and under Firuz the process was completed. He also
conquered Mymensingh and Sylhet. Firuz, like his two predecessors,
remained virtually independent of Delhi.

 Further struggles with Delhi

Firuz Shah died in 1322. His death was followed by a bloody feud
among his sons, and the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, was
forced to send an army under his adopted son Bahram Khan (also
known as Tatar Khan) to restore Muslim control in Bengal. With Bengal
again under control, Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin divided Bengal into three
administrative units: Satgaon, Sonargaon and Lakhnauti, and different
officials were appointed for administering these regions.

But control from Delhi did not last long, and the period between 1322
and 1338 was highly volatile. Finally, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, armour
-bearer (Silhadar) of Bahram Khan, took control of Sonargaon and
proclaimed independence and assumed the title of Sultan. He then
defeated forces from Satgaon and Lakhnauti which had been sent to
restore Delhi's control.

Fakhruddin's achievement was to mark the beginning of a new chapter

in the history of Bengal, when there were two centuries of independence
from external control.

Fakhruddin had established himself as independent Sultan of

Sonargaon and after his death in 1349 was succeeded by his son, Gazi
Shah. However, more significant events were happening in Lakhnauti,
where an army commander, Ali Mubrak, seized control and established

4
an independent kingdom. In 1342 he was overthrown and killed by his
foster brother, Haji Iliyas, who established the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty
which ruled Bengal for the next hundred years.

Sonargaon [Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

 The Achievements of Bakhtiyar Khalji

Bakhtiyar was a good administrator. He divided the kingdom into a
number of districts and assigned them to the care of his principal
nobles and military chiefs. They were entrusted with the duty of
maintaining peace and order, collecting revenues, patronising learning
and culture and looking after the moral and material well being of the
people.

Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji [Source: Alchetron, the free social

encyclopedia]

He took steps to read the Khutbah (verses of the Quran) and introduce
coins in the name of his lord Sultan Muhammad Ghuri. He built a new
capital on the site of Gaur and established two cantonment towns near
Dinajpur and Rangpur. He named his administrative divisions iqta and
the governor of an iqta was designated as muqta. He built numerous

5
mosques, madrasahs and khanqahs.
[Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, ABM Shamsuddin
Ahmed]

Focus Point 2: The role of Sufis and Sufism

Sufis were Muslim saints who were considered to possess the blessing
of God and spiritual power. Sufis derive their inspiration from Hazrat
Muhammad, who forms the source of spiritual knowledge and
teachings in Islam. Sufis led a very simple life and preached Islam
through their words and deeds. When in danger, the Sufi leader (Pir) and
his disciples (Murids) took up arms as well. Most Sultans of Bengal
tried to keep good relations with the Sufis. In Bengal, the Sufis were
numerous and they played a prominent role in delivering the Islamic
message of equality and social justice and thus drew people of different
religions towards Islam.

Sufi [Source: Banglapedia, Professor at North South University]

Sufis arrived in Bengal from the Middle East or Central Asia as early as
the time of the arrival of Bakhtiyar Khalji. One of the earliest and most
revered Sufis of Bengal was Shah Jalal (died 1346), who arrived and
settled in Sylhet with his 313 disciples. It is said that his simple life, love
of ordinary people of different religions and castes and his Keramati
(power of making miracles) attracted the people of Sylhet to Islam.

Other revered Sufis and Pirs include:

 Baba Adam Shahid, who selected the Dhaka region as his area of
activity sometime in the fourteenth century. He is buried in
Munshiganj.

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 Hazrat Khan Jahan Ali (died 1459), who preached Islam in Khulna
and Jessore and settled in Bagerhat. He built the famous shat-
gambuj or Sixty-Tomb mosque there.

 Hazrat Shah Makhdum (died 1313), who preached and settled in

Rajshahi.

 Hazrat Bayazid Bostami (died 874) is another famous Sufi whose

name is associated with a famous dargah situated on top of a hillock
at Nasirabad in Chittagong. Popular belief has it that he visited
Chittagong long before the Muslim conquest of Northern Bengal in
1204. This belief is based on the fact that Chittagong was a sea-port

where the Arabs came for trade as early as the ninth century.

Move to preserve Bayezid Bostami shrine as national heritage

[Source: The Daily Star, June 22, 2023]

Wider influence of Sufism

It appears that Sufism not only helped the spread of Islam in Bengal, but
it also influenced the local religions. The ideal of Sufism, attaining the
love of God through love of His creation, has greatly influenced the
devotional doctrines of Vaishnavism as well as the mysticism of the
Bauls. At times, Sufism in Bengal has been transformed into a folk
religion with many of the Sufis being regarded as saints or folk deities.
During a maritime journey, for example, especially if a storm arises,
sailors pray to Pir Badar, repeating his name, 'Badar Badar'. The names
of different Sufi saints are inscribed on the bodies of buses, trucks,
launches, and steamers to ensure safe journeys.

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  The role of Sufis and Sufism in religious and political life

Permanent establishment of Muslim rule in Bengal and the liberal and

munificent patronage extended to the Sufis by the sultans were the
other causes that contributed to the success of the Sufi ideals in Bengal.
At the time when Sufis came over to Bengal, Buddhism and Hinduism
were the two prominent religions. During the time of the Pala rule,
Buddhism was the state religion. After the decimation of the Buddhist
kingdom, the followers of Buddhism were suppressed and oppressed by
orthodox Hindu kings and many of them were forced back to the fold of
lower caste Hinduism. At this critical juncture, Sufism provided them a
shelter for their spiritual survival.
While the social and religious condition of the people was caste divided,
the Sufis came here carrying with them the egalitarian message of
Islam. Because of their strong belief in Allah, and theoretical and
practical teachings of universal brotherhood, Sufis could easily satisfy
the spiritual cravings of the masses. The activities of the Sufis and their
inherent qualities made them familiar to the masses, who were already
groaning under social tyranny and suffering from the agony of spiritual
yearnings of the soul. They gathered around the saintly preachers
known as Sufis and readily left their old faith and took up the new one.
The Sufis did not make any distinction between a convert Muslim and a
born Muslim. Their khankas were opened for everyone. They offered the
masses a golden opportunity to raise their social status and to satisfy
their hearts by the adoption of a simple and easily understandable creed
like Islam.
Sufism not only helped in the spread of Islam in Bengal, but also
contributed to the eventual creation of a Muslim society in Bangladesh.
Apart from the religiosity, the influence of the Sufis became attached to
popular Bengali culture by the confluence of the murshidi,
marfati and baul songs, and gazirgan. Many of the Sufi preachers
became so renowned in different parts of Bangladesh that their tombs
are still respected and visited as holy shrines by people from all walks
of life. As a nation we are indebted to those minds that were far more
enlightened than what we have amongst most of their offshoots today.

[Source: The Rise of Islam in the Bengal Frontier, Richard M. Eaton, 1993]

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Comprehension questions

1. What was unusual about the way that Bakhtiyar captured Nadia?

2. Why was Firuz an important ruler in Bengal?

3. What arrangements did Ghiyasuddin Tughlag make for the administration of

Bengal?

Make your report

You are a messenger for the Sultan of Delhi in 1204. He has heard that Bakhtiyar
has captured Nadia in a very clever way. He likes to hear heroic stories told in a
dramatic way and has picked you as his best story teller. He wants you to tell him
what happened.

So do a little research and prepare to give your account in the most dramatic way
possible!

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Focus Point 3: Development of Muslim rule in Bengal
and the impact of this on Bengal

 The achievements of the dynasties of the Sultans

Summary
Following the establishment of Fakhruddin as independent Sultan of Sonargaon,
Bengal experienced a period when independent Sultans ruled for nearly two
centuries. During this time, significant developments took place in the art and
culture of Bengal.

 The Iliyas Shahi Dynasty

 The King of Bengal?

Haji Iliyas, the founder of the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty, took control of
Lakhnauti in 1342 and assumed the long title of Sultan Shamsuddin
Abul Muzaffar Iliyas Shah. Some historians think that Iliyas was the first
ruler who brought the three major geographical units of Satgaon,
Sonargaon and Lakhnauti under a single authority. It is probably
because of this that he called himself Shah-i-Bangala or the King of
Bengal.

Haji Iliyas's rise as an independent ruler in Bengal offended the Sultan in

Delhi. Sultan Firuz Tughluq invaded Bengal with an enormous army in
1353. Though Firuz had some temporary success, he could not crush
Haji Iliyas who continued to rule freely. In fact, he not only succeeded in
resisting external threat to his kingdom, but he also extended his
authority in Bihar, Nepal, Orissa and Assam.

So although Fakhruddin started the process of an independent Bengal in

1338, it was Haji Iliyas who was the real founder.

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  Continued resistance against Delhi
Haji Iliyas was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Shah, who ruled a
prosperous and politically stable Bengal for about thirty years and died
around 1390. Sultan Firuz of Delhi invaded Bengal again in 1359, but
Sikandar, like his father, successfully faced the imperial army of Delhi.
After this date, the Sultans of Delhi realised the growing strength of the
Sultans of Bengal and they did not try to capture Bengal for quite a long
time.

 Culture and justice

Sikandar Shah was succeded by his son, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah (1390
--1410). Ghiyasuddin was an able ruler. He exchanged embassies with
the Chinese Emperor and maintained correspondences with the famous
poet, Hafiz of Iran. He also lavishly patronised several madrassa in
Mecca and Medina. Ghiyasuddin was also famous for his respect for
law and justice. It is said that he once told the Chief Justice of his
kingdom that though he was the Sultan, he was not above the law.
Ghiyasuddin was fortunate that during his reign there were no invasions
by the Delhi Sultanate and so he had no wars to fight.

 The Ganesh Dynasty

 Political instability
The death of Ghiyasuddin Azam was followed by political instability. His
son, Saifuddin Hamza Shah, was murdered by his slave, Shihabuddin,
who took control but was soon murdered himself. Taking advantage of
the confusion, a Brahman noble of Dinanjpur, Raja Ganesh, assumed
power in Bengal.

 Hinduism vs. Islam

Though Raja Ganesh commanded great authority, he could not stay in
power for long due to constant pressures from Muslim nobles. He is
said to have appointed many Hindus in high posts and persecuted many
Sufis. Sultan Ibrahim Sarki brought a force from Jainpur and Raja
Ganesh was forced to abdicate the kingdom in favour of his son, Jadu,
who agreed to embrace Islam and was named Jalaluddin Mohammad
Shah. Jalaluddin (1415--1432) maintained good relations with the
religious institutions and personalities of Bengal who had been

11
persecuted during the time of his father.

However, after Ibrahim Sarki left Bengal, Ganesh reassumed power and
reconverted his son to Hinduism. Only after Ganesh's death in 1418 did
Jalaluddin return to Islam.

 Bengali and Persian court languages

During Jalaluddin's reign, Bengali became a court language alongside
Persian. A new era of patronisation of Bengali language and culture
started and this process received momentum in the era of Hussain
Shahi Dynasty that followed.

 The return of the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty

Jalaluddin's son, Shamshuddin Ahmad Shah, has been described by
some historians as a just ruler and by others as oppressive. He was
murdered by his slave, Nasir Khan, who ascended the throne. This made
the nobles outraged and they killed him and restored the Iliyas Shahi
Dynasty by installing Nasiruddin Mahmood Shah, grandson of Haji
Iliyas(1442 AD). He ruled for seventeen years (1433-1459), and during
his reign the boundary of Bengal was greatly extended.

Nasiruddin was succeeded by his able son, Rukhunuddin Barbak Shah

(1459-1574). Ruknuddin had brought a large number of slaves of
Ethiopean origin who became politically powerful over the time. Soon
after Ruknuddin's death, the activities of some of these 'slaves' created
political instability. Between 1487 and 1493, four of the slaves became
Sultans and were killed by rivals. A period of unrest was finally brought
to an end when a noble of Arab origin named Sayid Hussain assumed
power (1494) and entitled himself as Alauddin Hussain Shah. Thus the
Hussain Shahi Dynasty was established.

 Art and culture during the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty

With the establishment of Iliyas Shahi Dynasty, the initial unrest and
political instability were brought to a minimum. Therefore the Sultans
could pay more attention to the development of art and culture.

In the field of architecture, the most spectacular achievement was the

famous Adina Mosque in Pandua, built by Sikandar Shah in 1375. The
mosque was not only larger than the largest mosque of the Delhi

12
Sultans of the time, but it was also the largest mosque in the whole
subcontinent of India.

Other important monuments erected during the Iliyas Shahi period were
the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah at Sonargaon, the Kotwali Darwaza,
the Dakhil Darwaza, the Nim Darwaza, the Tantipara mosque, the
Kadamrasul Masjid and the Darasbari mosque of Gaur, and the Sona
Masjid of Pandua.

Under the patronage of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, Shah Muhammad

Sagir wrote his famous poem, Yusuf-Zulekha. It brought about a
revolution in Bengali literature, which was greatly enriched with the
addition of the religious stories of Islam and the introduction of the
romantic tale as a new theme for Bengali poets. Ghiyasuddin Azam
Shah asked Krittivas to write the Ramayana in Bengali. Ruknuddin
Barbak Shah extended his patronage to Muslim and Hindu scholars
alike. During his reign, Zaynuddin composed the Rasulbijay and Ibrahim
Qayum Faruqi composed the Safarnamah. Ruknuddin Barbak Shah
equally extended his patronage to Hindu scholars and poets -- during his
reign, Raimukuta Brhaspati acquired fame and glory, and Barbak Shah
honoured Maladhar Basu, the compiler of the Srikrishnavijay, with the
title of 'Gunaraj Khan'.

 The Hussain Shahi Dynasty

 Extending the boundaries of Bengal

Alauddin Hussain Shah extended the boundaries of Bengal by
conquering Kamarupa and Kamta, annexing Comilla and Chittagong to
his kingdom and sending expeditions to Orissa. He also repulsed an
attack by Sikander Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi. He gave away some of his
powers to his son, Prince Nusrat Shah, who was a skilled administrator.

After the death of Hussain Shah, Nusrat Shah (1519--1532) ascended

the throne of Bengal. He was an able ruler like his father. Nusrat cleverly
tried to avoid any confrontation with Babur, founder of the Mughal
Empire, who had appeared in the eastern Indian scene after his victory
at Panipath (1526).

Nusrat Shah was killed by an assassin in 1532 and succeeded by

Alauddin Feruz Shah and then Ghiasuddin Mahmud. But they could not

13
reverse the trend of decline of the Husain Shahi Dynasty that had
started after the death of Nusrat Shah. Meanwhile, the Afghans grew
stronger under the leadership of Sher Shah, who posed a great threat to
the Mughals in Delhi as well as the Sultans of Bengal and when he
captured Gaur in 1538, the independent status of Bengal was finally lost.

 Art and culture during the Hussain Shahi Dynasty

The Hussain Shahi Dynasty was marked by a long spell of undisturbed
peace, prosperity, communal harmony and the development of Bengali
culture and literature. This is why the Hussain Shahi era is considered
the 'golden age' of the Bengal sultanate.

The rulers of this period took an active interest in the growth of local
literature by patronising the major poets of the time. The sultans,
because of their close association with the local people, gave status
and dignity to the Bangla language which now began to play the role
that was earlier played by Sanskrit in the pre-Muslim period. Kavindra
Parameshvara and Shrikara Nandi, the translators of the Mahabharata,
were patronised by Paragal Khan and his son Chhuti Khan respectively,
both being governors of Chittagong under Hussain Shah. Of the few
writers of Vaisnava padas, Yashoraj Khan, served as an official of
Husain Shah, while Sheikh Kabir, a Muslim poet, was intimately
connected with Nusrat Shah. Shaikh Zahid composed his yogic
philosophy Adya Parichaya in 1498-99 AD, one of the earliest specimens
of Bangla poems dealing with yogic ideas.

The period also marked the growth of secular elements in Bangla

literature. Shridhara, the author of Vidya Sundara, received patronage
from Prince Firuz, son of Nusrat Shah.

During the Hussain Shahi period, Bengal's contributions to architecture

and calligraphy were significant. Architecture and calligraphy were
largely the product of court patronage. The case was probably similar
with music, particularly its classical branch which seems to have
flourished in the court. The reign of Nusrat Shah witnessed a sudden
flowering of pictorial art as is evidenced by the ten folio illustrations of
the first part of the Sikandarnamah, known as the Sharafnamah, which
details the exploits of Alexander in the East.

By the time the Hussain Shahi rulers came to power, Bengal had already
14
developed a tradition of architecture. The Iliyas Shahi rulers had started
a rich architectural tradition with an individuality of its own. Hussain
Shahi architecture is a continuation of this earlier tradition. The ruins of
the Darasbari Madrassa at Gaur (on the Bangladesh side of the
medieval city) exhibit the vigour of the building art in the period. The
Gumti gate, the Qadam Rasal, the Jahanian Mosque, the Bara Sona
mosque and the Chota Sona mosque show the glorious 'brick style of
Bengal' developed in the Hussain Shahi period.

The buildings built outside the capital seem to have followed the plan
and design of buildings erected in the metropolis. The Sura mosque and
Hemtabad mosque in Dinajpur, the Bagha mosque, the Navaram
mosque in Pabna, the Majlis Aulia mosque of Pathrail in Faridpur, the
Sankarpasha mosque of Sylhet and the Goaldi mosque in Sonargaon
are some excellent examples of the period. The Bara Sona mosque and
the Chhota Sona mosque have a spirit of ornamentation which most of
the earlier structures lack.

In this period, we find a predominance of the stone cutters' art. The

architecture of the period clearly reveals local influences and gives
expression to Bengal's life and culture. The old Terracotta, which had its
revival in the earlier period of Muslim rule, continued under the Hussain
Shahi rulers. The local elements, which found expression in the
architecture of the period, include the curvature of the cornice and the
copy of the chauchala. The Hussain Shahi artists copied the terracotta
art on stones. In its rich ornamentation, the Hussain Shahi style stands
in strong contrast with the rather austere style of the previous phase.

 The diplomatic successes of Nusrat Shah and Babur

After his father's death in 1519, Nasrat/Nusrat rose to the throne as

Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah. Trailing the policies of his father, Nasrat Shah
expanded the Sultanate territory early on in his reign
and Khalifatabad emerged as an important mint-town.
Following Babur's invasion of India, Mahmud Lodi and his Afghan
confederates fled to Bengal for safety.

After the defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in April 1526,
some Lodi leaders were forced to seek refuge with Nusrat Shah, Sultan
of Bengal and Bihar. Nusrat Shah not only gave them protection but

15
also presented them with privileges and villages according to their
ranks and titles. Nusrat Shah is even said to have married Ibrahim Lodi's
daughter. It is believed that In the face of the advance of the Mughals
under Babur, Nusrat Shah was seeking to build an alliance with the
Afghans.

In 1527, however, Babur sent an envoy to Nusrat Shah (1519-32), asking

for his neutrality in the ongoing conflicts between the Mughals and the
Afghans. Nusrat Shah kept putting off his reply. In 1528, Babur sent
another envoy to Bengal asking for a definite answer from the Sultan.
Nusrat Shah could delay no longer. He sent presents to Babur and
guaranteed that he would remain neutral during the Mughal’s campaign.

In order to pursue the rebellious Afghan Chiefs, Babur asked Nusrat

Shah for free passage through the trans-Ghagra territory. When Nusrat
Shah hesitated, Babur occupied the territory up to Saran after defeating
the Sultan's contingent posted there. Nusrat Shah's military governor of
Monghyr promptly concluded a treaty with Babur accepting all his terms.

The impact of Muslim rule on Bengal as a center of
culture, industry and trade
Islam (in Bengal) came to Bengal comparatively late. Within about one
hundred years of its advent, Islam penetrated into northwestern India,
and Arabian traders came into contact with the coastal regions of India,
including Bengal. But it took about five hundred years for Muslim
political power to reach Bengal. According to unconfirmed traditions,
some Muslim sufi-saints came to Bengal even before the political
conquest, but Islam actually entered in full force with the Turkish
conquest towards the beginning of the 13th century. Bangladesh is
today a Muslim majority country; about 90% of her population belongs
to the Islamic faith.
Islam entered Bengal both by land and water. By land the Turkish
conquerors came with their religion, culture and concept of governance,
while the Arab traders came through waterway.They also came with
their religion and culture, with a purpose different from that of the Turks.
The influence of the Arabs in some parts of Bengal, particularly in the
coastal region of Chittagong is remembered through traditions. But the
Arabs probably did not affect the society as deeply as was done by the
Turkish conquerors.
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The Turks came with the avowed intention of establishing political
power. The Arabs came to trade in the trading season, and left when the
season was over. But for the Turkish conquerors the situation was
different. They conquered, established a kingdom and a government
and took other steps to strengthen their position. Ever since the
establishment of the first Muslim kingdom in Bengal there was a
continuous flow of Muslims into Bengal. There came the soldiers, who
were, in fact the backbone of political power; the religious learned
people, the Sayyids, Ulama and the Mashayikhs to disseminate religion;
the civil servants, experts in politics, finance and governance; the
traders and businessmen, and also the artisans and craftsmen. They all
came in search of employment and /or better livelihood.
Islam, which came in the wake of the Turkish conquest, changed the
socio-religious pattern of Bengal. Politically, it sowed the seeds of
Muslim rule, but socially it planted a Muslim society, opening the gate of
Bengal to numerous immigrants from the then Muslim world, which
affected the existing society enormously. Islam spread in Bengal in a
lengthy process.
Bakhtyar’s kingdom was only a nucleus and the Muslims took more
than two hundred years to bring the whole of Bengal under their control.
In 1338 Bengal witnessed the beginning of an independent Sultanate
under Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. From this time onward, for two
hundred years, Bengal remained independent. This was a period of
overall development of the country both politically and culturally. But the
most important development of this period was that the country for the
first time received a name, ie, Bangalah. Before this there was no geo-
political unity of Bengal, no common name for the whole country.
Bengal was known by the names of its different units, Gauda, Radha,
Vanga etc. After Sultan Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah conquered all these
three regions and united the whole of Bengal, the name Bangalah
emerged and he earned for himself the title of Shah-i-Bangalah and
Sultan-i-Bangalah. Henceforth, the Muslim kingdom of Bengal came to
be known as the kingdom of Bangalah. Historians began to call the
kingdom Bangalah instead of Lakhnauti, and foreigners also used this
name, when came the Mughal subah Bangalah and the British province
of Bengal.
The establishment of Muslim rule was not an end in itself, for Muslim

17
power had to be sustained in a country where a large number of non-
Muslims had been living from time immemorial. These indigenous
people were diametrically opposed to the incomers in every aspect of
religious, social and cultural life; they were opposed not only in their
fundamental beliefs but also in their day to day life from birth to death.
So the Muslim rulers of Bengal, from the beginning till the end, built up
institutions to disseminate Islamic learning and culture among those
who professed the Islamic faith. They built mosques, madrasahs and
khanqahs for this purpose. Mosques form an important feature of
Muslim society and culture, because they afford opportunity to offer
prayers, one of the fundamental pillars of the Islamic faith. In fact when
a new area was brought under control and a Muslim settlement was
established, a mosque was built to facilitate offering of prayers by the
Muslims. Thus numerous mosques were built during Muslim rules down
to the 18th century; a few hundred are still extant so that they can be
used as prayer houses, while many have perished. Those that are still
extant were pucca constructions, but there must have been numerous
mud houses or thatched houses built for offering prayers whose
existence or numbers cannot be ascertained.
Many Arabic or Persian inscriptions still exist, either fixed on the walls
of the mosques, or displaced and removed to museums or other safer
places. The inscriptions reveal that the mosques were built at the
initiative of rulers or their officers.
Similarly madrasahs or schools or colleges were built to afford facilities
to young Muslims to receive education. Mosques also served as
maktabs to impart elementary religious education to the children. There
were many madrasahs to impart elementary education, and also
institutions of higher learning, particularly in the towns and cities. The
rulers got the madrasahs built at state expense, but individual
philanthropists also built some. The Muslim rulers always encouraged
Muslim Ulama, Sufis and other religious leaders, built religious
institutions and thus helped the growth of a Muslim society in Bengal.
The building up of Muslim society in Bengal was a long process of
gradual growth. The composition of the society quite naturally differed
from century to century with the immigration of foreign Muslims and the
conversion of local people. Arabs and Persians also came, and included
people from various professions and other trades. One Bengal sultan,

18
Ruknuddin Barbak Shah imported a good number of Abyssinian slaves
to guard the palace and the royal family, and this added a new element
in the Muslim society.
With the occupation of Delhi by the Mughals, the Afghans lost control
over northern India and they spread over outlying provinces including
Bengal. The Afghans also became rulers in Bengal and their supremacy
continued for several decades. Then came the Mughals and a fresh
wave of Muslim migration to Bengal started. Mughal supremacy in
Bengal lasted for several hundred years.
Chittagong being an important seaport, the Arab, Persian and
manyforeign traders went there for commerce and trade. Prospects of
better livelihood in the newly conquered country and prospects of
lucrative trade were responsible for attracting foreign Muslims to this
country. While some may have left, many settled here in Bengal. There
were also the children of mixed marriages; many immigrants including
the rulers accepted local wives and there are examples of children of
such marriages attaining high ranks in society, according to the status
of their respective fathers.
So it is found that there were many elements in Muslim society, the
Turks, the Afghans, the Mughals, the Arabs, the Persians, the local
converts etc. The Sufis were also called Makhdums, ie those who are
served. The other groups of Muslims were the Khans, Maliks etc who
belonged to the official class and bureaucracy; they were the army
personnel and civil servants who ran the administration and were the
backbone of Muslim political power.
At the time of the Muslim conquest, Bengal was predominantly a Hindu-
Buddhist country. The proportion of Hindus and Buddhists cannot be
ascertained, but it is a fact that Buddhists ruled Bengal for several
centuries, though before Bakhtyar’s conquest, the Senas were holding
political power. Raja Lakshmana was then ruling over the whole of
Bengal. Moreover, non-Aryan elements were always present in Bengal,
particularly outside the urban centres and in the river-girt Bangalah; and
Buddhism which was uprooted from the land of its birth, ie North India,
had been a great competitor of Hinduism on the eve of the Muslim
conquest.
The non-Aryan elements had somehow identified themselves with the
Buddhists and thus when Hindu-Buddhist rivalry was very much present
19
in the society, Islam came as a relieving force, in which many found an
easy opening to salvation and success. This probably led to the
conversion of local people to Islam. It is interesting to note that
whereas in northern India, the place under imperial domination for
centuries, Islam was confined to urban centres, in deltaic Bengal it
captured the rural society.
The great majority of the people, particularly those who entered the fold
of Islam later could not be as religious. It should be conceded that many
of the converted Muslims retained their long-inherited customs, social
behaviour and even love for Hindu epics. Jola (weavers), mukeri
(livestock holders), pithari (cake-sellers), Kabari (fish-mongers), garasal
(converts of mixed origin), sanakar (loom-maker), hajam (circumciser),
Tirakar (bow-maker), kagaji (paper-maker), Kalandar (wandering faqir or
holy men), darji (tailors), rangrez (dyers), Kal (those who beg for alms at
night), kasai (beef-sellers), gola or goala (milk-men) etc retained their
old professions. Some of these groups were linked with the village
economy, others to the textile industry and still others like the tirakar
provided weaponry to the armed forces while the kagaji or paper-maker
supplied paper for the use of civil servants in the offices and teachers
and students for writing books. They continued the professions in which
they were engaged before accepting Islam.
Centuries of contact between the Hindus and the Muslims had
profoundly influenced both, so that the social and religious life of the
Muslims profoundly influenced Hinduism, and in the same manner
some practices of the Hindus entered into the life of the Muslims. As a
result some popular elements are also found in the religious practices
of the Muslims. The most important popular element is found in Pirism.
Pirism was hardly hereditary, because Pirs had to attain spiritual
development. But Pirism gradually degenerated and sometimes false
tombs or dargahs were built and these even became famous.
Wandering Muslim faqirs built, in imitation of Hindu temples and
Buddhist Viharas, tombs and mausoleums in the name of famous
Muslim Sufis of Central Asia and thus earned their livelihood and found
out ways and means to acquire followers.
The Muslims brought with them their food habits, culinary art and dress,
but they had to adjust these to the local climate. Islamic architecture
was developed before the Muslims came to Bengal. This architecture

20
with its true arch, dome, minaretc took the place of the false arch and
skyline or pyramidal shape. Both religious and secular buildings
represented Muslim architecture. The religious buildings were mosques
and mazars (tomb), whereas the secular buildings were of
miscellaneous kinds, like the houses, pavilions, gates, wells, bridges,
gardens etc. The Muslims also introduced mortar in their buildings. But
the most important contribution of the Muslims in Bengal was the
growth of Bengali literature. Muslims came to Bengal with two
languages, Arabic as the language of religion and Persian as the
language of culture. They also had their mother tongue, Turkish or
Poshtu as the case may be. In Bengal the languages were Bengali and
Sanskrit. But Sanskrit was the language of both religion and culture.
In the Hindu period, the court language was also Sanskrit. So the rulers
and the educated people were interested in the Sanskrit language only.
After the Muslim conquest, the position changed; Persian became the
court language and Sanskrit receded to the background. Local talents
got momentum in cultivating their own language and literature.
Fortunately, the Muslim rulers were tolerant.They encouraged the
cultivation of local language and literature; patronised Hindu poets and
thus some very important books were written in the Sultanate period.
Almost all these poets received patronage from the Muslim rulers. The
Muslims came in contact with the local people in various ways. In their
military establishments such as thanas, or the settlements of peaceful
persons, they could not remain isolated and confined amongst
themselves. In their day to day life, in the market places, bazaars, in the
ports and in the trading stations, people of both the communities came
closer. The Mughal revenue system brought the people even closer.
TodarMal’s elaborate land revenue system, called zabti, was never
applied in Bengal but ambitious local Muslims and Hindus, of both of
whom the mother tongue was Bengali, were now forced to learn Persian
to get a share in the extended secretarial work of the Mughal provincial
administration. Thus Persian spread in Bengali Hindu society no less
than among the Muslims. Thus Islam, which came to Bengal a few
hundred years after its birth, influenced the people and the society of
this county very deeply.
[Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

Comprehension questions

21
1. Who was the real founder of an independent Bengal? Why?

2. Why was Raja Ganesh unable to maintain himself in power?

3. How did Nusrat Shah save Bengal from Babur?

4. Write what you know about Sufism in Bengal.

5. How Muslim rule established in Bengal in 1204?

Giving a presentation
The above sections on Art and Culture during the Iliyas Dynasty and Art and
Culture during the Hussain Shahi Dynasty give many examples of artistic and
cultural splendour.

Pick any one example during either period and explain to your class why it is so
important (you may prefer to pick a number of examples and explain those).
Remember, however, that you will need pictures to demonstrate the
significance of your selections.

22
1.2 Mughals rule in the Indian subcontinent between
1526–1757

Focus point 1: The establishment of Mughal rule in

the Indian subcontinent
Summary
The Mughals first arrived in India in the early sixteenth century and extended their
authority widely. In Bengal they encountered strong opposition from the Afghans, but
following a Mughal victory at the Battle of Rajmahal in July 1576, Bengal finally
became an integral part of the Mughal Empire.

Maps
Maps and pictures can be found in publications such as:

 Ali, Mohar; History of the Muslims of Bengal; Dhaka: Islamic Foundation; 2003

 Majumdar, R.C., H.C. Chaudhiri and Kalikinkar Datta; An Advanced History of

India; 8th edition; London: Macmillan; 1963

 www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html

23
Medieval Bengal (source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh)

Main events: struggles between Mughals and Afghans

 1526 Battle of Panipat: Moghul Babur defeats Sultan of Delhi

 1538 Sack of Gaur: Afghan rule established in Bengal

 1539 Battle of Chausa: Afghan Sher Shah defeats Mughal

Humayun

 1540 Battle of Kanauj: Humayun again defeated and flees to

Persia

 1556 Mughal Akbar: assumes power

 1575 Afghan Daud Khan: recovers Bengal

 1576 Battle of Rajmahal: Bengal becomes part of Mughal

Empire

 Establishment of Mughals under Babur in 1526

The rise and the reign of the Mughal dynasty is one of the most
interesting episodes in Indian history. At the height of their power, the
Mughals ruled almost every corner of India. Bengal was one of these.
Bengal came under the influence of the Mughals not only in the field of
politics, but also of economy and culture.

 Babur: the founder of the Mughal Empire

The founder of the Mughal Empire was Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur.
Through his father's line, Babur was a descendant of Amir Taimur (also
known as Timurlane, 1336-1405), and through his mother's line, he was
a descendant of Chengiz Khan, both of whom were famous warriors of
the medieval period.

Babur was born in Central Asia in 1483 into the ruling family of a small
kingdom called Fargana. He was a very ambitious man and tried to
establish an empire in Central Asia. But he was unsuccessful and

24
instead turned to India to set up his empire.

 Taking advantage of a power vacuum in India

The circumstances in India were ideal for Babur's ambitious mind. With
the decline of the last strong Sultans of Tughlaq dynasty, central power
in Delhi was not strong. Then the invasion of Delhi in 1398 by Timurlane
had brought further instability. The Sultans of the Sayyid and Lodi
dynasty had tried to maintain the political power of Delhi but faced great
difficulties. The Lodis, racially Afghans, had extended their political
influence in India considerably, but there was little stability as the
Afghan Lodi rulers of different regions often fought with each other for
supremacy.

 The First Battle of Panipath

Babur stepped in India amidst this situation. Between 1519 and 1520,
he conquered Vira, Sialkot and Saidpur. He conquered Kandahar in 1522
and Punjab in 1525. Then in the battle of Panipat (1526), he defeated
Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi, and began to establish the Mughal
dynastic rule in India. The battle of Panipat not only paved the way for
Babur's rise to supremacy in northern India, but also in Bengal.

Having secured the Punjab, Bābur advanced toward Delhi, garnering

support from many Delhi nobles. He routed two advance parties of
Ibrahim Lodis troops and met the sultan’s main army at Panipat. The
Afghans fought bravely, but they had never faced new artillery, and their
frontal attack was no answer to Bābur’s superior arrangement of the
battle line. Bābur’s knowledge of western and Central Asian war tactics
and his brilliant leadership proved decisive in his victory. By April 1526
he was in control of Delhi and Agra and held the keys to conquer
Hindustan.

 The achievements of Babur

a. Babur was a military adventurer of genius and an empire builder of
good fortune, with an engaging personality. He was also a gifted Turki
poet, which would have won him distinction apart from his political
career, as well as a lover of nature who constructed gardens wherever
he went and complemented beautiful spots by holding convivial parties.
Finally, his prose memoirs, the Babur-nameh, have become a renowned
autobiography. They were translated from Turki into Persian in Akbar’s
25
reign (1589), were translated into English, Memoirs of Babur, in two
volumes, and were first published in 1921–22. They portray a ruler
unusually magnanimous for his age, cultured, and witty, with an
adventurous spirit and an acute eye for natural beauty. He also
established new mints in Lahore and Jainpur and tried to ensure a safe
and secure route from Agra to Kabul.

[Source: Encyclopedia Britinica]

b. Arts and Architecture: Babur's rule was greatly influenced by Mughal

architecture. Babur's Mughal architecture marked the start of an
imperial movement that was influenced by regional elements. Babur's
elegant and fashionable structures developed gradually as a result of
the talented artisans who lived in those provinces. Babur built numerous
mosques all over India. The Babri Mosque, the Panipat Mosque, and the
Jama Masjid are three of the most well-known mosques.

c. The first Mughal emperor Babur was laid to rest in The Gardens of
Babur, also known as Bagh-e-Babur, a historic park in Kabul,
Afghanistan. Around 1528 is when the gardens are thought to have
been created. The location of Bagh e Babur is regarded as the
"paradise." It is one of many gardens Babur created throughout his life
for enjoyment and recreation while selecting this location for his final
resting place.

[Source: studocu.com]

 The death of Babur and Nusrat Shah and the emergence

of Sher Shah
Shortly after this, Babur died (1530). His death was followed by the
assassination of Nusrat Shah (1532). Babur was succeeded by his son
Humayun, and Nusrat Shah was succeeded by his brother, Mahmud
Shah. Both of the new leaders were less able than their predecessors,
and the next influential figure was Sher Shah, an Afghan of insignificant
origin. He not only captured Bengal and Bihar but also kept the Mughals
away from North India as long as he lived. Therefore Sher Shah can be
seen as an important figure not only in the history of Bengal, but also of
India.

Comprehension Questions

26
1. Who was Babur?

2. How did he extend his authority in many parts of India?

 Emperor Humayun and the Afghan Resistance

a. Afghan Sher Shah topples Mahmud Shah in Bengal

Sher Shah (better known as Sher Shah) came to the limelight when
Mahmud Shah sent an army into Bihar to punish one of his governors
for his alleged involvement in the assassination of his father, Nusrat
Shah. But the governor happened to be an ally of Sher Shah, who in
defence of his ally, advanced towards Bengal and captured Gaur in 1538,
in course of his fight against Mahmud Shah. Mahmud Shah was forced
to concede all territories west of Rajmahal and pay an annual tribute of
about one crore tankas (takas). Shortly afterwards, when Mahmud Shah
broke his commitment of paying the annual tribute, he was finally
toppled by Sher Shah’s army. With this, Afghan rule was established in
Bengal. But the Mughals were coming.

b. Sher Shah defeats the great Mughul Humayun

In northern India, after the death of his father, Humayun became the
Mughal emperor but soon he sensed great danger to his new empire
from the emerging power of Sher Shah. In 1538, Humayun marched
towards Bihar and Bengal with a huge army to subdue Sher Shah.
Wisely, Sher Shah did not confront Humayun’s massive army face to
face and ‘melted’ into the Bihar interior, allowing the Mughals an easy
occupation of Bengal. But whilst Humayun was busy merrymaking in
Gaur, Sher Shah established his control over the territory between Bihar
and the capital Delhi, thus cutting off all the lines of communication
between Delhi and Bengal. Humayun had unwisely wasted his time in
Bengal when the rainy season was drawing near.

After some time, when Humayun realised his mistake and started for
Agra from Bengal, his way was blocked by Sher Shah at Chausa. Sher
Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa, near Boxer, in June
1539. Soon afterwards, Sher Shah sent an army to Gaur and succeeded
in overthrowing the Mughal garrison. In the meantime Humayun made
27
 another attempt to recover his fortune and confronted the Afghans in
Kanauj in May 1540, but was defeated again. Humayun fled to Persia.

c. Sher Shah and the rule of the Afghans

Administration of Sher Shah

In a brief reign of only five years (1540-1545), Sher Shah established peace and order in
the Empire and remodelled its administration. For example:

 He divided his Empire into 47 sarkars and subdivided each sarkar into a number of
parganas. Bengal had 19 sarkars, with two high officials, Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Shiqdar-
in-Chief) and Munsif-i-Munsifanappointed in each sarkar to look after the work of
pargana officers.

 Taxes were fixed at one-fourth of the gross produce, after proper measurement of
land, and were payable either in cash or in kind.

 Sher Shah reformed the currency and improved trade and commerce by abolishing
some duties. A network of excellent roads, connecting the capital Agra with outlying
areas of the Empire, as well as sarai, mosques and temples at regular intervals,
improved communication. His most important road was the Sarak-i-Azam, which ran
for 3000 miles from Sonargon to Multan via Agra, Delhi and Lahore, with shady trees on
both sides. This road came to be known as the Grand Trunk Road in the Colonial
period.

 He introduced a means of easy and quick despatch of government orders and

messages, to and from the capital, by relay of horses. Sarais, besides being shelters for
traders, travellers and government servants, served as dak-chowkis (stations for
changing post horses) as well.

 The sultan remodelled the police system, made village headmen responsible for the
maintenance of peace in their respective areas and prevented crimes like drinking and
adultery through muhtasibs.

 He maintained a strong standing army and an efficient espionage system. A man

with a strong sense of justice, the sultan was the highest court of appeal, both for civil
and criminal cases. Next to him was the Qazi-ul-Quzzat. In the parganas the Qazi
administered criminal cases, while the Amin looked after the civil ones. Panchayets
decided the civil cases of the Hindus.

28
 The sultan made liberal grants for charitable purposes, opened free public kitchens
for the poor, founded madrasas, mosques and important buildings, laid out gardens
and erected hospitals and sarais. His excellent taste in building is well attested by his
noble mausoleum at Sasaram. Sher Shah was a pious Muslim, but he also was tolerant
towards the Hindus. He combined the qualities of a military leader, a wise monarch and
a capable and far-sighted statesman.

[Source: adapted from Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

Comprehension Question

 Show how Sher Shah can be considered as a good administrator.

Comprehension Questions

1. Why did Emporer Humayun find it difficult to assert his authority in Bengal?

2. When and how did the Mughals finally take control in Bengal?

 Return of the Mughals

The death of Sher Shah in 1545 gave Humayun an opportunity to regain his
empire from the Aghans. He finally managed to achieve this by 1555. The
return of the Mughals led to a long-lasting Mughal supremacy almost all over
India. However, the process of consolidation of the Mughal Empire was
carried out not by Humayun, but by his son, Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals.
Bengal once again came under the influence of Mughal supremacy during his
time.

 Akbar and the beginnings of Mughal Rule in Bengal

Akbar ascended the throne of Delhi at the age of thirteen following the death
of his father, Emperor Humayun, in January 1556. After assuming power,
Akbar had to fight a number of battles in order to consolidate his empire in
the north and south of India. Meanwhile, Bengal continued to be under the

successors of Sher Shah until 1564, when Sulaiman Kararni, the Governor of
South Bihar, extended his authority over Bengal. Sulaiman, till his death in AD
1572, formally recognised the overlordship of Akbar and maintained

29
uncomfortable but friendly terms with the Mughal Emperor.

However, on the death of Sulaiman, his son, Daud Khan, aroused the wrath of
the Mughal emperor by declaring his independence and then attacking and
capturing the fort of Zamania, on the Eastern frontier of the Empire. Akbar
personally marched against Daud Khan in 1574 and drove him out of Patna
and Hajipur. He then returned to Delhi, leaving an army of 20,000 to continue
confronting the Afghans. However, Daud Khan was able to strike back and
recover Bengal in October 1575. But when Daud Khan was killed at the Battle
of Rajmahal in July 1576, Bengal finally became an integral part of the Mughal
Empire.

Activity: Writing an obituary

 When important people die, newspapers often write an account of their

lives. This is called an obituary. You are going to write an obituary with a
difference. Your obituary is going to be about either Nusrat Shah or Sher Shah.
But it is not going to be a fair obituary. You must decide to write it either only to
praise your selected ruler or only to criticise him. Once you have written it,
compare your account with that written by someone who had the opposite
view. Who do you think has written the most accurate account?

 Akbar and the Baro Bhuiyans

a. Anti-Mughal resistance by the Baro Bhuiyans in Bengal

However, Mughal control of Bengal was far from secure at this stage.
Between 1574 and 1610, local resistance prevented the Mughals from
completing their mission of absolute control over Bengal. The
resistance was put up by a number of powerful chieftains and landlords
(zamindars) of Bengal, collectively known as the Baro Bhuiyans (twelve
landlords). Most of the bhuiyans were governors of the now fallen
Sultanate of Bengal. The anti-Mughal resistance was led by the famous
Isa Khan, who had his capital in Sonargaon, close to today’s Dhaka.

b. Mughal forces defeated by Isa Khan

In September 1584, Isa Khan defeated a large Mughal navy. Two years
later, when the Mughals successfully marched through the Bengal Delta
30
and reached as far as Chittagong, Isa Khan played a rather conciliatory
role and seemed to have accepted Akbar’s overlordship. But Isa Khan
was increasingly being viewed by the Mughals as a menace to their
Empire. Therefore, Akbar sent one of his most charismatic generals,
Raja Mansingh, to be governor of Bengal. Mansingh led an expedition
against Isa Khan in 1595. But in the meantime, Isa Khan became more
emboldened by the alliance from neighbouring zamindars such as
Kedar Rai of Faridpur. In 1597, he defeated the Mughal forces under
Mansingh whose son was killed in the battle. Isa Khan’s resistance
against the Mughals has been reflected in folk songs, ballads and
poems.

c. Musa Khan takes up the struggle against Mughal forces

However, the era of successful resistances against the Mughals declined with
the death of Isa Khan in 1599. After the death of Isa Khan, his son Musa Khan,
took up the leadership of the anti-Mughal resistance. In the meantime,
Mansingh was able to defeat and kill Kedar Rai, one of the most influential
allies of Musa Khan. Resistance to the Mughals centred around Musa Khan
and Usman Khan, one of the last very powerful Afghans. These two chieftains
continued their struggle against the Mughals with mixed success, but finally
they had to give in when Islam Khan, an illustrious Mughal governor, was sent
to Bengal.

 Influence of Jahangir

a. Mughal governor Islam Khan breaks up control of Musa

Khan
Islam Khan’s appointment in Bengal followed changes in political
circumstances in northern India. In October 1605, Emperor Akbar had
died and he was succeeded by his son, Jahangir. Jahangir had sent to
Bengal two governors, Qutub al-Dia Khan Koka and Jahangir Quli Khan
in quick succession between 1606 and 1608 (1606-07 and 1607-08). It
was during these years that the Bengali Chief, Musa Khan, and his allies
had recovered some of their territories which had been lost during
Mansingh’s invasions. Then Jahangir sent Islam Khan to Bengal as the
new Mughal Viceroy.

Islam Khan was young and energetic and was determined to establish
Mughal authority over Bengal. He brought in increased forces and war

31
materials, including guns and artillery, as well as a large fleet. A new
Diwan, Abu Al Hasan and a new admiral of the fleet, Ihtimam Khan,
joined him at Rajmahal shortly after his arrival.

While Islam Khan was preparing for war in 1608, he also tried to induce
Raja Pratapaditya of Jessore, another influencial figure of the Baro
Bhuiyans, to join the Mughals by offering territories and patronage. Thus
began a new period in the Mughal policy in Bengal. Islam Khan applied
diplomacy in winning over as many of the zamindars and chiefs as he
could to break up the power of Musa Khan and his confederates.
Pratapaditya responsed favourably to Islam Khan’s offers and accepted
his overlordship, but eventually refrained from supplying his army to
assist the Mughals, though he promised to do so. As a result, Islam
Khan defeated and imprisoned Pratapaditya and annexed his territory.

b. Mughal control established over Bengal

After crushing Pratapaditya, Islam Khan fought against many minor
Afghan leaders before finally defeating Musa Khan in 1611 and Usman
Khan in 1612. Musa Khan was compelled to come to a compromise
with the mighty Mughals, but Usman Khan died fighting the Mughals.
With the submission of Musa Khan and death of Usman Khan, the
period of resistance of the Baro Bhuiyans came to an end. With this,
most of Bengal also came firmly under Mughal administration. The
most important event of the time was that Dhaka was made the capital
of Bengal. This was named Jahangir Nagar, in honour of the Mughal
emperor.

Comprehension Questions

1. Who were the Baro Bhuiyans? (There is no need to give their individual names,
just describe who they were).

2. Give some examples of their successes.

3. Why were they eventually defeated?

 Influence of Shah Jahan

Emperor Jahangir died in 1627 and was succeeded by his third son,
Prince Khurram or Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan's reign of thirty years till

32
1658 was marked by peace and prosperity. For the province of Bengal,
too, as a part of the Empire, it brought security of life and property,
especially in lower Bengal. Hugli was captured from the Portuguese and
the slave trade closed.

a. The Viceroys of Bengal during Shah Jahan's reign

Qasim Khan was sent to replace Fida Khan as Viceroy of Bengal. The
next two viceroys, Azam Khan (1632-35) and Islam Khan Mashadi
(1635-39) had to deal with fresh trouble in Assam and Arakan. The
Mughals occupied Darrang in Assam and set up headquarters in
Gauhati. In 1639, Islam Khan Mashadi was recalled to take up the post
of Prime Minister, and so Prince Suja, the second son of Shah Jahan
was appointed Viceroy of Bengal.

b. Prince Suja as Viceroy of Bengal

Prince Suja's appointment was clear evidence of the importance given
to the frontier province by the Emperor. Bengal enjoyed a long period of
peace and prosperity during Suja's viceroyalty of twenty-one years
(1639-1660).

Rajmahal: the new capital

Suja removed the headquarters from Dhaka to Rajmahal, which was a
drier region near the Bihar frontier. It also enabled effective control over
all parts of the province, including Kamrup in the northeast.
 Influence of Aurangzeb
Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill at the end of September 1657. This
was a signal for a struggle of succession to break out among his four
sons, Dara Shiko, Suja, Aurangzeb, and Murad.

a. Aurangzeb wins struggle for succession amongst his brother

Suja
Suja had proved himself an efficient administrator as Viceroy of Bengal.
However, he had hardly any influence in court. Murad, the youngest son,
did not have the qualities needed either. The main contest, therefore,
was between Dara, the eldest son, and Aurangzeb. Dara was defeated
by Aurangzeb at Samugar, eight miles east of Agra on the 29 May, 1658.
Dara fled and Aurangzeb occupied Agra and, as his brother Dara had
done, imprisoned his father in the Agra fort. He also imprisoned his
brother Murad..

33
The armies of Aurangzeb and Suja confronted each other at Khajwa, in
modern Uttar Pradesh (north India). A defeated Suja fled towards
Bengal in January 1659. Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Khandesh,
Moazzam Khan alias Mir Jumla in pursuit of Suja. He then returned to
the capital and had Dara imprisoned and beheaded.

In the meantime, Suja took refuge in Tanda near Gaur. Mir Jumla
occupied Rajmahal in April 1659 and defeated Suja early in 1660. Suja
fled to Dhaka with his family and finally sought asylum in Arakan. Mir
Jumla made a triumphant entry into Dhaka in May 1660. The Arakan
ruler had Suja and his family members mercilessly killed, probably when
he attempted a coup with the help of the Muslim subjects of the Arakan
ruler.

1. Why do historians see the reign of Shah Jahan as successful?

2. Can you find any examples of Aurangzeb's determination to make

himself undisputed ruler?

b. Mir Jumla as new Viceroy of Bengal: capital transferred to

Dhaka
Suja's escape to Arakan ended the war of succession. Aurangzeb
wanted Mir Jumla to continue to remain in Bengal. He wanted to reward
Mir Jumla for his services by giving him the viceroyalty and also to
establish his authority firmly over Bengal. Mir Jumla was awarded the
title of Khan-e-Khanan, the highest of all ranks in recognition of his
achievement.

Mir Jumla transferred the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka. During his
viceroyalty, he occupied Kuch Bihar and succeeded in annexing the
greater part of Assam. Orissa, which had been joined to the Bengal
administration during Prince Suja's time, was also under his
administration until a new Governor of Orissa was appointed. When Mir
Jumla died, Daud Khan was made the temporary governor until Shaista
Khan, Mumtaz Mahal's brother, arrived as the new Viceroy of Bengal.

c. Shaista Khan as Viceroy: reforms and Chittagong

34
 Shaista Khan [Sourde: Wikipedia]

Shaista Khan arrived in Dhaka in December, 1664. He introduced a

number of reforms such as the abolition of trade monopolies and
customs and tolls.

Kuch Bihar remained under Shaista Khan's control, and he planned to

capture Chittagong from the Arakanese. At first, his forces occupied
Sandvip. Then after defeating the Arakanese in a battle in 1666, he
entered Chittagong. Many Bengali men and women, held prisoner by the
Arakanese, were set free. Chittagong was named Islamabad by the
Emperor.

d. Murshid Quli as Viceroy: more independent

Murshid Quli Zafar Khan was made Viceroy of Bengal in 1705. He
proved to be a strong and capable ruler. He transferred the capital from
Dhaka to Murshidabad. It was during Murshid Quli’s time that, Bengal’s
political connection with central Mughal administration weakened.
Murshid Quli did not openly severe the connections with the Mughals,
but he was wise enough to realise that the great Mughal Empire was
gradually becoming weak. He therefore asserted his authority in a way
that would not trouble the emperor but would help him run the affairs of
Bengal virtually independently. This trend of ruling Bengal independently
from central Mughal administration was adopted by rulers of Bengal
until the British took over. But why was the hitherto very successful
Mughal Empire beginning to weaken?

 The decline of the Empire after Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal Emperor, had reached the height of
his power in the year 1690. His rule extended from Kabul to Chittagong
35
and from Kashmir to the river Kaveri. Then, gradually, this great Empire
began to disintegrate even before Aurangzeb's death in March 1707,
though the pace was accelerated soon after his death. One of the
reasons was the struggle for succession between his three sons. But
there were many other reasons, which we will read about in the next
section.

Focus Point 2: The achievements of the Mughal

emperors and the Subadars

 The achievements of Emperor Humayun

a. Humayun and his father Babur’s adventures are highly similar in the
sense. They inherited a region, expanded it via military victories. After
it, they reclaimed their possessions by force but died before they could
organize the empire.

b. During his rule over India Humayun committed a series of blunders

one by one for which he had to give up his throne and loiter here and
there as a homeless fugitive. He also committed several mistakes such
as division of the empire among brothers and relatives and distribution
of the jagirs to his officers in return of their services. As a result, he
weakened his position by his own policy. He endeavored to maintain the
heritage but his acts did not prove favorable to him and he had to suffer
a lot in the long run.

[Source: historyforexam.com]
c. The achievements of Humayun were revolutionary in the sphere of
painting and architecture. He was the first person who developed a
citadel in Delhi, named as “Din Panah”. However, the structure was
slashed at the time of Sher Shah Suri. It is said that the foundation of
Mugal art was laid by Humayun and integration of Persian art as well as
culture was initiated by the king himself. Despite having attention on the
expansion of the kingdom, he focused on the development of literature
and architecture. Henceforth, his time is considered as the golden era of
art and architecture in the entire Mughal period.

d. Humayun was considered as the most ethical ruler and he made a

policy “not to attack any muslime”. His religious policy depicts that he
36
was ‘Sunni Muslim” but his inclination towards sufism was much
appreciated. The “Shias’’ had great respect towards the king.However,
during his period many hindu temples were destroyed and despite that
he did not take any effective measures. It reflects the biases towards
muslim religion only.

[Source: unacademy.com]

e. Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General
and warrior.He also loved painting and wrote poetry in the Persian
language.It was his habit whenever he listened to Azaan, and he
performed ” the Sajda” and one day, while on stairs, he performed ”
Sajda” but fell. Due to this, he got injured and died. He was succeeded
by his son Akbar the Great.

[Source: byjus.com]

 The achievements of Emperor Akbar

 Administration of Akbar
Akbar established a very effective bureaucracy to administer his huge empire.
He assigned mansabars, or military governors, in charge of several areas, who
reported directly to him. As an outcome, he unified India’s several fiefdoms
into a single empire that lasted until 1868.

 The Central administration of Emperor Akbar is in accordance with the

formation of the Government in accordance with the administration of
Delhi Sultanate.

 The Central administration comprises the Emperor, wazir, Mir Bakshi,

Mir Saman, Chief Qazi, SadrusSudur, and Mutasibs.

 In the provincial administration, the subas or provinces are segregated

and segmented 12 subas. The stratification goes on to the division of
the suba, sarkar, paragana, and village.

 Land revenue system of Akbar

Akbar established the system of land revenue system that was renowned as
Zabti or Bandobast. The system was based on the land revenue system

37
established by Sher Shah. Raja Todar Mal is accredited for modifying the
administration of land revenue. It was renowned as Dahshala system.

 The land has been segregated into four Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, and
Banjar.

 Certain officials were allocated the responsibility of collecting crores of

dams.

 The fixed revenue was based on the last ten years revenue. It was
specified and fixed.

 Akbar focused on major upliftments and improvements in the land

revenue system.

 Mansabdari system
The Mansabdari system was established by Akbar during his administration.
The ranks were associated with all the officials. The ranks were stratified as
10-5000. The lowest being 10 and the highest rank was known to be 100.

 Royal blood was allocated a higher rank.

 The ranks were stratified into two types that were Zat and Sawar.

 Sawar inferred the possession of the troops by an individual.

 The sawars were mandated to take care of at minimum two troops.z

 The appointments and promotions were guided by the Emperor.

 Jagirdari system of Emperor Akbar

The main features of jagirdari system focused on allocating revenue to the
specified territories to the nobles. This is an altered version of the Iqta of the
Delhi sultanate. It forms an eminent part of the Mansabdari system. The jagirs
were classified as the Tankha jagirs, Mashrut jagirs, and Altmagha jagirs.
They possessed and inherited the rights over the lands. The zamindars also
assisted in military services.

 Rajput policy of Akbar

The jizya policy that established the dominance of Muslims in the territory
was scrapped by Akbar. He exchanged vows with the princess of Rajputs.

38
They were made officials and also monitored military activities for several
generations.

 Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagwan Das are accredited for being chosen
for contributing to higher responsibilities.

 The majority of the states of Rajasthan conceded to Akbar to rule their

territories. Ranas of Mewar continued their aversion and led rebellions
despite getting conquered numeorus times. Rana Pratap Singh was
conquered in the Battle of Haldighati.

 Rajputs were provided and facilitated with huge hospitality and

kindness by Akbar.

 Religious policy of Akbar

The religious policy established by Akbar made his name imprinted in the
leaves of history forever. He laid the fundamentals of equality and facilitated
all citizens with equal rights. The Hindus served as the officials in his
administration such as Todar Mal and Birbal.

 He held a keen interest in philosophy and religion. His shift in mindset

from orthodox to liberal made him establish the firm doctrines of
equality. In Fatehpur Sikri, he conducted religious discussions to which
scholars of varied religions were invited.

 Later on the debates on religious practices were castigated as they led

to grudges between the people of different religions.

 Din-i-illahi was established which contained the noteworthy points of all

the religions. He presented the “Infallibility Decree” to declare his
possession of religious rights. A temple for his wife Jodha was built at
his own palace despite facing aversions for his action.

 Art and architecture during Akbar’s Reign

Many remarkable art and architecture developed in the reign of Akbar such as
the Fatehpur Sikri, and Buland Darwaja of Jama Masjid. The Tomb of
Sikanadara was established by Akbar was later completed by his son Jahangir.
The Persian translation of Ramayana and Mahabharata was also conducted
during the reign of Akbar. Here is the list of establishments led by Akbar are
as listed here-

39
  Govindadeva at Vrindavan

 Jahangir Mahal

 Allahabad Fort

 Agra Fort

 Tomb of Sikanadara

 Red Fort

 Navratnas of Akbar
Nine of the courtiers were renowned to be the nine jewels of the Akbar. They
were allocated numerous responsibilities and governed the administration of
different departments. The table illustrates the list of the Navratnas of Akbar.
Are Abul Fazl, Raja Birbal, Tansen and many notable scholars.

Under the reign of Akbar, the walled cities covered the terrains of royal
pleasure and comfort, aiming to dazzle the native rajas and advertise the
eminence of his reign, expressing the ancestral love of the arts on a large
scale. Akbar built the marvellous Red Fort beside the River Jamuna in the
gorgeous capital city of Agra. Since then, Agra has become the storehouse for
all of the riches and talent of one of the world’s most powerful civilizations.

The legacy of Akbar of possessing firm and central control. The tax policies
permitted the commoners to formulate precedence that can evolve its roots
from Gandhi’s thought. His passion and interest in the art forms presented a
blended view of the Indian and Anatolian traditions they presented the
epitome of Mughal excellence. Shah Jahan’s reign attained the highest
pinnacle of synthesis and constructed the Taj Mahal.

[Source: BYJUY’S, Banglapedia, Unacademy]

 The achievements of Emperor Jahangir

Jahangir succeeded Akbar and reigned from 1605 until 1627. Jahangir
continued many of his father’s traditions, including tolerance toward other
religions and cultures and using diplomacy as well as war to consolidate
Mughal rule. However, he often seemed more interested in indulging his
fondness for alcoholic drink and opium than in ruling his kingdom. Jahangir is
acknowledged as an unmatched patron of Mughal painting.

40
His main military achievement was the subjugation of the baro-bhuiyans and
the Afghans of eastern Bengal. The imposition of the Mughal authority and
the crushing of the local resistance were the achievements of the emperor's
foster brother Shaikh Alauddin entitled Islam khan, the viceroy of Bengal from
1608-1613.

Jahangir was famous for his "Chain of Justice". In contemporary paintings it

has been shown as a golden chain with golden bells. In his memoir Tuzuk-i-
Jahangiri he has written that he ordered the creation of this chain for his
oppressed subjects to appeal to the emperor if they were denied justice at any
level. According to legends, Jahangir had placed a long golden chain with
bells on his palace wall. Anyone who had been subjected to injustice could
come to the palace, pull the chain and make his or her complaint heard for
redressal.

Jahangir, after his accession on the 24th October, 1605 A.D. passed twelve
orders, as we learn from his Memoirs (Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri). According to fifth
order manufacturing and sale of Rice-Spirit and any kind of intoxicating drug
were forbidden. The tenth order was for the foundation of free hospitals and
appointment of physicians in all the great cities of the empire. We learn from
Edward Terry who was in India from 1615-18 A.D. that the common diseases
of the time included the venereal disease, which was possibly syphilis.

In the twelfth year of his reign Jahangir passed orders prohibiting smoking
tobacco. Jahangir says that the milk of a she-antelope was believed to be a
remedy for asthma.

 The development of trade with the English under Emperor

Jahangir

Happy to have trade come to them, the Mughals welcomed the

establishment of European trading forts along the coast. The
Portuguese were the first to do this in 1510 at the port of Goa, and other
nations followed suit. Soon the English, Dutch, and French had trading
interests in coastal India. Jahangir was the first Mughal emperor to
allow Britishers to establish trade links with India.

Jahangir was on good terms with the Portuguese traders. He gave them
some trade concessions. Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe visited
Jahangir's court.

41
Portugal, England, and the Netherlands competed for the Indian Ocean
trade by establishing Coastal ports on the Indian sub-continent. Muslim
merchants brought gunpowder, paper, and Chinese porcelain to Mughal
India. Southern India traded silks, spices and gems.

 Use of standard currency and measures of weight

The Mughal rulers issued standard coins and fixed weights and
measures which facilitated trade and commerce.

 Cash payment of revenue

The payment of land revenue in cash helped a lot in the growth of trade
and commerce. The British East India Company, founded in 1600, was
initially interested in only trade with the Mughal Empire. As the empire
weakened, however, the British exerted more influence over Mughal
rulers. In 1757 British forces defeated the nawab (ruler) of Bengal and
French forces at the Battle of Plassey (Palashi).

[Source: Banglapedia, Britanica, Wikipedia]

 The achievements of Emperor Shah Jahan

Under his emperorship, the Mughals reached the peak of their

architectural achievements and cultural glory.
In 1632, Shah Jahan captured the fortress at Daulatabad, Maharashtra
and imprisoned Husein Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of
Ahmednagar. Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636.The
military campaigns of Shah Jahan are as follows: One of the first
campaigns of Shah Jahan was against the BundelaRajputs of
Bundelkhand. Shah Jahan marched into the Deccan and annexed
Ahmadnagarin .Bijapur and Golconda signed a peace treaty with Shah
Jahan and agreed to pay an annual tribute.
During the Deccan Gujrat Famine of 1630-32, living condition of the
public deteriorated rapidly .Shahjahan directed the official of Burhanpur,
Ahmadabad and Surat to establish soup kitchen or ‘Langar’ for the
benefit of the poor and destitute. Every day sufficient soup and Bread
was prepared for the to satisfy the wants of the hungry. It was further
ordered to distribute 500 rupies should be distributed among the
deserving poor every Monday as long as the Emperor remained in

42
Burhanpur. Ahmedabad suffered more severely than any other place
.Thus Shah Jahan ordered the officials to distribute 50,000 rupees
among the famine sickens people.
Shah Jahan had an almost insatiable passion for building. At his first
capital, Agra, he undertook the building of two great mosques, the Moti
Masjid (Pearl Mosque) and the Jami Masjid (Great Mosque), as well as
the superb mausoleum known as the Taj Mahal.Shah Jahan left behind
a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one of
the greatest patrons of Mughal architecture. His reign ushered in the
golden age of Mughal architecture. His most famous building was the
Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empress Mumtaz
Mahal.The most important feature of the Mughal architecture was
the Dome structure. The dome is a hemispherical roof. Medieval
builders designed intersecting arches to support large dome over the
square base. Humayun 's tomb in Delhi and Taj Mahal in Agra are the
best examples of buildings of domes.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan,
who constructed Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens of
Lahore, the Wazir Khan Mosque, and who renovated the Lahore Fort.
 The achievements of Emperor Aurangzeb
He showed signs of military and administrative ability early; these
qualities, combined with a taste for power, brought him into rivalry with
his eldest brother, the brilliant and volatile Dara Shikoh, who was
designated by their father as his successor to the throne. From 1636
Aurangzeb held a number of important appointments, in all of which he
distinguished himself. He commanded troops against the Uzbeks and
the Persians with distinction (1646–47) and, as viceroy of
the Deccan provinces in two terms (1636–44, 1654–58), reduced the
two Muslim Deccan kingdoms to near-subjection.
Aurangzeb’s absence in the south prevented him from maintaining his
former firm holds on the north. The administration weakened, and the
process was hastened by pressure on the land by Mughal grantees who
were paid by assignments on the land revenue.
In general, Aurangzeb ruled as a militant orthodox Sunni Muslim; he put
through increasingly puritanical ordinances that were vigorously
enforced by muḥtasibs, or censors of morals. The Muslim confession of

43
faith, for instance, was removed from all coins lest it be defiled by
unbelievers, and courtiers were forbidden to salute in the Hindu fashion.
In addition, Hindu idols, temples, and shrines were often destroyed.
Aurangzeb possessed natural gifts of a high order. He had
assiduously cultivated learning, self-knowledge, self-esteem, and self-
control. He was extremely industrious, methodical, and disciplined in
habits and thoughts, and his private life was virtuous. However, his
religious bigotry made him ill-suited to rule the mixed population of his
empire.
Aurangzeb deliberately reversed the policy of his predecessors toward
non-Muslim subjects by trying to enforce the principles and practices of
the Islamic state. He reimposed the jizia on non-Muslims and saddled
them with religious, social, and legal disabilities. To begin with, he
forbade their building new temples and repairing old ones. Next, he
issued orders to demolish all the schools and temples of the Hindus
and to put down their teaching and religious practices. He doubled the
customs duties on the Hindus and abolished them altogether in the
case of Muslims.
 The role of the Subadars in Bengal

The Subahdar was the head of the Mughal provincial administration. For
governance, the Mughal empire was divided into a number of Subahs
(provinces). The head of a Subah was variously called: subahdar, nazim,
sahib-i-subah, faujdar-i-subah etc. The governor of the Subah
Bangala was called 'Subahdar'. He was also often addressed as Nazim.
Like the two principal ministers at the centre, the Diwan and the
mirbakshi, the provincial governors were generally appointed from
amongst officers holding the highest ranks or Mansabs. Sometimes
Mughal princes also were appointed subahdars of important provinces.

In fact, the subahdars formed the hard core of the ruling aristocracy.
Normally, the most trusted members of the imperial family and the
bureaucracy were appointed subahdars. Being the civil and military
head of the subah, the subahdar held a very crucial post. A rebellion on
the part of a subahdar was sure to have a telling effect on the imperial
authority as well as on the territorial integrity of the empire. Shortly after
the death of the last Mughal in 1707, the Nizam of Hyderabad and
the Nawabs of Oudh and Bengal (all actually subahdars) became

44
autonomous chiefs of their respective subahs rendering the empire a
ridiculous fiction.

The jurisdiction and powers of a subahdar were elaborately defined in

the procedures of imperial administration. He was directly appointed by,
and responsible to, the emperor. Constitutionally, he had no power to
transgress the limits set by the emperor. In balancing his powers, the
provincial diwan, who was again appointed directly by the emperor, was
assigned with supreme powers as regards revenue administration. As
regards finance, the subahdar had no control over the diwan nor had the
diwan over the subahdar as regards administration. They were mutually
independent of each other. While Prince Azim-Us-Shan, the subahdar of
Bengal once made an attempt to influence Murshid Quli Khan (the
diwan) to sanction him money irregularly, the diwan complained to the
emperor pointing out the irregularity. The emperor censured the
subahdar and appreciated the stand of the diwan. This is an instance of
duality of powers in the Mughal provincial administration.

[Source: Banglapedia]

Activity: A Historical Debate

One of the most interesting things about history is that whilst we can often
agree about what happened, often we can’t agree about why or how important
an event is. You are now going to take part in a debate about the Baro Buiyans.
You have to prepare a speech supporting one of the views below and then try
to persuade the rest of your classmates that you are right.

 A. The Baro Bhuiyans were great heroes of Bengal. They showed the
Mughals how powerful Bengal was.

 B. The Baro Bhuiyans were wasting their time. The Mughals were too
powerful and were bound to defeat them in the end.

Activity

 Show on three different maps of Bengal the extension of the

Mughal rule in the province during the reigns of Jahangir, Shahjahan,
and Aurangzeb.

45
Focus Point 3: Weaknesses of Mughal Empire

Summary
By 1576, Bengal had become part of a mighty Mughal Empire whose achievements
impressed all who came into contact with it. However, within 150 years, the Empire
was in decline as internal weaknesses and external threats brought an end to the
Mughal supremacy.

Main events
 1620 British get permission from Emperor Jahangir to conduct trade.

 1678 Mughal Aurangzeb annexes Marwar and angers Rajputs.

 1679 Jizia reimposed.

 1686/7 Annexation of Golcunda and Bijapur angers Marathas

 1688 British blockade Bombay and Mughal ports

 1690 British sign treaty.

 1700 Founding of Fort William by British.

 1707 Death of Aurangzeb: war of succession.

 1739 Persian Nader Shah plunders Delhi.

 Reasons for the weakness of Mughal Empire

There were many reasons for the decline of the Mughal Empire,
beginning with succession disputes and ending with the arrival of the
British, who took advantage of the lack of central control, the discontent
and factionalism. Some of the specific reasons were:

1. Struggle for succession

After the death of Aurangazeb, a war of succession broke out among
his three sons, Muazzam (Governor of Kabul), Muhammad Azam
(Governor of Gujrat) and Muhammad Kam Baksh (Governor of Bijapur).

46
In his will, Aurangazeb had directed his sons to divide the Empire
peacefully among them. But at his death, there rose a bitter struggle for
the throne of Delhi.

The competition for power led to the death of Azam and Muhammad.
Muazzem took up the title of Bahadur Shah (also Shah Alam I) but when
he died in February 1712, a fresh war of succession broke out among
Muazzam’s four sons. Three out of his four sons were killed in this
conflict. The remaining son, Jahandar Shah, became the emperor. But
soon, Farrukhsiyar, a son of one of the defeated princes, deposed
Jahandar Shah to avenge his father’s death. A series of such conflicts
arising out of battles for succession, resulting in the absence of a long-
lasting central authority, weakened the Mughal Empire.

2. Maratha revival
By 1691, the Marathas (under the Peshwas) had become strong enough
to rise up in rebellion under Raja Ram and other Maratha chiefs. They
consolidated their positions in western India, dreaming of a greater
Maharashtra Empire. The Marathas grew into the strongest power in
northern India and took up the role of defenders of Hindustan against
foreign invaders like Ahmed Shah Abdali. The Maratha conquests in the
north accelerated the disintegration of the Empire.

Comprehension Questions

1. How did Muazzem become victorious?

2. Why were the Marathas a threat to Aurangzeb?

3. The weak nobles and party factions

The weak characters of the nobility hastened the downfall of the
Mughal Empire. The nobility were only interested in increasing their
power and influence. The country was often broken apart by civil wars
due to the quarrelsome nobles. The nobility was divided into two broad
factions:

 The Hindustani or Indo-Muslim party, who were the Afghan

nobles, the Sayyids of Barha and Khan-i-Dawran whose ancestors

47
 had come to India from Badakhshan. These Indian Muslims were
mostly aligned with the Hindus.

 The foreign nobles were called Mughals as a whole but were

divided into two groups. Those who came from Trans-oxania and
other parts of Central Asia were mostly Sunni (The Turrani Party).
The Irani nobles who were from Persia were mostly Shias.

During the reign of Bahadur Shah and Jahandar Shah, the Irani party
was in power with Zulfikhar Khan as leader. But from the time of
Farrukhsiyyar's reign, the Hindustani party, together with the Turrani
group, took over power. At the end, the Turranians and the Iranians
joined together against the Hindustanis. This factionalism grew
stronger in the absence of a strong emperor.

4. Administrative weaknesses

 Corrupt administration
The Mughal administration became full of corruption even before the
death of Aurangzeb. Officers of all ranks took bribes. On the other hand,
the high rate of taxation ruined the people who lost interest in
production. In the reign of Shah Jahan, the state demand had been
raised to half of the produce. His immense expenditure on the
construction of numerous buildings worsened the condition of the
finances. The tyrannical administration of the provincial governors
brought further misery to the people who could go nowhere for redress.

 The Mansabdari system

A mansab meant an official appointment of rank and profit, which was
held by every officer of the state. They were bound theoretically to
supply a number of troops for the military service of the state. The
mansabdars were the official nobility of the country. They were directly
recruited, promoted and suspended by the Emperor himself. The
mansabdari system later deteriorated, therefore, with the ascendancy of
weak rulers on the throne and as corruption and repression increased.

 Condition of the people

The people of India suffered greatly. The land revenue taxes increased
from the time of Akbar. The nobles were mistreated and cheated out of

48
their land rights. In response, they often broke official regulations and
behaved cruelly. People's miseries increased after Aurangzeb's death
and peasants often left their lands in despair.

The discontent of the peasants was an added reason for the uprisings
of the Satnanis, the Jats and the Sikhs. Many peasants formed bands of
robbers and adventurers weakening law and order further.

5. The demoralised Mughal army

The condition of the army was deplorable. The immense wealth of India
and the wine and comforts they enjoyed demoralised the Mughal army
and led to its deterioration. The Mughal army was so weak that even
after three attempts it failed to capture Kandahar. In 1739, Nader Shah,
the Persian invader, easily plundered Delhi and carried out a wholesale
massacre. The people lost all respect for the Mughal sovereign.

 Misuse of revenue by the nobles

The Mughal army was formed of contingents maintained by the great
nobles from the revenues or assignments of their posts. With the
weakening of the central control, the nobles used those assignments to
benefit themselves.

 Lax discipline
Discipline became lax in the army. There was no regular punishment for
military crimes. Aurangzeb often ignored acts of treason and cowardice,
and even neglect of duty. There was no drill in the army and each soldier
trained as he wished with his weapons.

 Outdated weapons
The weapons and methods of warfare had become outdated by this
time. They depended mostly on artillery and the armour-clad cavalry.
The artillery was local and followed by a huge camp of various people of
different ages, combatants, and non-combatants, and numerous
elephants, cattle and beasts of burden. In the eighteenth century,
musketry was already introduced in other armies, and the Maratha
cavalry with their swiftness and suddenness could easily bring disorder
in the Mughal camps.

 Not a national army

49
The Mughal army comprised various elements of people who fought
battles in their individual ways. With the expansion of the Empire, the
army became too huge and uncontrollable. Moreover, the jealousies and
rivalries of the high-ranking officials in the army often destroyed the
chances of victory during the campaigns.

6. The Persion’s invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali

The invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali, the invader from Persia and the
son of Nadir Shah, hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. These
frequent invasions revealed the weakness of the Empire and brought
chaos and confusion. The third battle of Panipat in 1761, fought
between Ahmed Shah Abdali and the Marathas, ended in a disastrous
defeat for the Marathas. It also weakened the Marathas and the Muslim
rulers, paving the way for the British Rule in India.

Research Task

 Research and write brief notes on the third Battle of Panipat.

7. The arrival of the British

The British
There is sometimes a little confusion about what we mean by the term 'British',
especially as Great Britain today includes England, Wales and Scotland, and the UK
includes Great Britain and Northern Ireland! However, for the period of history that
we are looking at, the best definition of British is 'from Britain', which meant England,
Scotland, Wales or Ireland. Although the king or queen ruled all these lands, each of
them had its own language. However, the langauge spoken by most people, and the
official langauge, was English.

The Mughals neglected the navy and this proved to be a disaster. The
coastline was left unprotected and the Europeans were able to establish
themselves in India with little difficulty. Various European nations who
had established trade relations with India, seeing the weakness of the
Mughal Empire, began to focus more on political influence than trade in
India.

Through diplomancy, military skill and persistence, the English East

50
India Company emerged as successful in exploiting the volatile
circumstances in India in general and Bengal in particular. They first
succeeded in getting permission from emperor Jahangir to build forts
and conduct trade in Surat, Agra and Ahmedabad around 1620. But
given the prevailing trend of decline in the Mughal Empire, particulary
towards the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, they gradually became politically
ambitious.

In 1688, the British blockaded the Bombay and Mughal ports and
captured many Mughal ships. As the Mughal Emperor responded
strongly, they were forced to sign a treaty in 1690. The company was
given a license for trade only on condition that the captured vessels
would be returned and a payment of one and a half lacs of rupees made.
Though this treaty apparently restrained the British, this was not good
for the Mughal Empire in the long run. The reason is that this treaty
legitimised the presence of the British, as well their right to do business
in India. From this time onwards, the British organised their strength in
Bombay, Madras and Bengal and tried to help build up an alliance that
was not sympathetic to the Mughals.

The arrival of the British was to prove fatal to the Mughal Empire. Britain
was the most technologically advanced country in the world and the
British brought with them weapons far in advance of those used by the
Mughals. The British also brought a unity and sense of determination
which the divided Mughals lacked.

Comprehension Questions

1. What is the difference between the ‘British’ and the ‘English’?

2. Why could it be said to be a mistake for Aurangzeb to make a

treaty with the British in 1690?

 Aurangzeb’s role in the Empire’s downfall

1. Religious policy
Aurangzeb was brave and untiring in carrying out his duties. He was
also a great soldier and general but he failed to be a good ruler because
51
of his religious conservatism. He appeared to be an emperor of the
Muslims only, not of all the people of India who had different religious
and cultural identities. In 1679, he re-imposed the Jizia on the non-
believers. He denounced the idea of joining hands with the Hindus for
the integrity of the Empire. He rather focused on the Muslims only. He
also banned sati, the Hindu sacrifice of widows. These and other of his
religious policies insulted the non-Muslims and caused discontent and
unrest.

Sourcework
Source A

"Aurangzeb keeps the fast on Fridays and during the period of Ramadan. He
does not eat forbidden meats, does not listen to music or wear forbidden
clothes. In his court, no wicked talk, no backbiting or lying is allowed".

This is an extract from The History of Aurangzeb written by an official in his

court in 1668.

 What does this source make you think about Aurangzeb?

Source B

Aurangzeb says ‘My kingdom is now full of mosques instead of the most
hideous temples. Instead of poisonous inns and brothels we find groups of
holy men.’ But despite what Aurangzeb says in his kingdom every day the most
monstrous crimes in the world are committed.

This was written by an Italian who visited India during Aurangzeb’s reign and
wrote a book called The History of the Mughals.

 Do you agree that Source B makes you think about Aurangzeb in a

different way from Source A? Explain your answer.

 As the two sources were written around the same time, why do you think
they say different things about the emperor?

2. Aurangzeb's Deccan policy

Aurangzeb's determination to crush the Marathas was also responsible
for the decline of the Empire. The Emperor went to the Deccan to annex
52
Golcunda in 1686 and Bijapur in 1687. These two states were not only
Shia states but also supportive to the Marathas by providing
employment and even military training. A friendly policy towards these
two states could have made them his allies against the Maratha.

But Aurangzeb could not see this possibility. The Mughal Empire, by this
time, had become too vast to be controlled efficiently by a centralised
administration, especially Karnataka. Communication and transport
were poor and the frequent Maratha raids made it difficult for the
nobles to collect the taxes. This was a serious setback to the prestige
of the Empire.

3. Aurangzeb's Rajput policy

Aurangzeb did not attach enough importance to the Rajput alliance. In
December 1678, he introduced a change of policy towards the Rajputs
who had contributed much to the growth of the Mughal Empire in India.
When he annexed Marwar, Aurangzeb's aggressive policy drove the
Rajputs to gather forces and the Rajput War turned into almost a
national uprising. The war continued till Bahadur Shah I, Aurangzeb's
son and successor, recognized Ajit Singh as the Rana of Marwar in
1709.

The arrival of the British was to prove fatal to the Mughal Empire. Britain
was the most technologically advanced country in the world and the
British brought with them weapons far in advance of those used by the
Mughals. The British also brought a unity and sense of determination
which the divided Mughals lacked.

Task: Analysing Causes

In this chapter, many causes are listed to explain the decline of the
Mughal Empire.

1. Divide the causes into those which can be seen as ‘internal

weaknesses’ and those which can be seen as ‘external threats’.

2. Summarise each reason in just one sentence.

3. Do you think that any one of these reasons is more important

than the others? Explain your answer.

53
54
1. 3 East India Company and it’s role in the Indian
subcontinent between 1600–1784

Focus Point 1: The growth and impact of the East

India Company on the Indian subcontinent
Purpose of this chapter
This chapter explains:

 how and why the British came to the subcontinent and how they expanded their
authority in the region in the eighteenth century.

 the impact of its growth in power on the Indian subcontinent.

Background: The East India Company and reasons for British

involvement in the subcontinent

Timeline showing the main events in the history of the East

India Company
1600 Company formed
Diplomatic agreement between Sir Thomas Roe and Mughal
1615
Emperor Jahangir
1633 Foothold in Bengal.
1670 King Charles II granted the company a series of Charters.
1757 Battle of Palashi
1769-70 The Great Famine
India Act: British government takes control
1784

 The establishment, purpose and growth of the East India

Company

 Foundation of the British East India Company

The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in December 1600 as
The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the
East Indies by a group of businessmen, who obtained the Crown's
charter from Queen Elizabeth I for exclusive permission to trade in the
East Indies for a period of fifteen years.

55
  Attention shifts from East Indies to India
The Company initially had 125 shareholders, and a capital of £72,000. At
first it made little impression on the Dutch control of the spice trade and
could not establish a lasting outpost in the East Indies (modern-day
Indonesia and Malaysia).

Eventually, ships belonging to the EIC arrived in India, docking at Surat,

which was established as a trade transit point in 1608.

 Establishment of the first factory in India

By 1610, the company built its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam
in the Coromandel Coast in the Bay of Bengal. The high profits (some as
high as 200%) reported by the Company after landing in India, initially
prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading
companies in Britain, such as the Scottish East India Company. But, in
1609, he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite
period, but warned that poor profits would lead to the cancellation of the
charter.

 Forward base for China

The trading posts in the subcontinent were also used as forward bases
for trade into China. In 1611, the Company established a trading post in
Canton (Guangzhou), China, to trade tea in return for silver.

 Agreements with Mughal Emperor Jahangir

The Company traders were frequently engaged in hostilities with the
Dutch, as they competed for the rich spice trade. The company asked
the British government to open diplomatic relations with the Mughal
Empire so as to have an ally against the Dutch. James I sent Sir
Thomas Roe to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, and he
gained for the British the right to establish a factory at Surat. In return,
the Company offered to provide European goods to the Imperial Court.
Gradually the EIC flourished under the good graces of the Mughal
Empire, trading in silk, indigo, cotton and saltpetre.

 Trade in Bengal
In 1633, the East India Company set foot in Bengal by establishing a
factory at Hariharpur on the Mahanadi delta. On 2 February, the English
56
obtained a Farman from Emperor Shajahan permitting them to pursue
trade and commerce in Bengal. The most important privilege was
obtained from the Bengal governor, Shah Suja, who permitted the
English to carry out trade in Bengal without any customs duties, in lieu
of an annual lump sum of just Rs. 3000.

It was this unique privilege which would take the company to the
political domination of Bengal in course of time. In 1668, a new factory
was opened at Dhaka, the capital of Bengal. The founding of Calcutta by
Job Charnock in 1690 completed the process of factory settlement and
began the process of establishing political dominance by the company
in Bengal. The rebellion of Shobha Singh in 1696 offered the company
an opportunity to obtain permission to fortify the Calcutta settlement
and thus arrange its own defence.

 Charters of Charles II strengthen the powers of the

Company
The Company profited from the restoration of the monarchy in the
Britain in the form of King Charles II.

The British acquired the port of Bombay from Portugal, which came as
the dowry of Catherine de Braganza when she married Charles II. (Surat
had gradually lost importance as a trading centre, to be replaced by
Bombay.)

King Charles II also granted the company rights to allow it to own

territory, establish its own coinage, build forts, establish an army and
form alliances.

The Company, often surrounded by hostile powers, needed protection.

The freedom to manage its own military affairs was welcome indeed.
The Company rapidly raised its own armed forces, or sepoys, in the
1680s, mainly drawn from the local population.

By 1689, the Company’s influence had grown so that it had three main
bases, Bengal, Madras and Bombay, which it called ‘presidencies’, and a
substantial military force to protect them.

The next step was to extend the Company's influence by purchasing the
zamindari of Calcutta, Sutanuti and Govindapur, thus increasing the

57
Company’s power.

 Merger with rival company

In 1698, a rival company to the EIC was formed, called the General
Society Trading to the East Indies, but the two rival 'East India
Companies' were amalgamated in 1702 with a new charter and a new
name - 'The United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the
East Indies', though the popular name 'East India Company' remained
untill the last days of the company.

Comprehension Questions

1. Why did the British first come to India?

2. How did the East India Company establish its presence in the Indian
subcontinent?

Research Task

 Find out more about Job Charnock. Is he really the founder of Calcutta?

 Events leading up to British annexation of the sub-

continent

a. Struggles with France over control of India

In 1756, the European powers went to war in the Seven Years War. The
British and French fought in the subcontinent. The war began badly for
the British in India. The French, under their commander Dupleix,
managed to win some important victories. But then the tide turned
under the EIC General, Robert Clive. The Treaty of Paris in 1763
relegated the French to small enclaves in Pondicherry, Mahe, and
Chandernagar.

b. British take advantage of collapse of Mughal Empire

The war with France had seen the triumph of the Company army that

58
was now needed more than ever due to the collapse of the Mughal
Empire.

The collapse of the Mughals had led to independent states being set up
all over the subcontinent. The Marathas, the Sikhs and the Nizam of
Hyderabad were a few of the numerous groups that aimed to expand
their kingdoms. These war-mongering states, though creating problems
for the British territories, also gave them a chance to increase their
territorial acquisitions.

c. British use of internal divisions in Bengal

The Nawab of Bengal, Sirajuddaula, was the grandson of Nawab
Alivardi Khan. He sided with the French against the British. However, he
faced local opposition from disgruntled relatives and bureaucrats, as
explained at the end of Chapter 3. The British exploited this opposition
against the Nawab and used every opportunity to weaken his position.

 The causes, events and impact on Bengal and the wider

area of the Battles of Plassey and Buxar and land
annexations

 Conflict with the British and causes of Battale of Plassey

Upon ascending the masnad, Siraj’s main aim was to curb the growing
power of the British traders (namely the East India Company) in Bengal.
He was already aware of the fact that the only threat to the independent
subah of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was the East India Company.

In fact, Siraj had genuine grievances against the East India Company. He
accused the company of strengthening the fortification of Fort William
in Calcutta without his permission; he also accused them of misusing
the trade privileges given to them by the Mughals, thereby causing
heavy losses in the revenue of the province. Moreover, under the pretext
of trade, they were interfering in the internal politics of the province
since Siraj felt sure that the English were heavily involved in the
conspiracy against him.

The British also gave shelter to his officers like Krisnadas, son of
Rajballav, who appropriated government funds. Also, the British
governor, Roger Drake, did not pay the Nawab any nazrana or peshkash

59
as was the custom of the day. In spite of all this, the Nawab was willing
to forgive the British if they would take appropriate steps against his
complaints and agree to continue to trade in the same way as the other
traders did.

However, the British had no intention of showing any respect to the

Nawab and therefore, when the Nawab expressed a wish to visit their
factory in Cossimbazar, Governor Drake insulted the Nawab’s special
envoy. This incensed the Nawab, who now decided to retaliate. The very
first thing he did was to capture the factory in Kasimbazar, march to
Calcutta, drive the British out and capture the city. This attack led to the
so-called controversial Black Hole Incident.

The Black Hole of Calcutta was a small dungeon where troops of the
Nawab of Bengal held British prisoners of war after the capture of Fort
William in 1756. The prisoners were held overnight in conditions so
cramped that a large proportion of those held died from suffocation,
heat exhaustion and crushing. A diary by a survivor claims that 123
prisoners died out of 146 prisoners held. This has been questioned by
later historians who claim such a high number is unlikely or impossible.

Following these actions of the Nawab, the Treaty of Alinagar was

signed between the British and the Nawab by which Siraj agreed to
compensate for the British losses at Calcutta. But the British could not
forget this incident easily and there were only two possible courses
open to them. One was to ask the Nawab to forgive them and the other
was to avenge the defeat by force. The British decided to opt for the
latter course and under the pretext of a peace treaty prepared for war.

 Events of Battle of Plassey

The battle started at about eight in the morning. Mir Mardan, Mohanlal,
Khwaja Abdul Hadi Khan, Naba Singh Hazari and a few others put up a
brave resistance, while others under Mir-Jafar, Yar Latif and Ray Durlabh
Ram avoided any serious involvement. The British had not expected
even this much resistance and it was reported that at one point Clive
had thought of retreating. However, around three in the afternoon,
things took a turn for the better for the British when Mir Mardan was
struck by a cannon ball and killed.

60
Siraj then sought the help of Mir-Jafar, who advised the Nawab to
suspend action for the day in order to renew his efforts the next day.
This message was also relayed to Clive who, upon finding the Nawab’s
men in retreat, launched a fresh assault on them. This ultimately led to a
general rout. The battle was over by five in the afternoon with Clive
marching towards Sirajuddaula’s capital city, Murshidabad.

Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey 'Clive of India'

Thus, the unfortunate Nawab with his huge army was completely
defeated by the British. Untill the end, he tried his utmost to retaliate
against the British with the help of the French and his loyal subjects. But
even in this he failed and was later brutally murdered. The Nawab’s
body was found in a river after the battle. With his death ended the rule
of the last independent Nawab of Bengal.

For a map showing the positions of the English and the Nawab’s army
at the field of Palashi and more information on the battle see:

[http://murshidabad.nic.in/plassey.htm]

The Battle of Plassey is seen as an important battle which led to the

start of colonization by Europeans in India under the British Raj. It is
often considered to be a key moment in the decline of Mughals and the
start of British rule in India.

 Impact

After the battle of Palashi, the East India Company ruled Bengal through
a series of puppet rulers, such as Mir-Jafar, thus removing French

61
influence in Bengal. The 24 Parganas were obtained from the new
Nawab as a gift to the company immediately after Palashi.The Diwani
Treaty, negotiated by Clive in 1765, allowed the region to be governed by
collaborators including Mir-Jafar and Mir-Kaseem in return for surplus
revenues which were channeled to the company. The company made
huge profits by operating a monopoly on trade, and company merchants
became accustomed to receiving personal ‘gifts’ which increased their
wealth.

 Battle of Buxar

The Battle of Buxar, fought on 22 October 1764 was between the

combined army of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
and the East India Company led by The first Governor General; Warren
Hastings. His army consisted mainly of provincial soldiers from Awadh
(Oudh). This battle has been seen as an important moment in Indian
history as it ushered in an era of direct colonization by Europeans under
British Raj. All these three provinces were taken over by Britain via treaty
after this battle.

The Battle of Buxar is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of India

as it gave rise to the British Raj, which ruled India till 1947. The province
of Bengal was covered by this treaty and therefore managed by the East
India Company till 1858, when it came under direct control of the British
government through the Government of Bengal Act. This battle also
gave rise to more foreign interference in Indian policy and economy
which led to massive transfer of power from Indians to foreigners.

The Battle of Buxar was fought between the Government of Bengal’s

army and the alliance led by Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal. The
causes of the battle were:

1) The protection of their commercial interests: The British East India

Company had a strong interest in ensuring their commercial activities.
They wanted to ensure that the Nawab did not capture Calcutta (the
capital of the Nawab of Bengal) and demand taxes for free passage.
The British therefore were keen on negotiating treaties with Mir Qasim,
who also had similar interests: to protect his trade, collect revenue from
Bengal and stop East India company from increasing its influence
through trade activities.

62
2) To ensure peace: The Battle of Buxar was fought between the
Government of Bengal’s army and the alliance led by Mir Qasim, the
Nawab of Bengal. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II had no control
over the Nawabs, who were ruling their provinces independently. This
led to a number of conflicts and battles among them, which were
markers of chaos and disorder.

3) The French Threat: The British were afraid that the French might
pose a threat to their province (Bengal) as they too had similar interests.
The British wanted to ensure that the Nawab did not get any stronger by
getting help from the French in his battles against other Muslim rulers
or from Marathas.

The Battle of Plassey and the Battle of Buxar marked important turning
points in the history of India. The Battle of Plassey gave rise to British
Raj, while the Battle of Buxar led to direct colonization by Europeans.
Although both battles were fought between different parties with their
own goals in mind, they are often seen as markers of chaos and
disorder among the various Mughal rulers, which started a period that
led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire.

[Source: Unacademy]

Focus Point 2: The roles of the Diwans and Nawabs in

Bengal
After the Battle of Buxar, when Bengal was annexed by the East India
Company in 1764, the Mughal Emperor granted the Company
the Diwani (the right to collect revenue) in Bengal and Bihar in 1765. The
term Diwani thus referred to British (fiscal) suzerainty over parts of
India during the early British Raj.

In the Mughal period, the term diwan stood for a person, the head of the
revenue department, and the office was known as diwani; the head of
the branches of the revenue department was also known as diwan, for
example, Diwan-i-tan. The head of the revenue department of the
subahs or provinces was also known as diwan. During the time of Akbar
the diwan of provinces was made independent of the subahdar (head
of administration), still later, the provincial government was divided into
nizamat (general administration) and diwani (revenue department). In

63
Bengal Murshid quli khan was the last great and important diwan
appointed by the last great Mughal emperor Aurangjeb.

[Source: Abdul Karim, Banglapedia]

 Changes in administration, politics and society

The term ‘Nawabs of Bengal’ refers to the hereditary rulers of Bengal
whose only connection with the Mughal Emperor was to follow his
Firman and to pay a tribute to him regularly. The Nawabs were
responsible for their subah ( province or provinces). The Nawabi era in
Bengal was started by Murshid Quli Khan.

Towards the later part of the Mughal rule in the Indian Subcontinent, the
central government appointed two officers, who enjoyed equal political
status but were independent of each other, to administer a subah. One
of them was the subahdar or nazim (general administrator including
justice and defence) and the other was the diwan (revenue
administrator).

Since 1705, during the reign of Aurangzeb, Murshid Quli Khan had been
a diwan of Bengal. However, it was only in 1713 that the Emperor
appointed Murshid Quli Khan as the diwan as well as the subahdar of
Bengal. From Murshid Quli Khan’s time onwards, the subahdari was no
longer an office under the central government but a hereditary office
with a masnad (throne).

After this, all the successors (Nawabs) to the masnad of Bengal

regarded themselves as independent Nawabs, though they always
received the sanad (vice regal patent) from the emperor on payment.
The decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb further
alienated the provinces from the central government. Taking advantage
of this situation, the Nawabs of Bengal strengthened their position and
continued to rule independently. On the other hand, bereft of real power,
the Emperors had to remain content with gifts and tributes that the
Nawabs used to send regularly. Even though the Nawabs could not
issue a Firman which was the prerogative of the monarch alone, they
could issue parwanas, dastaks etc. They could even refuse to accept a
Firman, as done by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717 when Emperor Farukh
Sheyyar issued a Firman granting special trading privileges to the
English traders in Bengal.
64
The last independent Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, was betrayed in
the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who in 1757,
installed Mir Jafar on the throne and established itself as a political
power in Bengal.

[Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

Focus Point 3: The Indian subcontinent under Dual

Administration

 The period of Dual Administration, its causes and its

organisation
In 1760, three large and resourceful districts of Bengal (Burdwan,
Midnapur and Chittagong) were acquired. The revenue administration of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was acquired in 1765. From 1765 to 1772, the
company shared revenues from Bengal but took no responsibility in
administering it. This system came to be known as ‘dual administration’.

DUAL GOVERNMENT WAS ESTABLISHED BY ROBERT CLIVE

While the company desired to draw maximum advantages to itself by
keeping the finances of Bengal under its own control, it refused to
accept any responsibility regarding the governance of Bengal. It became
very much clear when, in practice, the company refused to take direct
responsibility on its shoulders regarding even the Diwani. Robert
Clive appointed two naib (deputy) Diwans on behalf of the Company,
namely Raja Shitab Ray for Bihar and Muhammad Raza Khan for Bengal.
The Company did nothing more than this. It only expected large amount
of revenue and deputed two Indians for this task. It was not their

65
concern as to how that revenue was to be collected and what would be
its impact on the condition of the common people of Bengal. Besides,
as the Nawab was a minor, the Company appointed Md. Raza Khan as
the naib Nizam as well. Therefore, the responsibility of governing Bengal,
in fact, passed into the hands of Md. Raza Khan who was a servant of
the Company both as naib Nizam and naib Diwan. The Company could
press this servant into action according to its own desire and, yet, was
free from any responsibility.

 The economic and social effcts of Dual Administration

The “Dual Government” failed completely. During its period the abuses
of private trade by the servants of the Company reached a climax. The
privilege of dastaks was so misused that the Indian merchants failed to
compete with the English and were completely ruined. Indian industries
were also ruined. The Company used its political power to ruin the silk
industry in Bengal. The cotton cloth industry which was the most
developed one in Bengal was also ruined. The representatives of the
company arbitrarily decided the quality of the cloth, its quantity of
production and its price much against the interest of the artisans. If any
artisan or worker protested, he was severely punished or tortured.
Therefore, many of them changed their profession and many others left
Bengal. Agriculture was also destroyed because of the excesses of the
company. Land was assigned to the highest bidder every year for the
collection of revenue. These bidders or the farmers of taxes collected
maximum revenue from the farmers to draw maximum gain for
themselves within a year. The company increased its demand every
year from the contractors. The contractors, in turn, increased their
demand from the farmers while they were no way interested in
increasing the production. Therefore, the peasants were the worst
sufferers and many among them left their lands and became dacoits
and robbers.

Ultimately, the income of the company also suffered. It could get neither
good revenue nor enjoyed better trade. Therefore, it felt the necessity of
bringing some reforms. In 1769, the Company divided Bengal into thirty
districts and appointed one English supervisor in each district. But the
measure yielded no fruitful result. The supervisors were appointed with
the sole purpose of getting maximum revenues for the Company. They

66
were not required to look after the welfare of the peasantry, to provide
justice to them, to help them to increase production or even to
supervise the working of Indian revenue collectors. Besides, the
supervisors were permitted to engage in private trade which became
their primary concern. Therefore, the experiment of appointing
supervisors failed miserably. In the same way, the experiment of
appointing revenue councils in 1770 also came to naught.

Thus, the Dual Government in Bengal failed miserably. It destroyed the

trade, industry and agriculture of Bengal. In 1770, Bengal suffered from
a severe famine and nearly one-third population of Bengal fell victim to
its ravages. Two-thirds of Bengal's productive land became uncultivated
due to lack of cultivating manpower. Though, of course, it was primarily
because of the failure of rains, there is no doubt that the sufferings of
the people had increased manifold because of the misgovernance of
Bengal under the system of “Dual Government”. The Company also did
not remain unaffected by the evils of its administration. Its income both
from revenue and trade suffered. The practice of private trade which
remained the primary concern of its servants, also proved disastrous to
the fortunes of the Company. Thus, the Dual Government in Bengal
failed ignominiously.

[Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia]

Comprehension Questions

1. What happened at Palashi in 1757?

2. Why is the Battle of Palashi so important in the history of Bengal?

Research Task: Robert Clive – From Hero to Disgrace

Robert Clive is one of the more colourful British figures in the history of
Bengal. Although he was the hero who won the battle of Palashi, he
ended up taking his own life.

 Research his life and work to explain why he killed himself in

1773.

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Focus Point 4: The Indian subcontinent under Direct
Rule from Britain

 Reasons for imposing Direct Rule from Britain through the

1784 India Act
This calamity finally forced the British government to act. In 1773, it
passed an Act of Parliament which required the EIC to provide good
government to stop this anarchy.

Then in 1784, the British government passed the India Act and took

direct control of the Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor-

General, who would have control of the three presidencies. There would
also be provincial governors and a Commander-in-Chief of the armed
forces. The EIC continued to trade, but lost most of its administrative
powers. Robert Clive’s opponents in Britain carried out an investigation
into his behaviour in India. Although he was not found guilty of the
charge of ‘plundering India’, the disgrace, coupled with his addiction to
opium, caused him to take his own life in 1773.

 Direct Rule from Britain and it’s effects

 The Permanent Settlement of 1793
Lord Cornwallis had been Governor-General of India since 1786. His
most notable reform was the introduction of Permanent Settlement in
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Under this system, the method of taxation was
reformed.

 Problems with tax collection

Previously, the right to collect taxes was given to the highest bidder. As
a result, the poor were often harassed as the bidder wanted to make
maximum money out of the business. The government sometimes
suffered, too, when bidders could not pay the Government. As a result
of this unsatisfactory system, the Government, the zamindars and the
peasants suffered a lot.

 Sympathy with landowners

Lord Cornwallis belonged to the landed aristocracy of England. It was
only natural for him to sympathise with the landowners. In England, the

68
landed aristocracy was the hereditary owners of the soil and it was in
their interests to improve the land. Cornwallis wanted a similar system
in Bengal, so he made a ten year settlement with the zamindars in 1789,
which was later converted into the Permanent Settlement in 1793.

 Role of the Permanent Settlement

The main features of the Permanent Settlement were that the
zamindars who had so long been mere collectors of revenue were made
the permanent owners of the land, subject to the payment of a fixed
sum to the British. The British received a fixed share of the total
collection - about 10/11th of the zamindars’ collection in 1793. The
zamindars were given security of ownership as long as there was no
non-payment of revenue.

 Impact of the Permanent Settlement

There is no doubt that the Permanent Settlement secured the financial
interest of the East India Company and gave stability to its
administration. It also helped Bengal to become the most flourishing
and the wealthiest province in India. The zamindars became rich and
spent money for educational and cultural progress. Moreover, the
Permanent Settlement also created a body of zamindars in Bengal who
were loyal to the Government.

However, the system had some fundamental flaws:

 Firstly, the areas of the zamindari estate were unknown, and the
areas of rent-free grants and maintenance, the areas of pasturelands
and waste lands were not identified, when the settlement was
declared permanent. This led to endless confusion and litigation.

 Secondly, though the position of zamindars was improved, the

interests of the peasants were not considered. They were helpless
against their new landlords. Moreover, the expectation of Cornwallis
that the zamindars would improve the lot of their subjects and
develop their estates did not come true. As there was fear of losing
their lands, the zamindars did not pay attention to its improvement.

 The peasants also did nothing to improve the land, as they had no
rights in the land.

69
 The British administration received a fixed share of the revenue,
but as time went they had to introduce various taxes to keep up with
the rising expenses.

The Permanent Settlement was undoubtedly a success for the British

Empire. It strengthened the administration and took power away from
the masses. It created an aristocracy who, although they would later
help in the independence struggle, at that moment preferred to support
their white overlords, and most importantly paved the way for another
150 years of British rule in India.

Comprehension Questions

1. Why did the British introduce the Permanent Settlement?

2. In what ways was it different to what had been before?

Discussion/Reflection Question

 Do you think the Permanent Settlement was a good thing or a

bad thing for Bengal? Give evidence to support both sides of the
argument.

1.4 Life, work and culture like in Bengal between 1204

-1784
Generally, people were engaged in agriculture, fishing and other minor
jobs. They were the majority in number, but they had no right in the
society. The people of the ancient Bengal did not differ much from the
present day people in their food habits, social rights and retuals.

70
People belonging to almost all the religions practiced in India can be
seen in West Bengal. However, Hindu and Muslim domination still
prevails. The minority communities in the state include Christians,
Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. Fairs and festivals form an important part
of all the religions of Bengal.

 The Organization of Society

The Asiatic Society is a Government of India organisation founded

during the Company rule in India to enhance and further the cause of
"Oriental research" (in this case, research into India and the surrounding
regions). It was founded by the philologist William Jones on 15 January
1784 in a meeting presided over by Justice Robert
Chambers in Calcutta, the then-capital of the Presidency of Fort William.

At the time of its foundation, this Society was named as "Asiatick

Society". In 1825, the society was renamed as "The Asiatic Society". In
1832 the name was changed to "The Asiatic Society of Bengal" and
again in 1936 it was renamed as "The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal".
Finally, on 1 July 1951, the name of the society was changed to its
present one. The Society is housed in a building at Park Street in
Kolkata (Calcutta). The Society moved into this building during 1808. In
1823, the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta was formed and all
the meetings of this society were held in the Asiatic Society.

Library

The Asiatic Society building, Park Street, Kolkata, April 2013.

One of the main activities of the Asiatic Society was to collect the old
manuscripts of India. There was an enormous collection of Sanskrit

71
manuscripts with the society. At present, the library of the Asiatic
Society has a collection of about 117,000 books and 79,000 journals
printed in almost all the major languages of the world. It has also a
collection of 293 maps, microfiche of 48,000 works, microfilm of
387,003 pages, 182 paintings, 2500 pamphlets, and 2150 photographs.
The earliest printed book preserved in this library is
JuliFirmici's Astronomicorum Libri published in 1499. It has in its
possession a large number of books printed in India in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries. The library also possesses many rare and scarcely
available books. The library has a rich collection of about 47,000
manuscripts in 26 scripts. The most notable amongst them are an
illustrated manuscript of the Qur'an, a manuscript of the Gulistan text,
and a manuscript of Padshah Nama bearing the signature of
Emperor Shahjahan. The number of journals in the possession of the
library is about 80,000 at present.

The early collection of this library was enriched by the contributions it

received from its members. On 25 March 1784, the library received
seven Persian manuscripts from Henri Richardson. The next
contribution came from William Marsden, who donated his book The
History of Sumatra (1783) on 10 November 1784. Robert Home, the first
Library-in-Charge (1804) donated his small but valuable collection of
works on art. The first accession of importance was a gift from the
Seringapatam Committee on 3 February 1808 consisting of a collection
from the Palace Library of Tipu Sultan. The library received the Surveyor-
General Colonel Mackenzie's collection of manuscripts and drawings in
December 1822.

Since 1849, the Society has printed Bibliotheca Indica, a collection of

rare and unpublished works belonging to or treating of Oriental literature
and containing original text-editions as well as translations into English,
and also grammars, dictionaries, bibliographies, and studies.

 Early Customs

 Religion and food

Bengalis are a diverse group in terms of religious affiliations and

practices. Today, approximately 67% are adherents of Islam with a large
Hindu minority and sizable communities of Christians and Buddhists.

72
Bengali Muslims, who live mainly in Bangladesh, primarily belong to the
Sunni denomination.

A traditional Bengali lunch, consisting of bhaat (rice), aloo bhaja (fried

potato), begun bhaja (fried eggplant), dal (lentils), chingri machher
malaikari (prawn in coconut gravy), mutton, chatni, papad, and mishiti
(sweets).

 Dress and role of Women

The participation or position of women in any society or civilization is a

very important issue. There is no room for underestimating the
contribution of women in shaping the foundation or structure of any
society. From the beginning of civilization to the present time, women
have perpetuated human civilization through direct or indirect
cooperation and coexistence with men. Women have many forms. In
that patriarchal society, women were very much dependent, confined to
the corner of the house, deprived of education, an entity without
freedom.

Bengal shows that women were revered for their ability to give birth and
were worshipped as a symbol of fertility. In ancient Bengal, Chandi and
Mansa were considered very important and powerful Goddesses. Also
they were considered to be the epitome female power.There are many
similarities between the women’s society of ancient Bengal and the
current women’s society. Especially in Hindu society, the ideals and
rituals that are still observed today were also prevalent in the ancient
Bengal society. In ancient Bengal the social system was patriarchal. For
this reason the women of ancient Bengal were dependent on men.
Women were neither priests nor warriors. That is why they were
73
considered less important in ancient Bengal. From birth to death they
had to dependent on male guardians. To give an outline of the position
of women in the society and state of ancient Bengal, one has to rely
on short information, which has been collected from various books
and articles. Considering all kinds of adversities, efforts have been
made to determine the position of women in the society and state of
ancient Bengal.

In ancient Bengal the main wear of women was Saree. Women from all
walks of life wore Saree. However, women with a slightly higher taste
used to wear a piece of cloth with a Saree which was similar to the
modern day Dupatta.This Dupatta was again used as a Veil as required.
The women of poor and middle class families used to wear only one
garment and with that they would give the Veil again. Like the present
time, the women of ancient Bengal also wore saree with one or more
Kuchi at the waist. However, in most cases they did not wear blouses or
under garment, rather some parts of their upper body were exposed. In
some cases, women from affluent families and urban areas used to
cover some parts of their body with a Veil or use a bodice or breastplate
to cover their breasts. However, its use was limited to aristocratic
families and urban women. Various types of herbs, flowers, geometric
designs etc. were used in the Sarees worn by women. Evidence of
which is found in various manuscripts. It was customary for women to
keep some part of their body uncovered, not only in ancient Bengal but
also in the entire ancient

[Source: Volume 7, Issue 8 | ISSN: 2456-3315, International Journal for

Research Trends and Innovation]

 Entertainment

Games and entertainments of various kinds were arranged in ancient

Bengal. Of all the games, dice and chess were the most popular. Dances,
songs, and dramas were the favourite items of entertainment. The
people used to participate in physical exercise, wrestling and fighting
with bamboo sticks.

 Work in villages including farming, cottage industry and

commerce

74
The cottage industry refers to small manufacturing units producing
goods and services using conventional and low-technology methods.
An example of the cottage industry is the locally produced handicrafts
and textiles, which are still the backbone of many rural economies
around the globe.

The cottage industry began its journey as a small-scale family venture,

and gradually became one of the most fruitful sectors of the market. To
understand what a cottage industry is, it is vital to know what led to its
emergence long back. Formerly, when most of the world did not live in
urban clusters, families were forced to be independent. Often, they had
to look out for the production of their food, clothing, and other
essentials. So, the family members began to pool their resources to set
up a small facility to create their clothes and kitchenware. If they made
an amount greater than their consumption, they would sell the excess
amount for a profit.

In time, the cottage industry produced various supporting services in

trading and logistics. This web of interconnected traders and
manufacturers makes them an elixir for rural economies. Hence, the
cottage industry acts as a small-scale industry as, in most cases, these
setups do not have the scale required for mass production. More
features of the cottage industries include being highly fragmented and
usually involved in producing goods that require skilled and semi-skilled
labor.The final products trade in the local market or through external
agents, or intermediaries in other regions. As a result, countries with low
employment in the formal sectors usually witness a strong cottage
industrial complex, especially in rural areas.

 Textiles

Muslin production in Bengal dates back to the 4th century BCE. The
region exported the fabric to Ancient Greece and Rome.

Bengali silk was known as Ganges Silk in the 13th century Republic of
Venice. Mughal Bengal was a major silk exporter. The Bengali silk
industry declined after the growth of Japanese silk production. Rajshahi
silk continues to be produced in northern
Bangladesh. Murshidabad and Malda are the centers of the silk industry
in West Bengal.

75
After the reopening of European trade with medieval India, Mughal
Bengal became the world's foremost muslin exporter in the 17th century.
Mughal-era Dhaka was a center of the worldwide muslin trade.

Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving

of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO
as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to
Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The
Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.

Modern Bangladesh is one of the world's largest textile producers, with

a large cotton based ready made garments industry.

Example of cottage Industry

 Transport

 Folk Transport

Vehicles and vessels used on land and water by communities of people.

Since ancient times elephants, horses, donkeys and buffaloes have
been used in Bengal as land transport.

In ancient and medieval times elephants were used to transport men

and materials on battlefields. Sometimes kings and emperors, as well
as courtiers and noblemen, went for joy rides and tiger hunts on
elephant-back.

People living in the jungle often used the elephant for their work,
particularly for transporting logs. Moreover, during various festivals and

76
ceremonies, the elephant played an important role. Nineteenth-century
sketches of MUHARRAM show elephants leading the procession.

Bulls and buffaloes have long been used for pulling carts. Once farmers
and herdsmen in Rangpur and Cooch Bihar in West Bengal used to ride
on water buffaloes. In some places herdsmen continue to do so.
Bullock carts, pulled by buffaloes and bullocks, are still the chief means
of transport for goods in rural areas.

Bullock cart [Courtesy: Amanul Huq]

The horse was another common form of transport in the past used for
carrying people and goods. Horse-drawn carriages were introduced in
this country long ago and are still widely used in the northern parts of
Bangladesh, especially in the RAJSHAHI region. The horse-drawn carriage
was one of the chief modes of transport of the aristocracy. It is still
used in old DHAKA during different festivals and ceremonies.

Horse Carriage

In the past a small number of camels were occasionally brought to

Bangladesh from North India and were used for transporting people.

77
Apart from camels, some donkeys were brought as well and were used
to carry goods to market and also to help washermen and sweepers in
their work. At present these two animals are no longer used for
transport in Bangladesh.

Dulis and palkis or PALANQUINS were once widely used in rural areas. A
duli, made of bamboo and rope, was carried by two bearers and usually
accommodated a single passenger. A palki was bigger in size and made
of wood. There were doors on both sides.

Palanquin

A long cylindrical pole was attached to it lengthways through the middle.

A palki is carried by two or four men, known as beharas, who held the
pole at both ends. In the past palkis were widely used by aristocratic
families and during weddings in rural areas. Special songs known as
‘Palki Songs’ were also sung on these occasions. Due to the
introduction of mechanised vehicles and the development of roads in
rural areas, the use of dulis and palkis is now almost extinct.

The thelagadi, the pushcart, pulled by one man in front and pushed by
another at the back, is still used in rural areas. Till the eighties, the
pushcart wheel was wooden, but now most pushcarts have rubber tires.

BOATS have long been used in Bangladesh as the principal means of

transport for water. The boat is still the chief form of transport for much
of Bangladesh during the rainy season. Boats are used for travelling
from one place to another, for carrying goods and for pleasure trips.
Different types of boats are used for different purposes.

Boats are generally divided into three categories: bajra, kosa and dibga.

78
A bajra is a large, slow-moving boat. It was a luxury boat, and, in the
past, was usually used only by the rich. The longer, faster boats are
known as kosa. In the past kosa, known as ranatari (war boats), were
used for naval battles. All other small boats are called dinga.

During the rainy season, impoverished villagers also used rafts made of
banana plants. MANASAMANGAL, for example, refers to the dead body of
Laksindar being set adrift on a raft. In some regions hollowed-out trunks
of palmyra trees are also used as a means of water transport.

Chariots were used in ancient India, but it is not known whether they
were used in Bengal. However, chariots are still used on the occasion
of RATHAYATRA, during the worship of the god JAGANNATH.

RICKSHAWS, once a symbol of modern technology, are today a form of

folk transport. Increasingly being accused of causing traffic jams in the
cities, they are a colourful, environment-friendly mode of travel.
Rickshaw-vans are a modernised version of the pushcart, and have
become very popular in cities and small towns. Mainly used to carry
goods, they are often used to transport people as well and can carry 6-8
persons. [Muhammad Abdul Jalil]

[Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

 An Overview of Changes in approaches in Arts

 Music

Bengal has produced leading figures of Indian classical music,

including Alauddin Khan, Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan. Common
musical instruments include the sitar, tabla and sarod.
The Baul tradition is a unique regional folk heritage. The most
prominent practitioner was Lalon Shah. Other folk music forms
include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya (Jhumur). Folk music in
Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument.
Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, bamboo flute, and tabla.
Songs written by Rabindranath Tagore (Rabindra Sangeet) and Kazi
Nazrul Islam (Nazrul geeti) are highly popular. Bangladesh is the center
of Bangla rock, as well as indie, Sufi rock and fusion folk music.

79
  Dance

Bengal has an extremely rich heritage of dancing dating back to

antiquity. It includes classical, folk and martial dance traditions.Gaudiya
Nritya is a Bengali dance tradition. It originates from Gauda, also known
as Gaur, in Bengal. Chhau dance, also spelled Chhou dance, is a semi
classical Indian dance with martial and folk traditions. The dance is
traditionally an all males troupe, regionally celebrated particularly during
spring every year, and may be a syncretic dance form that emerged
from a fusion of classical Hindu dances and the traditions of ancient
regional tribes. The dance is amazing and brings together people from
diverse socio-economic backgrounds in a festive and religious spirit.

 Architecture

The earliest fortified cities in the region include Wari-

Bateshwar, Chandraketugarh and Mahasthangarh. Bengal has a
glorious legacy of terracotta architecture from the ancient and medieval
periods. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of
domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no
minarets. Ivory, pottery and brass were also widely used in Bengali art.
The style includes many mosques, temples, palaces, forts, monasteries
and caravanserais. Mughal Dhaka was known as the City of
Mosques and the Venice of the East. Indo-Saracenic architecture
flourished during the British period, particularly among the landed gentry.
British Calcutta was known as the City of Palaces. Modernist terracotta
architecture in South Asia by architects like Muzharul Islam and Louis
Kahn. Bengali village housing is noted as the origin of the bungalow.

 Literature

Bengal has one of the most developed literary traditions in Asia. A

descent of ancient Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit, the Bengali language
evolved circa 1000–1200 CE under the Pala Empire and the Sena
dynasty. It became an official court language of the Sultanate of
Bengal and absorbed influences from Arabic and Persian. Middle
Bengali developed secular literature in the 16th and 17th centuries. It
was also spoken in Arakan.

The Bengali Renaissance in Calcutta developed the modern

80
standardized form of the language in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Rabindranath Tagore became the first Bengali writer to win
the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, and was also the first non-
European Nobel laureate. Kazi Nazrul Islam became known as the Rebel
Poet of British India. After the partition of Bengal, a distinct literary
culture developed in East Bengal, which later became East Pakistan and
Bangladesh.

Rabindranath Tagore (BiswaKabi; 'the poet of world')

Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar (Father of modern Bengali alphabets and

modern Bengali Prose)

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Kazi Nazrul Islam (BidrohiKabi; 'the rebel poet')

Jasimuddin (PolliKabi; 'the rural poet')

82
 Lalon Fakir (Baul shamrat; 'the emperor of Bauls')

1.5 Political, social, cultural and economic change of

Bengal from 12044 to 1784
 What changed and what remained the same between
1204 and 1784

 Political Life

The Middle Age in Bengal begins from the Muslim rule. History requires
certain epoch-making changes to pass from one stage to another. The fact
that the Muslim conquest in Bengal not only brought political changes, but
also made revolutionary changes in the life of the people of this country in
different fields including society, religion, language, literature and art.

83
Beginning of Muslim rule in Bengal

At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Turkish hero lkhtiyar

Uddin Muhammad-bin-Bakhtiyar Khalji ended the Sena rule in north and
North-west part of Bengal and began the Muslim rule.

Being unsuccessful in Ghazni, Bakhtiyar appeared at the court of

Qutubuddin, the Sultan of Delhi. He failed to get an employment this
time too. Then he went to Badaun. The ruler of that place, Malik
Hizbaruddin appointmented him to his army on monthly salary basis.
The ambitious Bakhtiyar, however, could be stay content to hold the
post of a soldier with so meagre a salary. He left Badaun within a short
time and went to Ajodhya. Under the ruler Husamuddin there he took up
the task of supervision.

Being impressed with Bakhtiyar’s courage and intelligence, Husamuddin

awarded him two rent-free Parganas to the south cost corner—Bhagbat
and Viuly of the present district of Mirzapur. Here Bakhtiyar found the
key to his future prosperity. Gathering a few soldiers, Bakhtiyar began to
raid and plunder the small neighbored Hindu kingdoms. During this time
the news of his heroic deeds spread very rapidly. Many fortune-seeking
Muslim soldiers joined his group.

After the conquest of Bihar, Bakhtiyar called on Sultan Qutubuddin

Aibek with lots of riches and jewels. Being honoured by the sultan he
returned to Bihar. Procuring more soldiers he attacked Navadwip or
Nadia next year. That time the King of Bengal, Laxsman Sena was
staying at Nadia. Gour was his capital and Nadia was his second capital.
The historians have differing opinions relating to the exact date of
Bakhtiyar’s conquest of Nadia. At present, however, 1204 A.D is
accepted as the year of Nadia conquest.

After this, Bakhtiyar left Nadia and advanced towards Laxsmanabati

(Gaur). Taking possession of Laxsmanabati, he made it his capital. This
Laxsmanabati came to be known as Lakhnauti during the Muslim period.
Two years after the conquest of Gaur or Lakhnauti, Bakhtiyar went out
on Tibet mission. This Tibet mission was the last military expedition of
his life. But failing in this mission he went back to Devkota. Here, he fell
ill and reached in a dying state in 1206A.D. It is conjectured that he was
killed by an Ameer (rich noble man) named Ali Mardan.

84
He was not satisfied only conquering kingdom. He also took proper
steps to set up his administration in the conquered reigns. He has
significant roles in promoting Islam and Muslim culture. During his reign
many Madrshas, Muqtabs and Mosques were established.

Turkish rule in Bengal

The death of Bakhtiyar was followed by an internal feud among three of

his lieutenants. In the in-fight, Iwaz Khalji emerged victorious. After the
death of Iwaz Khalji until the year 1287, Bengal remained politically
unstable. During this period, 15 rulers of Turkish origin ruled Bengal.
Notable among the rulers of Bengal of this period were Nasiruddin, son
of Delhi Sultan Iltutmish, Jalaluddin and Tughral Khan. It was during
Tughral Khan's time that Balban, the Sultan of Delhi, invaded Bengal
following Tughal's declaration of independence from Delhi.

However, after the departure of Balban, his son Bughra Khan and
grandson Kaikaus ruled Bengal virtually independently from Delhi.
These two members of the family of Balban ruled Bengal until 1301,
when Shamsuddin Firuz Shah took over.

Firuz Shah died in 1322. His death was followed by a bloody feud
among his sons, and the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, was
forced to send an army under his adopted son Bahram Khan (also
known as Tatar Khan) to restore Muslim control in Bengal.

Independent Sultanate rule in Bengal

But control from Delhi did not last long, and the period between 1322
and 1338 was highly volatile. Finally, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, armour
-bearer (Silhadar) of Bahram Khan, took control of Sonargaon and
proclaimed independence and assumed the title of Sultan.

Fakhruddin had established himself as independent Sultan of

Sonargaon and after his death in 1349 was succeeded by his son, Gazi
Shah. However, more significant events were happening in Lakhnauti,
where an army commander, Ali Mubrak, seized control and established
an independent kingdom. In 1342 he was overthrown and killed by his
foster brother, Haji Iliyas, who established the Iliyas Shahi Dynasty
which ruled Bengal for the next hundred years.

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Iliyas Shahi Dynasty

Haji Iliyas's rise as an independent ruler in Bengal offended the Sultan in

Delhi. Sultan Firuz Tughluq invaded Bengal with an enormous army in
1353. Though Firuz had some temporary success, he could not crush
Haji Iliyas who continued to rule freely. Haji Iliyas was succeeded by his
son, Sikandar Shah. Sultan Firuz of Delhi invaded Bengal again in 1359,
but Sikandar, like his father, successfully faced the imperial army of
Delhi. Sikandar Shah was succeded by his son, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.
Ghiyasuddin was fortunate that during his reign there were no invasions
by the Delhi Sultanate and so he had no wars to fight.

King Ganesh and the Habshi Reign

The death of Ghiyasuddin Azam was followed by political instability. His

son, Saifuddin Hamza Shah, was murdered by his slave, Shihabuddin,
who took control but was soon murdered himself. Taking advantage of
the confusion, a Brahman noble of Dinanjpur, Raja Ganesh, assumed
power in Bengal. Though Raja Ganesh commanded great authority, he
could not stay in power for long due to constant pressures from Muslim
nobles. He is said to have appointed many Hindus in high posts and
persecuted many Sufis.

[Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

Ganesh came to the throne twice. Ibrahim Sharki placed Jalaluddin

Mahmud Shah to the throne. As Ibrahim Sharki returned, Ganesh felt
secured. Through many rites and rituals, he again converted his son to
Hinduism. Ganesh died in 1418A.D. After the death of king Ganesh, the
Hindu courtiers placed Mahendre Dev, another son of Ganesh, to the
throne of Bengal. But shortly Jalaluddin ousted Mahendradeva and
came to the throne for the second time. At this stage he was
uninterruptedly in power till 1431. During the time of this very
competent administrator, the territory of Bengal had a great extension.
The whole Bengal, parts of Tripura and south Bihar, except Arakan were
within his kingdom at least for some time. Coins with his name were
issued from various mints of his kingdom. He shifted his capital from
Pandua to Gaur. After the death of Jalaluddin Mahumud Shah, his eldest
son Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah succeded to the throne. Falling a victim
to the plot of the courtiers, he was murdered by the salves Sadi Khan

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and Nasir Khan. Thus, the reign of king Ganesh and his descendants
came to an end.

Rule of the Laler Illiyas Shahi Dynasty

After the death of Shamsuddin Ahamad Shah, his murderer, a slave

Nasir Khan came to the throne of Bengal. But the aristocrats who
instigated Nasir Khan to kill Ahmad Shah, did not kindly take to his
ascending the throne. Probably the authority of a slave was humiliating
to them. So they unitedly killed Nasir Khan. After the death of Nasir
Khan, aristocrats placed a descendant of Illiyas Shah named Mahmud in
1452A.D. to the throne of Gaur. He is known as Nasiruddin Mahmud
Shah in history. Thus the descendants again began an independent rule
in Bengal. So this period is called ‘Later Illiyas Shahi
dynasty’. Nasiruddin was a skilled commander-in-chief and just ruler.
During the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud, Jessore and Khulna areas were
included in the Muslim kingdom. West Bengal, East Bengal, North
Bengal and parts of Bihar were within his kingdom. He also issued coins
with his own name. Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah died in 1459 A.D., Then
his son Rukanuddin Barbak Shah succeeded to the throne of Bengal. It
was Barbak Shah who first gathered a lot of Abyssinian slaves (Habshi
slaves) and appointed them to military posts and important posts in the
palace. The number of appointed slaves were eight thousands. Probably
he made a group of these Habshis in order to form his own

party. But this step brought jeopardy for the future the Kingdom. Barbak
Shah passed away in 1474 A.D. Then his son Shamsuddin Abu Muzaffar
Yusuf Shah (1474 A.D.-1481 A.D.) became the Sultan of Bengal. The
vast kingdom built by his father and grandfather was unimpaired during
his time. The death of Yusuf Shah was followed by his son Sikandar
Shah to the throne. As he fell ill, he was dismissed. Barbak Shah’s
younger brother Hussain took on the title ‘Jalauddin Fateh Shah’ and
came to the throne (1481 A.D.-1487 A.D.). But this time, there was
trouble in the royal court. The Habshi slaves became very powerful at
this time. Jalauddin Fateh Shah tried to curb their strength. This made
all the Habshi slaves begin conspiracies against the Sultan unitedly.
Sultan Shahjada was the head of the palace guards. Shahzada killed
Fateh Shah inside the palace. With the murder of Fateh Shah, the reign
of Illiyas Shahi dynasty in Bengal came to an end. Thus the reign of the

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Habshi began in Bengal.

Habshi Rule

The Habshi rule in Bengal lasted only six years (1487A.D.-1493 A.D.).
The history of this country during this period abounds with wrongs,
injustice, revolt, conspiracy and disappointment. All the three of the four
Habshi Sultans of this period were murdered.

Habshi leader Sultan Shahzada adopted the title ‘Barbak Shah’ and
began to rule Bengal first. But within a few months, he was killed by
Habshi commander-in-chief Malik Anctil. Malik Andil assumed the title
‘Saifuddin Firuz Shah’ and came to the throne. Only his three years reign
(1487A.D.-1490 A.D.) was a little pre-eminent in ” history.

His death was followed by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah II. But after a short
rule (1490 A.D.-1491 A.D.), he was killed. A Habshi leader killed him and
came to the throne with the name ‘Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah’ (1491
A.D.-1493 A.D.). He was notorious as a tyrant and killer. Consequently,
the aristocrats of Gaur revolted against Muzaffar Shah. Sayed Hossain,
an adviser to Muzaffar Shah joined the rebels. At last Muzaffar Shah
was killed. With his death, the Habshi rule in Bengal ended.

Hussain Shahi Dynasty

Getting rid of the Habshi rule, Syed Hussain came to the throne of
Bengal. As he became the Sultan, he took the title ‘Alauddin Hussain
Shah’. Thus the rule of a new dynasty named ‘Hussain Shahi dynasty’
began in Bengal. Of the reigns of the independent Sultans of Bengal,
Hussain Shahi reign (1493 A.D.-1538 A.D.) was the most glorious period.

There was anarchy in the country due to the maladministration of the

Habsli community. They had the main role in the murder of every Sultan.
Coming to the throne, Hussain Shah gave directions to the Habshis to
stop such activities. But as they disobeyed his order, he gave command
to kill them.

This severe measure taken by Hussain Shah made twelve thousand

Habshis to lose their lives. The rest of the Habshis were driven out of

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the kingdom. Alauddin Hussain Shah tried to make politics and social
systems free from the Habshi influence for the welfare of the kingdom.
He also strengthened the administration by shifting the capital to a
place near Gaur. Of all the Sultans of Bengal only he established his
capital in a place other than in Pandua and Gaur. On the other hand, he
appointed the Sayeds, Mongols, Afghans and Hindus to different
important and high posts of the administration. These measures
brought within a short time peace and discipline in the country.

His object was to establish a well-organized, impeccable and

benevolent administration by promoting a loving and friendly relation
between the Hindus and the Muslims. For this reason, despite being a
conservative Sunni, he appointed different Hindus to administrative
posts according to their merit. He also awarded different appellations to
the Hindus to encourage them.

This magnanimity of Hussain Shah to the Hindus was effective for good
administration and helped the Sreechaitanya Bengalis to build their own
tradition. It is also a testimony to his political farsightedness.

Being impressed with his efficiency, Hussain Shah during his own reign
handed over some powers to Nusrat Shah. Coming to the throne he was
able to show skills like his father. This time, the whole Bihar was under
his dominion. During his time the Mughal empire was established in
India. The first Mughal Emperor Babur sent troops for expedition to
Bengal. At first Nusrat Shah made friendly relation with Babar. Later
when there was war, he saved the throne of Bengal by making treaty.
Nusrat Shah was killed by some miscreants in 153 IA.D.

Sultan Nusrat Shah was a noteworthy ruler of his time. He was patient
and kind to his people. He dug wells and ponds in many places of his
kingdom to remove the water problem of his subjects. The ‘Mitha Pukur’
(sweet pond) bears the hallmark of the achievement till today. The
humane qualities of Nusrat Shah made him popular to his subjects. The
Hindus also received justice in his kingdom.

The next Sultan of Bengal was Alauddin Firuz Shah, son of Nusrat Shah.
He had been in power for about one year. Since the time of Nusrat Shah,
Bengal had conflict with the kingdom of Ahoma. It continued in the time
of Firuz Shah. Since the time of Nustat Shah, the fall of the independent

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Sultanate began. The descendants of Nusrat Shah were weak. His
younger brother Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah killed his brother’s son
Firuz Shah in 1533 A.D. and ascended the throne. But this brought no
change to the situation. Rather the decay which began in the kingdom
of Nusrat Shah, during his reign was rounded off during the reign of
Mahmud Shah. The significant incident of his five years rule was his
conflict with the Afghan leader Sher Shah Shur. At last when Sher Shah
took Bengal in 1538 A.D., the independent sultanate era of two hundred
years in Bengal came to an end.

Afghan Rule and the Bara Bhiuyans

As the independent Sultanate era in Bengal came to an end, foreign

powers gradually grabbed up Bengal. The Mughal emperor Humayun
established his authority in Bengal for some time. But at last he had to
accept the defeat at the hands of the Afghan leader Sher Shah. Bengal
and Bihar straightaway came to the authority of the Afghans. The two
sects of the Afghans, namely Shur Afghan and Karrani Afghan ruled
Bengal for quite some time. At last the Mughal Emperor Akbar snatched
away the power of Bengal from the Afgans. Although the Mughals
occupied the capital, they failed to establish actual power inside Bengal.
During this time there were many powerful independent Zamidars in
Bengal. These Zamidars Known as ‘Baro Bhuiyans’ could not accept the
Mughal authority. During the time of Emperor Akbar, the Mughal
Subadars tried to suppress these Zamndars but failed. The ‘Baro
Bhuiyans’ were suppressed at the time of Jahangir.

The Mughal Rule

The Mughal rule in Bengal passed in two phases, namely, Subadari and
Nawabi. After the suppression of the Baro Bhuiyans the rule of the
Subadar was established in the whole of Bengal. The Mughal provinces
were known as ‘Suba’. Bengal was one of the Subas of the Mughals.
The golden period of the Subadari rule was from the beginning of the
seventeenth century to the beginning of the eighteenth century. After
Emperor Aurangazeb the Mughal rule became powerless during the
time of the weak descendants of Delhi. In such a situation, the Subadars
ruled Bengal almost independently. This period of the Mughal rule is
known as the ‘Nawabi Era’.

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[Source:https://www.blog.bcspreparation.net/political-history-of-
bengal-in-the-middle-age/]

 Social and Cultural Life

The royal power of Bengal came to the Muslims through the fall of the
Sena dynasty and the conquest of Bengal by Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad-bin
Bakhtiyar Khalji. As a result, the Middle Age of Bengal started. Before the
arrival of the Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists lived in Bengal. From the
eleventh century Sufi devotees started to come to Bengal to preach Islam.
Many ordinary Hindus and Buddhists of Bengal became converted to Islam.
Thus in Bengal an Islamic social structure started to form. In this age in
Bengal, Hindus and Muslims were living in parity. So their lifestyle, ways of
thinking, ideas and manners mixed and thus Bengalee culture: flourished in
Bengal.

In the Middle Age, the influence of two religions- Hinduism and Islam
prevailed in the social system of Bengal. In fact, social customs and
practices were introduced centering round these two religions.

Muslim Society

The sultans had the heighest social esteem during the Middle Age and
Muslim rule in Bengal. The ruler, the Sultan, as the leader of the Muslim
society had some special responsibilities. It was special duty for a
Muslim ruler to sermonise (deliver Khutba) in ‘Zuma’ and ‘Eid’ prayer. He
had to join different social programs as a leader of the Muslim society.
The rulers would build mosques, madrasas, ‘khankas’ etc. in their
respective kingdom to spread unity and religious spirit among the
Muslims.

Muslim society of Bengal had three tires in the middle age- higher
middle and lower class. Sayeed, Ulema and similar classes were quite
influential in the society. People used to respect religious and educated
people a lot. The Muslim rulers too had special respect for them. They
were privileged with allowances and lands as tokens of respect from
the rulers.

The Ulemas were experienced in Islamic education. Kazi, Imam, Muajjin

and other religious staff were appointed out of them. The Sheikhs would
impart the public religious and spiritual education. They had remarkable
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contributions to the progress of Muslim society in Bengal.

An aristocratic community grew up during this period. They shaped

themselves as an exclusive class of people in comparison to general
public by dint of talent and knowledge. Any person could hold a
dignified position of the state by means of competence and talent. In
this case the example of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Iwaj Khalji and Subadar
Murshid Kuli Khan are remarkable. Of course, in the later period there
were exceptions to this rule. The custom of inheriting dignified
government positions was introduced. In this age the aristocratic class
consisted of employees of high positions in military and judicial
departments. The middle class consisted of lower-class government
employees. The third class comprised farmers, weavers and different
types of workers. Most of the farmers were Hindus. There were some
occupations which were monopoly muslims.

Some social festivals were celebrated in Muslim society. Till today the
Muslims celebrate these festivals. The birth of a child was a delightful
matter that time. The Muslims used to observe a program called ‘Akika’
celebrating the naming of the baby. ‘Khatna’ (circumcision) was a very
familiar custom in the Muslim society. Marriage was a festive occasion
for the Muslims. The Moulavis would perform marriage formalities
according to Muslim customs and practises. The Muslims followed
some religious and social customs in different times for the sake of the
dead. They buried the dead body and cited verses from the holy Quran
followed by ‘Milad’ (special prayer) for the peace of the departed soul.

The presence of ‘Molla’ community in religious festivals and in

programs like marriage was indispensable in the village life.’Peer’ or
‘Fakir’ community known as ‘Sufi’ and ‘Saint’ had much influence in the
Muslim society. General people would use different kinds of religious
amulets given by them to get rid of different problems.

A huge number of Hindus and Buddhists of Bengal were converted to

Islam. The converted people could not give up some of the beliefs and
prejudices of previous religions. Thus, beliefs in the teachings of
spiritual leaders (Gurubad) of Hindu society entered Muslim society. It
was a common phenomenon to light candles in the evening and give
‘shinni’ (a kind of home-made sweet) at the ‘dargah’ (graveyard) of the
‘peer’ (religious scholor).
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The elite Muslims had fascination for lavish good foods. Their menu
was full of different types of fish, meat and pickles. They would
commonly eat delicious foods such as different types of kabab, rejala,
korma, and foods cooked in ghee. The common Muslims used to take
plain rice, fish and vegetables. Some people also used to take Rooti
(hand-made bread). Hotchpotch was also a popular food during that
time.

The aristocratic Muslims would put on pajama and round-necked shirt.

They also wore ‘pagri’ (turbine) on their head and leather shoes
embroidered with silk or gold thread. They wore rings with pearls and
stones on their fingers. They used to put on pajama, shirt and religious
cap. Poor and lower-class Muslims would put on ‘lungi’ and ‘tupi’. The
aristocratic muslim ladies put on the use of cosmetics was not a
common practice. The aristocratic muslim ladies put on golden
ornaments on their arms and wrists and golden rings in their fingers.

At the beginning of this age the Muslims earned special fame for their
moral qualities and honesty. In the later period they failed to keep up
that strict moral standard in religious manners. As a result, corruption
and non-Islamic activities intruded into Muslim society. The moral
degradation of the Muslims in their social life also effected their ruling
system. The same was responsible to a great extent for the end of the
Nawabi rule in Bengal.

Hindu Society

The influence, customs and trends of the Muslims of Bengal in the

Middle Age influenced the Hindu society. Yet there was no change in the
main principles of Hindu society and its general social system. A caste
driven society was prevalent in this age. This custom was originated
from different occupations. There were four remarkable castes in the
society , ‘Brahmmin’, ‘Kayastha’, ‘Baishyo’ and ‘Shudra’. There was no
social integration among these four castes. The caste system was
strictly followed then. As a result, inter-caste marriage and
communication was prohibited. The Brahmmins had absolutete
authority on religious activities.

The Hindus followed different social customs and practices on the

occasions of birth, marriage and death in the Middle Age in Bengal. The

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social occasions those were in vogue at that time are also noticed in the
conservative Hindu society in the present time. Just after the birth of a
baby, it would be washed with the water brought from the Ganges.
‘Shosti Puja’ would be arranged on the sixth day. A Brahmmin would
count ‘Kusthi’ of the baby. After a month of birth, ‘Balok Utthan Parba’
would be observed. There was arrangements of ‘Annoprashana’ in the
sixth month. Most of the Hindu women would perform ‘Upabash’
(fasting) and ‘Ekadashi’ (fasting and eating vegetables on the eleven
day of the lunar fortnight).

Marriage is a remarkable social occasion in Hindu society. Families

after the death of father, the eldest son would take the responsibilities
of the family. Devotion to husband was a remarkable trait of Hindu
society.

The women of Hindu society did not have adequate rights during this
time in Bengal. The husband considered his wife as his property.
Daughters, wives and widows were respectively dependent on parents,
husband and children. Girls could not go out of the house without the
permission of the master of the house. ‘Satidaha’ system (a system
where the widow was burned live along with the dead husband.) was in
vogue in the society. But it was not an obligatory social custom
everywhere in Bengal. In spite of all these circumstances, many women
of this age were able to develop their independent entity by dint of own
competence and intelligence. The achievement of women of this age in
the cultural field was quite significant. There was regular practice of art
and culture in rich families. The women of this age were skilled in
playing ‘Bina’, ‘Tanpura’ and other musical instruments.

Women used clothes made of jute and cotton, rings, necklace,

nakpasha, earring, bracelet made of gold, conch of gold, nose ring,
armlet, etc. as dresses and ornaments. Rich women used ornaments.
These ornaments were made of gold, silver, tusk of elephants and
budded with precious jewels and stones. Married women used
vermillion, collyrium, musk mixed with sandal as cosmetics. Many of
them used anklet with small bells. Only on special occasions these
ornaments and cosmetics were used. Ordinary girls adorned
themselves with ordinary attire in their respective houses. Sari was their
everyday attire. The males used to wear dhuti. Aristocratic and

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educated persons would use a sheet of cloth worn over the body, and
turban. Rich people, especially the merchants used necklace, earring
and rings.

There is no remarkable difference between the foods of Hindu society

of Bengal in the Middle Age and those of present Hindu society. Rice
was their staple food. In addition, fish, meat, vegetables, milk, curd, ghee,
and ‘kheer’ were in their menu. Different pies made from rice were very
popular. Different types of Bengalee Brahmmins used to eat proteins.
Then all kinds of fish were available.

Hilsa fish and dried fish were very popular food in east Bengal.
Vegetables such as brinjal, gourd, pumpkin, jhinge, kakral and arum
would be produced. Fruits, such as, mangoes, jackfruits, bananas, palm,
papaya, coconut, sugarcane etc. were available. It is mentionable that
there was not much difference between the menu of the Hindus and
that of the Muslims of that time. But, eating beef was considered as an
extreme irreligious action by the Hindus.

There was ‘Kaulinyo’ system in the Hindu society. As a result, various

bad manners were intruded in the society. The system was widely
prevalent among Brahmmins, Baiddyas and Kayasthas. The system of
polygamy was introduced because of the Kauliny system. The
astrologers determined the auspicious time by searching and
researching calendars and books. During this age people believed in
necromancy and black art of magic.

Economic Condition and Trade and Commerce

The land of riverine Bengal was always nurtured with the generous
blessings of nature. The agricultural land of this place was unusually
fertile. The produced crops in the Middle Age included paddy, wheat,
cotton, sugarcane, jute, ginger, millet, sesame, beans, mustard and
pulse. Among agricultural products onion, garlic, turmeric, cucumber etc.
were remarkable. Mango, jackfruit, banana, mosabbar, dates etc. were
produced in plenty. Betel-leaves, nuts, coconuts were also produced in
good quantity. ‘Gala’ was also produced abundantly. Jute and silk
started to be produced in Bengal from the very Muslim rule.

The main source of economic prosperity of Bengal was agriculture.

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Though agricultural products were in abundance in Bengal, the method
of cultivation was not developed. There was no arrangement of
irrigation in those days like today. Farmers had to depend on rainfall for
water most of the time. They had nothing to do against drought.

Bengal being an agriculture country, a large part of its people were

farmers . There was abundance of agricultural products in Bengal. As a
result, the surplus products were exported to other countries. In course
of time, these commercial activities expanded also in industries. During
Muslim rule textile industry, sugar industry, boat making factory were
set up in Bengal.

The prosperity in textile industry was especially remarkable in Bengal.

Clothes made here were very famous for quality and standard. So, they
had great demand in foreign countries. Here colored and printed clothes
were made for domestic use and white clothes for exporting abroad.

Dhaka was famous for Moslin, a kind of very fine cloths and its
industries. Moslin was in great demand in Europe. This cloth was so
subtle that 20 yards of ‘Moslin’ could be put into a snuff box. The
achievement of Bengal in making jute and silk clothes was also
remarkable. Sugar, molasses and shipping industry also spread widely
in Bengal.

The middle age of Bengal had its own varieties of small industries.
During this time the metal industries were very prominent. It was a time
when goods made of iron were widely in use. The blacksmiths would
make different kinds of agricultural tools. They would also make
everyday metal objects such as double edged swords, knives, scissors,
spades etc. People of this country would make cannons at Kasimbazar
and Kolkata. In addition, Bengal was famous for paper, carpets, steel
and salt industries. The country had the community of goldsmiths. They
could show their special craftsmanship on the work of gold, silver,
bronze, wood, stones, and elephant-tasks. Dhaka was also very famous
for conch-industries. Shakhari Patti of Dhaka still reminds those
memories.

The commercial activities of Bengal during Muslim rule had

unprecedented expansion in foreign countries as a result of the
abundance of agricultural and industrial goods of Bengal and their great

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demand in foreign countries. Of the export oriented goods of Bengal
cotton cloth, Moslin, silk cloth, rice, sugar, molasses, ginger, chilly etc.
were remarkable. Among the agricultural products rice, tobacco, nuts,
jute, fruits etc. were exported. Besides various agricultural and industrial
products, salt, vine, opium, different spices, medicine etc. were sent to
different places of India and foreign countries. There was the slave
system in the society of Bengal.

Most of the part of trade and commerce was export oriented. A very
small amount of goods was imported. Cotton was imported as raw
material due to increasing demand of cloth in Bengal. The Bengalee
merchants would import cotton from Gujrat, silk from China, luxurious
goods from Iran. Gold, silver and precious stones were also imported in
Bengal.

During Muslim rule quite a number of sea ports and river ports were
built in Bengal. Chittagong was a famous sea port that time. Odisha,
Sonargoan, Gaur, Bakla (Barisal), Murshidasbad, Kashimbazar, Hoogly,
Patna of Bihar and Piply of Odisha were remarkable commercial ports.

With the expansion of trade and commerce, there was an increase in

transactions of goods and money as well as keeping accounts. So, in
course of time banking system evolved. During this time transactions
were made in foreign countries through ‘Hundit. Goods were available
and cheap in Bengal during the whole of the middle age.

Famous traveler of the 14th century Ibn-Batuta wrote that goods were
most cheaply available only in Bengal. In spite of that it is known from
contemporary literature that there were a lot of poor people in the
country beside the rich. So, though goods were cheap, the ordinary
people could not afford to purchase many of them.

The Hindus had more influence than the Muslims in industry, trade and
commerce and other economic activities of Bengal. The local traders
and dealers did not have any control over trade and commerce. The
Arabian and Persian merchants controlled trade and commerce of this
country. They had monopoly over trade by river. In the later periods, the
Portuguese and other European merchants became influential in the
field of business.

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cultural-history-of-the-middle-age-of-bengal/]

Specimen Exam Questions

1. Name two methods of fighting used in the First Battle of Panipath.

2. Describe Emperor Akbar’s religion, Din-i-Ilahi.

3. Explain how Emperor Akbar improved the administration within the Mughal
Empire.

4. Describe how Emperor Jahangir supported trade with the English.

5. Examine the achievements of Emperor Jahangir in the Indian subcontinent.

6. State two products of cottage industry in 1204–1784.

7. How far did the arrival of the British change cottage industry up to 1784?

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