OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

I. COURSE TITLE: Advance Animal Breeding

II. DESCRIPTION: Current and potential breeding systems; development of selection indexes.
Prerequisite : An. Sci. 151 ( Principles of Animal Breeding) or its equivalent
Credit : 3 units

III. GENERAL OBJECTIVES:

1. To study in depth the animal breeding systems and selection with the end view of
evolving some breeding strategies to improve the livestock herd or flock.
2. To keep a breast with recent trends and development of animal breeding.
3. To identify economic traits that should be included in the selection index for a particular
species of animal and utilize the same in preparing a sound breeding programs.

IV. TOPICAL OUTLINE OF THE COURSE:

STUDY GUIDE 1. Animal Breeding Strategies for Livestock Improvemnet

A. Glossary of Terms

1. Animal Breeding in Retrospect

1.1. Animal breeding defined
1.2. Objectives of animal breeding
1.3. Brief history of animal breeding
2. Selecting Superior Breeding Animals
2.1. Selection defined
2.2. Main genetic effect of selection
2.3. Bases of selection
2.4. Methods of selection
2.5. Factors which determine selection efficiency
3. Inbreeding as a tool to Livestock Improvement
3.1. Inbreeding defined
3.2. Genetic and phenotypic effect of inbreeding
3.3. Measurement of inbreeding
3.4. Coefficient of relationship
3.5. Uses of inbreeding
4. Crossbreeding Farm Animals
4.1. Crossbreeding defined
4.2. Types of crossbreeding
 4.3. Genotypic and phenotypic effect of crossbredding
4.4. Crossbreed animals exhibit heterosis
4.5. Estimation of heterosis or hybrid vigor
4.6. Practical uses of crossbreeding
4.7. Other usesof breeding
5. Summary of Animal Breeding Principles
5.1. Sampling nature inheritance
5.2. Role of the animal breeder
5.3. Information needed to formulate effecting mating and selection system
5.4. When to use inbreeding and linebreeding
5.5. Conclusion

Study Guide 2. Selected Readings in Animal Breeding

1. Breeding for Efficiency of Egg Production

2. Bantam Breeding and Genetics
3. Preliminary results of the performance of local and crossbreed ducks under extensive and
intensive husbandry
4. A.I the key to mule duck development
5. Using screening test for hybrid improvement
6. The outlook for rotational crossing in animal breeding
7. Crossbreeding for increase beef production
8. A scope on buffalo breeding for draft
9. Crossbreeding, new breed formation in humid tropics
10. Sheep production and development in Asia
11. Constraints in genetic improvement for livestock production in tropics.

V. SCHEDULE OF POSTING (MAILINGS) OF STUDY GUIDES

Study guides and some supplementary readings will be sent on the following dates:

Study Guide Title Date of Posting

1 Animal breeding strategies for 3rd week of June/November
livestock improvement
2 Selected readings in animal 2nd week of Dec./May
breeding

VI. COURSE REQUIREMENT

a. Required assignment – at the end of the term, the student is expected to submit a
breeding program for any particular class or species of animal using the format attached
here to in in the study guide. This is to be typewritten.
b. Short vacation class – the student enrolled in the course will have undergo a six-day
vacation class in VISCA to discuss some issues or problems in the course and also
conduct laboratory activities to help reinforce the learning process
VII. GRADING SYSTEM

The final grade in the course will be based on the following:

Required assignment (breeding programs) ……………………………. 40 percent

Short vacation class ………………………………………………………………. 10 “

Final examination………………………………………………………………….. 50 ‘’

Total – 100 percent

VIII. REFERENCES

There are no textbooks required in a course; however, the student is expected to do some
readings on recent trends and developments on animal breeding especially those that can be
applied to local conditions
 Glossary of Terms

1. Acquired character – an alteration in function or form resulting from a response to environment;

it is not heritable.
2. Allele (or allelelomorph) – one member of a pair or a series of genes that can occur at a
particular locus on homologous chromosomes.
3. Autosome – a chromosome not associated with the sex of the individual and therefore
possessed in matching pairs by diploid members of both sexes.
4. Backcross – the cross of progeny individual with one of its parents.
5. Carrier - heterogynous individual, ordinarily used in cases of complete dominance.
6. Cell – the smallest unit of life.
7. Character (or trait) – any measurable attribute of an organism.
8. Chromosomes – carrier of heredity traits. Nucleoprotein structures generally more or less
rodlike during nuclear division, the physical sites of nuclear genes arranged in linear order.
9. Clone – a group of cells or organisms, derived from a single ancestral cell or individual and all
genetically alike.
10. Co-dominance – the condition in heterozygotes where both members of an allelic pair
contribute to phenotype, which is then a mixture of the phenotypic traits produced in either
homozygous condition.
11. Crossing-over – a process whereby genes are exchanged between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosome.
12. Cytogenetic – study of the cellular structures and mechanisms associated with genetics.
13. Cytology – the study of the structure and function of cells.
14. Dihybrid – an individual heterozygous for the pairs of alleles; also said of a cross between
individuals differing in two gene pairs.
15. Dioecious –an individual producing either sperm or egg but not both. in dioecious species, the
sexes are separate.
16. Dominant – pertaining to that member of a pair of alleles that expresses itself in whole
(complete dominanace) over the other member.
17. Dysgenic – any effect of situation that is or tends to be harmful to the genetics of future
generations.
18. Epistasis – the making of the phenotypic effect of either or both members of the pair of alleles
by a gene of a different pair. The masked gene is said to be hypostatic.
19. Expressivity – the degree of effect produced by a penetrant genotype.
20. F1 – the first filial generation; the first generation resulting from a given cross.
21. F2 – the second filial generation ; the generation resulting from interbreeding or selfing
members of f1.
22. Gamete – a protoplast that in the process of sexual reproduction, fuses with another protoplast.
23. Gene – the particulate determiner of a hereditary trait, a particular segment of a DNA molecule,
generally located in the chromosome.
24. Gene frequency – the proportion of one allele of a pair or series present in the population or a
sample thereof; that is, the number loci at which a gene occurs, divided by the number of loci at
which it could occur, expressed as a pure number between 0 and 1.
25. Gene pool – the total of all genes in a population.
26. Genetic drift – a change in gene frequency in a population. Steady drift is a directed change in
frequency toward either greater or lower values, random drift is random fluctuation of gene
frequencies caused by chance in matting patterns or to sampling errors.
27. Genetic equilibrium – constancy of a particular gene frequently through successive generations.
28. Genetic load – the proportional reduction in average fitness, relative to an optional genotype;
the average number of lethal per individuals in a population.
29. Genetics – a branch of biology concerned with heredity and variations.
30. Genotype – the genetic makeup or constitution of an individual, e=with reference to the traits
under consideration.
31. Heterogametic sex – that sex having either only one or two different sex chromosomes, as XO,
XY, or ZW. The heterogametic sex thus produces two kinds of gametes with respect to sex
chromosomes, e.g., X and Y sperms in human beings.
32. Heterozygote – an individual whose chromosomes bear unlike genes of a given allelic pair or
series. Heterozygotes produce more than one kind of gamete with respect to particular locus.
33. Homogametic sex – that sex possessing two identical sex chromosomes (XX or ZZ). Gametes
produces by the homogametic sex are all alike with respect to the sex chromosomes
constitution.
34. Homologous chromosomes – chromosomes occurring in pairs, one derived from each of two
parents, normally (except for chromosomes associated with sex) morphologically alike and
bearing the same gene loci. Each member of such pair is the homolog of the other.
35. Homozygote – an individual whose chromosomes bear identical genes of a given allelic pair or
series. Homozygotes produced only one kind of gamete with respect to the particular locus and
therefore “breed true”
36. Hybrid – an individual resulting from a cross between genetically unlike parents.
37. Incomplete dominance – the condition in heterozygotes where the phenotype is intermediate
between the two homozygotes. Incomplete dominance differs from co-dominance.
38. Independent segregation – the random of independent behavior of genes on different pairs of
chromosomes.
39. Intersex – an individual shoeing secondary sex characters intermediate between male and
female or some of each sex.
40. In vitro – experimentally induced biologically process outside the organism.
41. In vivo – experimentally induced biologically process within the system.
42. Lethal gene – a gene whose phenotypic effect is sufficiently drastic to kill the bearer. Death from
different lethal genes may occur at any time from fertilization of the egg to advanced age. Lethal
genes may be dominant, incompletely dominant, or recessive.
43. Life cycle- the entire series of developmental stages undergone by an individual from zygote to
maturity and death.
44. Linkage – the occurrence of different genes on the same chromosomes.
45. Locus – the position or place on a chromosome occupied by a particular gene or one of its
alleles.
46. Lysis – disintegration or dissolution; usually the destruction of a bacteria host cell by infecting
phage particles.
47. Monoecious – individuals producing both sperm and egg.
48. Monohybrid – the offspring of two homozygous parents that differ in only heritable character or
in which only one such character is under consideration.
49. Multiple alleles – a series of three or more alternative alleles any one of which may occur at a
particular locus on a chromosome.
50. Mutagen – any agent that brings about the mutation.
51. Mutation – a sudden change in genotype having no relation to the individual’s ancestry. Used
for changes in a single gene itself for chromosomal aberrations.
52. Ontogeny – the complete development of the individual from zygote, spore, and so on to adult
form.
53. Parthenogenesis – development of the new individual from unfertilized egg.
54. Pedigree – the ancestral history of an individual.
55. Penetrance – differences in environment conditions or in genetic backgrounds may cause
individuals which are genetically identical at a particular locus to exhibit different phenotypes.
56. Phenotype – the appearance or discernable character of an individual, which in word, e.g., “tall”
“dwarf” etc.
57. Phylogeny – the evolutionary development of a species or other taxonomic group.
58. Population – an infinite group of individuals, measured for some variable, quantitative
character, from which a sample is taken.
59. Probability – the likelihood of occurrence of a given event.
60. Progeny – offspring individual
61. Pseudodominance – the expression (apparent dominance) of a recessive gene at a locus
opposite a deficiency.
62. Pure line – a strain of individual homozygous for all genes being considered.
63. Recessive – an adjective applied to the member of a pair of genes that fails to express itself in
the presence of its dominant allele.
64. Reciprocal cross – a second cross of the same genotypes in which the sexes of the parental
generation are reserved.
65. Recombination – the new association of genes in a recombinant individual, arising from
independent assortment of unlinked genes, from crossing over between linked genes, or from
intracistronic crossing over.
66. Replicate – to form replicas from a model or template; applies to the synthesis of new DNA from
re-existing DNA as part of nuclear division.
67. Selection coefficient – the measure of reduced fitness of a given genotype; it equals one minus
the adaptive value of that genotype.
68. Sex chromosome – heteromorphic chromosomes not occurring in identical pairs in both sexes in
diploid organism.
69. Siblings (or sibs) – individuals having the same maternal and paternal parents; brother-sister
relationship.
70. Testcross – the cross of an individual (generally of dominant phenotype) with one having the
recessive phenotype.
 TOPIC 1: ANIMAL BREEDING IN RETROSPECT

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define the following terms: animal breeding, genetics and physiology of reproduction.
2. State of the objectives of animal breeding.
3. Give the chronology of events that led to the development of the science of animal breeding.

1.1.Animal Breeding Defined

This refers to the application of genetic and physiology of reproduction to animal and environment.

Genetics accounts for the similarities and differences exhibit by related individuals. The former is
termed as heredity, that is the phenomenon by which characters/traits are transmitted to the
offspring by the parents, while the latter is referred to as variation or the tendency of animals to
vary.

Physiology on reproduction, the other hand, deals with the process by which new individuals came
into being

1.2. Objectives of Animal Breeding

a. General breeding –the main object of animal breeding is to improve the performance of the
animal by changing the genetic composition of the population, and by changing the
environment or the sum total of all the factors affecting the individual.

b. Specific objectives:

1. To improve the production output, e.g. eggs, meat,milk, etc

2. To improve the efficiency of production, that is, the efficiency of the animal machine to convert
its feeds into useful products. Feed efficiency is expressed as the amount of feed consumed per
kilogram gain in weight or per dozen eggs.
3. To improve the quality of the product like shell thickness, interior egg quality, carcass quality.
Etc.

1.3. History of Animal Breeding

The series of events that led to the development of animal breeding are herein presented in
capsulized form:

a. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C) – the studies of Aristotle were generally recognized as marking the
beginning of the development of biological science.
b. W. HARVEY (1651) – he believed that living things including man, originated from eggs.
c. R. de GRAAF (1651) – he discovered the Graafian follicles in the human ovary which he
incorrectly interpreted as eggs.
d. A. Van LEEUWENHOEK (1677) – he discovered the sperm cell in man and also in other
animals.
e. SPALLANZANI (early part of the 8 th century) - He showed that both sperm and egg were
necessary for the initiation of development of new life
f. J. G. KOLREUTER (1761) – he showed that the semen of mammals and the pollen of flower
were essential for fertility.
g. PREVOST and DUMAS (1824) – he discovered that the fertilizing element in the mammalian
semen was not the fluid itself but the spermatozoa.
h. A. KOLLIKER – (1841) he showed that sperms are sex cells which arise by transformation of
cells in the testes.
i. GREGOR J. MENDEL (1866) – he published the result of his studies from crossing of peas.
These results came to be known as Mendel’s law which laid the formation of the science of
genetics.
j. SCHEINDER (1873) – he gave the first account of somatic cell division which was referred to
by W. Fleming (882) as mitosis.
k. O. HERTWIG (1875) – he made the conclusion that fertilization in both plants and animals
consisted of the physical union of the nuclei contributed by the male and female parents.
l. E. Van BENEDEN (883) – he described fertilization in mammals.
m. T. BOVERI (1892) – he described meiosis, including chromosome pairing.
n. De VRIES, CORRENS, and THSERMAK (1901) they discovered simultaneously the work of
Mendel which had laid forgotten for the past 38 years.
o. W. S. SUTTON (1902) – he advanced the chromosome theory of heredity.
p. W. BATESON (1902-09) – he introduced the terms allele, homozygote, F, F2, and epistatic
genes to refer to certain hereditary particles in a chromosome.
q. WEISHMAN – he advanced sound argument against the inheritance of acquired character.
r. CASTLE and PHILLIPS (1911) – they disproved the inheritance of acuired character.
s. FRANCIS GALTON – the cousin of Darwin; he applied statistical analyses to the phenomena
of variation of heredity and thus laid the foundation for the science of biometry.
t. EAST ( 1907), KING ( 1918), WRIGHT (1922) – studying inbreeding in corn, rats and guinea
pigs, respectively, they laid the foundation that changed the whole philosophy of the
application of Mendel’s law to the improvement of plant and animals.
 TOPIC 2. SELECTING SUPERIOR BREEDING STOCK

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain how selection operates in improving our animals.
2. Discuss the bases of selection, including their merits and demerits.
3. Give the different methods of selection and discuss the factors which determine
selection efficiency.

2. Selection Defined

Selection may be defined as a process which certain individuals in a population are preferred to the
others for the production of the next generation. Selection is of two general kinds:

1. Natural Selection – that due to natural forces. In nature, the main force responsible for
selection is the survival of the fittest in a particular environment as in the case of some wild
animal species. For instance, the wolves chase many sheep before they find ne they catch.
Most of those killed by the wolves were the weaker animals, and include those which were
either very young or very old. Thus, there was a tendency for the nature to select against
the weaker ones, and only the stronger survived to reproduced.

Natural selection is a very complicated process, and many factors determine the proportion
of individuals that will reproduce. Among these factors are differences in mortality of
differences in duration of the period of sexual activity; the degree of sexual activity itself;
and the differences in degree of fertility of individual in a population.

2. Artificial Selection – that due to the efforts of man. Man determine to a great extent which
animals will be used to produce the next generation of offspring.

Definite differences between breeds and types of farm animals within a species is proof that
artificial selection has been effective in many instances. This is true, not only from the
standpoint of color patterns which exist in the various breeds but also from the standpoint
of differences in performance that involve certain quantative traits. For instances, in dairy
cattle there are definite breed differences in the amount of milk produced and in butterfat
percentage of the milk.

2.2. Main Genetic Effect of Selection

No new genes are created by the selection. Under selection pressure there is a tendency for
the frequency of the undesirable genes to be reduced whereas the frequency of the more
desirable ones to increased. Thus, the main genetic effect of the selection is to change gene
frequencies, although there may be a tendency also for an increase in homozygosity of the
desirable genes to the population as progress is made in selection.
 2.3. Bases of Selection

Any progress animals breeders may hope to make through the application of breeding and
selection methods will depend upon their ability to recognize those animals that must be
mated together for the production of superior offspring. But this is easier said than done, for
the only way to estimate the kind of genes an animal possesses is through their expression
in the phenotype of the individual and/or his relatives.

Below are some bases in selecting the breeding stock:

2.3.1. Breed on individuality. Selection on the basis of individual merit is strictly phenotypic.
It is the most commonly used basis for selecting the breeders. Such traits as coat color,
conformation, performance, carcass quality can be evaluated directly from the phenotype
and/or performance of the individual animal, if accurate recording has been done.

Individuality is the most important as the basis of selection when heritability of the traits of
high, indicating that the trait is greatly affected by additive gene action. High heritability
estimates also suggest that the phenotype strongly reflects the genotype and that the
individuals that are superior for a particular trait and should transmit them to their
offspring.

Individual selection has its own shortcomings which can be summarized as follows:

a. Several important traits, including milk production in dairy cattle, maternal abilities
in brood cows, and sows, and egg product in poultry, are expressed only by females.
Thus this selection of breeding males cannot be based on their own performance.
b. Performance records for milk and egg production and other maternal qualities are
available only after sexual maturity is reached.
c. In cases in which heritability is low, individual merit is a poor indicator of breeding
value.
d. The easy appraisal of appearance (or type) often tempts the breeders to
overemphasize this evaluation in selection. This is true even in meat animals, in
which there is a relationship between appearance and carcass value.

In spite of these shortcomings, individual merit certainly must be considered in selection. In general,
for the traits expressed by both sexes, only animals which are themselves above average should be used
for breeding, regardless of the merit of close relative.
 2.3.2 Based on Pedigree. The pedigree of an animal is a record of the animals which are
related to him through his parents. This includes the names, registration number, type and performance
of the ancestors. If only the genealogy of the individual is given, the pedigree is of extremely limited
value.

Pedigree information is valuable because each individual receives half of its genes from
each parent. Most weight should be given to the most recent ancestors. Ancestors three or four
generations removed in the pedigree contribute a very little influence on type and performance, unless
linebreeding to that ancestor has been practiced.

An individual’s own performance is usually of more value in selection than its pedigree,
but the pedigree may be used as an accessory to sway the balance when the two animals are similar in
individuality but also quite useful when the animals are selected at a young age and their own type of
conformation is not known. Pedigrees are also useful in identifying superior families if good records are
kept and are available for study.

Probably the two greatest dangers of pedigree selection are (1) undue emphasis on the
relatives, particularly remote relatives, with the result that intensity of individual selection is reduced,
and (2) unwarranted favoritism towards the progeny of favored individuals.

As guides to pedigree evaluation, the following must be considered:

1. Ancestors more closely related to the individual a9parent R=.50, grandparental R=.25 should
receive most emphasis in pedigree appraisal.
2. When the heritability of the trait is low, the more remote ancestors should receive relatively
more emphasis but when heritability is high they provide almost no new information.
3. Pedigree selection is much more accurate when the trait is high. The correlation between
pedigree information and the individual’s breeding value approaches the theoretical 0.71 as
heritability approaches 1.0.

2.3.3 Based on Collateral Relatives. Collateral relatives are those that are not related directly to an
individual, either as ancestors or as their progeny. Thus, they are the individual’s brother, sisters,
cousins, uncles, aunts, etc. the more closely they are related to the individual in question, the more
valuable is the formation they might supply for the selection purposes.

Information on collateral relative, if complete, gives an idea of the kind of genes and combination
of genes that the individual is likely to possess. Information of this kind is now being used in meat
certification program, where a barrow and a gilt from each litter may be slaughtered to obtain carcass
data. This is done, because otherwise the animal himself has to be slaughtered if information on his own
carcass quality is to be obtained. Information on collateral relatives is also used in selecting dairy bulls,
since milk production can be measured only in the cows even though the bull transmits genes to his
offspring for this trait.

2.3.4. Based on Progeny Testing –progeny testing is the practice of selecting animals on the basis of the
merit of their progeny, to include the following characteristics: offspring’s birth weight, weaning weight,
daily rate of gain, efficiency of feed utilization, and the body type and/or carcass evaluation, as
determined under standard conditions. Is data are complete, this is an excellent way of identifying
superior breeding animals.

Progeny testing has important uses, namely:

1. Very useful for determining characteristics that are expressed only in one sex, such as milk
production in cows or egg production in hens. Even though the bull does not produce milk nor
does the rooster lay eggs, they carry genes for these traits and supply one-half of the
inheritance of each of their daughters for that particular trait.
2. Also useful in measuring traits which cannot be measured in the living individual such as carcass
quality in cattle, sheep and hogs.
3. Used to test for the “nicking ability” of individuals and lines and is based on the performance of
the line progeny.

In conducting progeny test, it is very important to test a random sample of the progeny. It would
be more desirable if all progeny could be tested, but where this cannot be done, as in litters of swine,
those nearer the average of the litter should be tested. It is also that the females to which a male is
mated should be non-selected group.

To make accurate progeny test, it is also important to keep the environment as nearly as
possible the same for the offspring of the different sires.

Progeny testing has certain definite limitations:

1. In large species of animals, e.g. cattle, it may take long to prove the worth of an animal based on
its progeny that may be dead before the test is completed and his merit known.
2. Too often, farmers sends their old sires to make market just as soon as their daughters are old
enough to breed, in order to prevent inbreeding. This practice has resulted in much loss of food
genetic materials for livestock improvement. Actually a sire is not proved until the daughters
come into production.

2.4.Methods of Selection
Using the information obtained from records on the individual and/or its relatives, it is now well
to discuss the different methods that may be used for determining which animal should be save
and which animal should be rejected for breeding purposes. Three of these methods are
hereunder given:
2.4.1. Tandem Method. This refers to the system in which selection is done for only one trait at a
time until satisfactory improvement has been made in this trait. Selection efforts for this
traits are then relaxed, and efforts are directed toward the improvement of second, then
third, and so on. The efficiency of this method depends a great deal upon the genetic
association between the traits, so that improvement in one by the method could be quite
efficient, if there is little or no genetic association between the traits, which means that they
are less than if the traits were genetically associated in a desirable manner.

This method has two major disadvantages: (1) Usually it is not possible to select for the trait
only, and (2) generally recommended only in those rare herds and flocks where one where a
certain flock of fine-wool sheep needs improving primarily in staple length.

2.4.2. Independent Culling Method. In this method, selection may be practiced for two or more
traits at a time, but for each trait it to be saved for breeding purposes. The failure to meet
the minimum standard for any one trait causes that animal to be rejected for breeding
purposes.

The chief weakness of this method is that an individual may be culled because of being
faulty in one character only, even though he is well high in others. To show the disadvantage
of the method, let us use an example in swine where minimum standards are set so that any
pig saved for breeding must be from a litter of 8 weaned, must weigh180 pounds at 5
months of age, and must have no more than 1.3 inches of backfat at 200 pounds live weight.
Let us assume that Pig A was from a litter of 9 pigs weaned, weight 185 pounds at 5 months,
and had 1.3 inches of backfat. For Pig B, let us assume that it was from a litter of 5 weaned,
weighed 225 pounds at 5 months, and has 0.95 inches of backfat at 200 pounds. With the
above method, Pig B would be rejected because it was from a litter of only 5 pigs. However,
it was much more superior to pig A in its weight at five months and in backfat thickness, and
much of this superiority could have been of a genetic nature.

2.4.3. Selection Index. This method involves in separate determination of the value for each of the
traits selected for, the traits. The animals with the highest total scores are then kept for
breeding purposes.

Theoretically, a selection index provides a more desirable way in which to select for several
traits than either (a) the tandem method, or (b) independent culling method. The use of
selection index allows the individuals which are superior in some traits to be saved for
breeding purposes even though they may be slightly deficient in one or more of the other
traits.

Selection indexes are designed to accomplish the following:

a. To give emphasis to the different traits in keeping with their relative importance.
 b. To balance the strong points and the weak points of each animal.

c. To obtain overall total score for each animal, following which all animals can be
ranked from the best to poorest.

d. To assure a constant and objectives degree of emphasis on each trait being

considered, wiyhout any shifting of ideals from year to year.

e. To provide a convenient way in which to correct for environmental affects, such as

type of birth (single or twin),age,of dam, etc.

Despite their acknowledged virtues, selection indexes are not perfect among their
weakness are the following:

a. Practical indexes are not available for all classes of animals.

b. Their use may result in covering up or masking certain bad faults or defects.

c. They do not allow for year-to-year differences, generally speaking.

d. Their accuracy is dependent upon (1) the correct evaluation of the net worth of the
economic traits considered, (2) the correctness of the estimate of heritability of the
traits, and (3) the genetic correlation between the traits. These estimates are often
difficult to make.

In practice, the selection index is best used as a partial guide or tool in the selection
program. For example, it may be used to select twice as many animals as are needed for
herd or flock replacements, and this number may then be reduced through rigid culling
on the basis of a thorough visual inspection for those traits are quality, freedom form
defects, and market type.

Response to Selection
The response for selection can be found by using the formula:
R= h2S where R = response for selection
H 2 = heritability of the trait
S = selection differential

Selection differential is the difference between the average of the selected individuals
and that the population before or prior to the selection.

PROBLEM: The average egg production of the selected individuals is 300; that of the
population is 250. If the heritability of the trait is 10 percent, what is the response to
selection?
 SOLUTION:
R = h2S

Where h2 = 0.1 (10percent)

S = 300 – 250, or 50

= (0.1) x (300-250)
= 0.1 x 50
= 5 eggs

Note: Five (5) here means that if we select the individuals laying 300 eggs a year and
then measure their egg production performance in the next generation (F 2), they will be
averaging 255 eggs or an increase of 5 eggs over the average of the original population.

X2 = X 1 + R where X2 = mean of population 2

X 1 = mean of population 1
R = response to selection

= 250+ 5
= 255

Another solution of computing the response to selection is by using the formula:

R = iϬph2 where i = selection intensity

Ϭp = phenotypic standard deviation
H 2 = heritability of the trait

The formula is the same as R = h 2S because selection differential (S) is equal to iϬp.
However, it is more commonly used than the former because you don’t need to
compute for the average of the selected individuals to determine the response to
selection.

2.5. Factors which Determine Selection Efficiency

Some of the factors that determine wether or not selection or not selection for a particular trait
or traits, is effective are:

2.5.1. Ability of the breeder to find superior breeding animals – The progress that a breeder makes
in selection depends upon his ability to select superior breeding stock. This ability depends
 to a great extent on the ideals and objectives he has in mind at the beginning of his breeding
program. If the breeder has no definite goal and changes his objectives each year or two, he
cannot expect to make much progress even after may yaers of livestock breeding. The
establishment of a definite objective requires clear thinking into the future, using certain
basic facts which are hand when the original objectives are formed.

2.5.2. Amount of selecting pressure applied or selection differential – selection differential is the
difference between the herd/flock average and the average of the individuals within that
her/flock that are kept for breeding purposes. In general, the larger the selection
differential, the more progress one can expect to make in selection.

There are number of factors which may affect the size of the selection differential, among
which are:

a. Number of animals that can be culled in the process of selecting breeding animals,
or the number of animals that need to be kept for replacement purposes. Fewer
replacement animals will be required in a herd where the number is being kept the
same from year to year than in a herd where the size is being increased each year.

b. Number of traits selected for – The number of traits selected will have tendency to
reduce the size of the section differential for any one trait. The reason for this is that
an animal which is outstanding in one trait may be mediocre in another in several
others.

c. Level of performance of individuals in a herd – If selection for a trait has been

practiced for many years and the average of the herd for that particular trait is very
high, it becomes more difficult of find individuals for breeding purposes that greatly
exceed this average. This is especially true for sires that are purchased from another
herd.

2.5.3. Heritability of the traits – the amount of progress that can be made in selection is definitely
limited by the heritability of the trait. Selection for a trait that is lowly heritable, such as
litter size in swine will make little progress. On the other hand, selection for a trait that is
highly heritable such as rate of gain of cattle in the feedlot should result in more progress
being made in improving this traits. When the heritability of a trait is high, we expect a
larger portion of the selection differential to be due to heredity and less to environment.
Where the heritability of a trait is low, most of the selection differential may be due to
environmental factors.

2.5.4. Generation intervals – generation interval is the average age of the parents when their
offspring are born. This varies with the different species of farm animals and with the
procedure followed to produce a new generation of breeding animals. The generation
interval in swine can be reduced to one year if pigs are selected from the fist litters of gilts
breed to boars of the same age. When this is practiced, gilts can be bred when they are
 seven to eight months old of age and will produce litters by the time they are one year of
age. If sows, as boars, are progeny-tested before they are used to produce breeding or
replacement offspring, the generation interval may be two years or even longer.

In cattle, the generation interval could conceivably be as short as two or three years, but on
the average it is considerably longer than this if any progeny-testing is done or if the
performance records of cows determine whether or not their offspring are kept for breeding
purposes.

2.5.5. Genetic correlation among traits – The existence of genetic correlations among traits has
been observed in selection experiments where improvement in one traits was accompanied
by a positive or negative genetic change in another for which selection was not practiced.
Genetic correlations have also been determined by statistical means, and they give an
estimate of the extent to which two traits are affected, or not affected, by the same genes.
Whether or not two traits are genetically correlated probably depends upon whether or not
they have the same physiological basis.

The genetic correlation between two traits may be very low, which means that probably
very few of the same gens affect the two traits. Type and performance in beef cattle is a
good example of this in that selection for type seems to have little influence on
performance, or vice versa. Obviously, selection on the basis of one will not make
improvement in the other. The two traits are inherited independently.

Two or more traits may also be correlated from the genetic standpoint in a positive manner.
By this is meant that selection for the improvement of one will also result in the
improvement of the other even through direct selection for its improvement has not been
practiced.

It is also possible for two traits to be genetically correlated in a negative manner. This means
that selection for the improvement of one, if successfully, results in a decline in the other to
which it is genetically correlated. An example of such correlation is butterfat percentage and
milk yield in dairy cattle.
 INBREEDING AS A TOOL TO LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the genetic and phenotypic effects of inbreeding

2. Calculate inbreeding coefficient and the coefficient of relationship between relatives.

3. Operationalize the development of inbred lines.

3.1. Inbreeding Defined

Inbreeding is a mating system in which a progeny are produced by parents more closely related than the
average of the population. The closer form of inbreeding is the mating of brother x sisters from the
mating of sire x daughter, dam x son, half-brother x half-sister, cousins and grandparents and
grandchildren or in vice versa.

Most livestock producer are familiar with the effects of inbreeding, and they avoid it as much as
possible. It is avoided because past experience has shown that inbreeding is usually associated with the
appearance of genetic defects and a general overall decline in vigor and performance. In humans, it is
believed that children from marriage of first cousins are doomed to be deformed physically or mentally,
and this belief is so strong that we have certain moral and legal laws which prohibit the marriage of
close relatives.

Studies with plants and animals, however, shoe that inbreeding is not always detrimental. Many plants
such as oats, peas, and beans are self-fertilized and thus are highly inbred as compared to cross-
pollinated plants such as corns. Laboratory rats have been inbred by full brother x sister mating for
many generations without a decline in vigor and have produced as large litters when mated to littermate
males as when mated to unrelated males. Many of our present-day breeds of farm animals were
established by making use of inbreeding, and many outstanding herds of swine and cattle in the past
were developed by this system of mating.

3.2. Genetic and Phenotype Effects of Inbreeding

3.2.1 Genetic effects – the genetic effects of inbreeding is that it makes more pairs of genes in the
population homozygous regardless of the kind of gene action involved. To illustrate the
genetic effect of inbreeding, we shall use a single pair of genes and let D be the dominant
and d the recessive allele. We shall also assume for this example that we are dealing with
plants which are self-fertilized and that there is no selection for or against the dominant or
the recessive genes. We will also assume that the parent generation we are working will
contains 1600 individuals, all of which are heterozygous for the genes two genes (Dd). This is
 shown in table 1. The crossing of heterozygous individuals will give a genotypic ratio of IDD:
2Dd:ldd in the first generation.

A study of this example will show that in succeeding generations an important change has been taken
place in the percentage of the heterozygotes in the population. In the parent generation, all of the
individuals were heterozygous, whereas in the first generation this was true of only50 percent of the
individuals. Thus, we can say that after one generation of self-fertilization, the number of the individuals
in population of self-fertilization was increased by per cent. In this generation, one fourth of all
individuals are now homozygous dominant (DD) and one fourth are homozygous recessive (dd).

Now let u continue the inbreeding for more generations by self-fertilization. Individuals of the genotype
DD when self-fertilized will produce nothing but offspring of this same genotype. The same is true of
parents of genotype dd. All individuals of genotype Dd, however, will produce offspring again at the
genotypic ratio IDD; 2Dd: Idd. In the second generation of inbreeding, we now have the following
genotypes: 600Dd: 400Dd: 600dd. Seventy five percent of the individual are now homozygous dominant
and homozygous recessive. Continuing this self-fertilization we find the homozygosity of the population
produced increases with each generation but at a decreasing rate.

Table 1. Example showing how in breeding increases the number of pairs of homozygous genes.

Generation Genotype Percent Frequency of Frequency of

number homozygous d gene dd genotype
gene pairs
0 1600Dd 0 .50 0

1 400DD 800Dd 400dd 50 .50 .25

! ! !
2 400DD+200DD400Dd 200dd 400dd 75 .50 .375
! ! !
3 600DD+100DD200Dd 100dd+600dd 87.5 .50 .437
! ! !
4 700DD+ 500DD100Dd 50dd+700dd 93.8 .50 .468
! ! !
5 750DD+ 25DD 50Dd 25dd+750dd 96.9 .50 .484

3.2.2. Phenotypic Effects Inbreeding if accompanied by selection may increase the phenotypic
uniformity among animals within an inbred line for traits such as coat color and horns that
are conditioned by genes with large monofactorial effects. This is true, however, some of
the quantitative traits that are affected by many pairs of genes seem to act in physiological
manner upon the efficiency of metabolism of many chemical compounds. Studies in swine
point out rather conclusively that increased inbreeding or homozygosity is accompanied by
 a decline in fertility, viability, and growth rate. Type and conformation may be affected to a
certain extent, especially by the occurrence of crooked legs.

3.3. Measurement of Inbreeding

The coefficient of inbreeding (symbolized by F) is a useful indicator of the probable effect

which inbreeding has had at two levels.

(1) On an individual basis, the coefficient of inbreeding indicates the probability that the two
alleles at any locus are identical by descent, i.e. they are both replication products of a
gene present in a common ancestor.

(2) On a population basis, coefficient of inbreeding indicates the percentage of all loci which
were heterozygous in the base population that now have probably become homozygous
due to the effects of inbreeding. The base population is that point in the history of the
population from which we desire to begin a calculation of the effects of inbreeding. Many
loci are probably homozygous at the same time we establish our base population. The
inbreeding coefficient then measures the additional increase in homozygosity due to
matings between closely related individuals.

1) The coefficient of inbreeding (F) can be determined for an individual in a pedigree by

several methods:
(a) If the common ancestor is not inbred, the F given by:

Fx = ½ Σ(1/2)n or Fx = 1/2Σ(1/2) p+p-1

Where P1 is the number of generations (paths) from one parent back to the
common ancestor, and P2 is the number of generations from the other parent back
to the common ancestor, or

Where n = number of individuals in any path of relationship counting the parents

of x, the common ancestor, and all individuals in the path connecting parents to
common ancestor.
= sum of all paths of relationship.

(b) If the common ancestors is inbred, the f of individuals x must be corrected bybte
factor:

Fx = ½ Σ(1/2)n (1+FA)
Where FA = inbreeding coefficient of the common ancestor.

The following table will be helpful in calculating F.

N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 (½)n 0.5000 0.2500 0.1250 0.0625 0.0312 0.0156 0.078 0.0039

Examples:

1) The following pedigree and arrow diagram show a half-sib mating, the sire and the dam of the
individual x having had the same sire (C), the only common ancestor in this pedigree is individual
C, because he appear in the pedigree of both the sire and the dam of individual X. the arrow C to
X through the sire and only through the dam. This pathway may now be straightened out for
illustrative purposes, X S C D X.

C F C E E C F

S D S D

X X

Pedigree Arrow diagram

Assuming C is not an inbred, the inbreeding coefficient of x is:

Fx = ½ (1/2)2, or ½ (0.25) = 0.125 or 12.5%

2) Full-sib Matings
The method for calculating the inbreeding coefficient for a full-sib mating is very similar to that
described for half-sib mating, except that an additional path and common ancestor are involved.
The following pedigree and arrow diagram illustrates how calculations are made for such a
mating.

C F C F C F

S D S D

X X
Pedigree Arrow diagram

Note that there are two (2) common ancestors and thus, tracing them follows 2 pathways to
relationship.

X S C D X = (1/2) 2 = 0.25

X S C D X = (1/2) 2 = 0.25
0.50
 The inbreeding coefficient of individual X is one-half of the sum of these two pathways, or F x =
1/2(0.50) = 0.250, or 25 percent inbreeding.

3) Sire x Daughter Matings

The inbreeding coefficient is calculated for parent x offspring in the same manner as for half and
full sibs with only slight variations. The following is a pedigree of an individual from mating of a
sire to his own daughter. The inbreeding coefficient from such a mating is 0.25, providing the
sire himself is not inbred.

G H

S S D

G H E X
Arrow pedigree
S D
X
Pedigree

The pathway is

X S D X - (1/2) 1 = 0.50

Provided the sire is not an inbred, the inbreeding coefficient of X is:

Fx = ½ (0.50), or 0.25, or 25 percent inbreeding

Inbreeding coefficient for dam x son matings are calculated in a similar manner, except the
arrow diagram run from the dam as the common ancestor.

4) Sire x Daughter Mating with Sire Inbred

The following pedigree is one in which a sire x daughter mating is made, but the sire himself is
inbred. The first step in calculating the inbreeding coefficient for such an individual is to
complete the arrow diagram as shown.
 C

E
S

C
B

E
X
C A
A C
E S
B E
S
C X
B D
D Arrow Diagram

O E

Pedigree

The first common ancestor in this pedigree is individual S, which is the sire or individuals X and D. At this
point, one might ask what to do about the other common ancestor such as what to do about the other
common ancestor such as A, B, and E? the answer to this is that we take care of these individuals by firt
calculating the inbreeding coefficient of individuals S or the sire, as well done in the previous example
for full-brother x full-sister matings. After this is done, for each path going from the individual S to
individual D, which is just one in this case, we multiply the path by (1 + F), or one plus the inbreeding
coefficient of individuals S.

The calculations of the inbreeding coefficient of individual S (sire) is as follows:

Fs 1 = (1/2)3 (1+0) = 0.125

Fs 2 = (1/2)3 (1+0) = 0.125

 Fs = 0.25 or 25%

And the inbreeding coefficient of individual X is:

Fx = (1/2) (1+Fs)

= 0.25 (1.25) = 0.3125 or 31.25%

5) When parents may be related to each other through more than one common ancestor, or from
the same ancestor through different paths:

A B

C D E

G H J

K L M

If Z has more than one common ancestor, its F should be determined by adding all the contribution of
each ancestor. The closer the ancestor the greater are their contribution to the coefficient of inbreeding
of the individual.

Ancestor Paths Contribution to F n F

A X, K, G, A, D, H, L, Y, (1/2)9 = 0.00159 9 0

B X, K, H, D, B, E, L, Y (first) (1/2)8 = 0.00391 8 0

X, K, H, D, B, E, J, M, Y (1/2)9 = 0.00195 9 0
(second)

C X, K, G, C, H, L, Y (1/2)7 = 0.00781 7 0
H X, K, H, L, Y (1/2)5 (1+1/8) =0.03516 5 1/8

2) Calculating F from population size:

The inbreeding coefficient can also be calculated from the population size by an
intermediate step. First calculate the rate of inbreeding (AF) per generation.
 F = 1/8 N + 1/ 8 N

Where N = number of males per generation

N = number of females per generation

The sampling variance attributed to the sexes must be reckoned separately. This is because in domestic
and laboratory animals the exes are often unequally presented among the breeding individuals, since it
is more economical, when possible, to use fewer males than females.

The population where generations overlap as they do in cattle, the equation is:

F = 1/8 nm L + 1/8 nf L

Where nm; nf = number of new males and females added to the herd each year

L = generation interval i.e. the average age ofparents when their offspring are born.

Because Nf is usually much larger than N m, the term 1/8 Nf is usually very small and nearly all the
inbreeding depends on the number of males.

The inbreeding coefficient can now be calculated for F and t generations of inbreeding by:

F=1–(1- F )t

Table 1 gives the rate of the inbreeding and the F after 5 generations for various generations.

Table 1. Effect of herd size on the F and F after 5 generations.

No. of bulls (N) No. of cows (Nf) F F after 5 generations

2 40 0.066 0.288
4 100 0.033 0.152
4 1000 0.031 0.147
8 200 0.016 0.079
20 500 0.006 0.032
Note that,

o Small population size (less no. of males and females) results to high F or F, the large
population has as small F value.
o The F or F Greatly depends on the number of males of the numbers of less numerous sex, i.e.
F drastically reduces when Nm increases.

3.4. Coefficients of Relationships

The coefficient of relationship between two individuals is an expression of the probability that
they possess duplicate genes, because their common line in descent, over and above those
found in the base population. It is evident that an increase in inbreeding causes the
relationship of individuals within the inbred line to the increase. On the other hand, it is
possible for two different inbred to be inbred the same amount but still not be related. For
example, individuals in Landrace line of hogs might be inbred 25 percent and in a Poland line a
similar amount. They do not have duplicate genes in common because of their common
descent, although they do not possess some of the same gens because they belong to the
same species.

It is often of practical importance you know something about the degree of relationship
between two individuals. For instance, one wants to buy two animals, one of which shows
excellent type and comes at a high asking price and the other of which is lacking in some one
point but do not to the extent to warrant disregarding the animal entirely. If they have high
coefficient of relationship, one would probably perform Justas well in the breeder’s herd as the
other. He could purchase the cheaper animal produce as good stock with it as the one which
was more expensive.

For the theoretical standpoint, relationships could have another used for the livestock breeder.
For the traits such as carcass quality that cannot be measured very well until after the death of
the individual, the slaughter of a relative should give some indication of the carcass quality of
the individual question. The value of the relative in this respect would be proportional to the
degree the two individuals were related. A full brother or sister would be worth more than a
half sister or half brother in third respect. A full brothers and sisters within the inbred line
would also be more closely resulted than would be full brothers and sisters which are not
inbred. Relationship coefficients would give a good indication of the value of records of
relatives from this standpoint.

Calculating coefficient or relationship: The coefficient of relationship is equal to the sum of all
the pathways between the two individuals through the common ancestors. Ex. In the pedigree
diagram

B D

C E
There are two pathways connecting B and C,

B
½
D B and C probably contain (1/2) (1/2) = ¼ of their genes in common
through ancestor D.
C ½

C E similarly, B and C probably contain ¼ of their genes in common

through
Ancestor E.
 The sum of these two pathways is the coefficient of relationship between the full sibs B and C,
RBC = ¼ +1/4 = ½ or 50%
The following is an example in which the relationship coefficient between half-brothers and
half-sisters is calculated.

A
X
X
B
A A X Y
1 2
Y Y A

O
Pedigree Arrow diagram Pathway

The relationship coefficient between individuals X and Y, or R XY, is (1/2)2 or 0.250. this means that these
two individuals increase in the two individuals are related by about 25 percent, or they probably have an
increase in this percentage of duplicate genes over that found in the base or non-inbred population.

Direct relationships: Many times it is of interest to know something about the relationship between an
individual and some outstanding ancestor in the pedigree. This is of particular value when linebreeding
has been practiced, although the same procedure may be used for calculating the degree of relationship
to any particular ancestor. The formula use is:

RXa = Σ (1/2)n √ 1+ F a/1 + Fx

In this formula, when neither of the individuals involved is inbred, the figures under the square root sign
will be equal to one and can be disregarded. For example, the following method is used to calculate the
relationship between a sire (S) and his daughter (D).

S D = S D = (1/2) = 0.50

A Arrow diagram Pathway Relationship Coefficient

S
 B

Pedigree

3.5. Possible Uses of Inbreeding

The most important factor limiting the usefulness of inbreeding the livestock breeding is the
decline in vigor that almost always follows or accompanies its use. This is doubly important,
because the traits affected most adversely by inbreeding are those of the greatest importance
from the economic standpoint. In spite of these disadvantages, there are certain instances
where it may be used to advantage in livestock production:

1. To determine the actual genetic worth of an individual. Mating the sire to his daughter will
test for all recessive genes the sire may be carrying and at the same time it give some
indication of the desirable genes he may possess.

2. To select against the recessive gene that is not economic importance. Since inbreeding
brings out the hidden recessive genes, the homozygous recessive individuals as well as the
heterozygotes could be identified and culled.

3. To form distinct families within the breed, especially if selection is practiced along with it.
Selection between such inbred families for traits of low heritability would be more
effective than selection based on individuality alone, especially if there were distinct or
definite family differences.

4. Used for the production of seed stock. But when the breeder uses it for this purpose, he
has to determine how much he can sacrifice in the way of lower production and
performance to increase the purity off his breeding animals.

5. To develop lines that can be used for crossing purposes. When two or more inbred lines
are found that nick well in crosses, they are more likely than are non-inbred animals to do
so in future crosses because of their purity. The most practical uses in breeding is to use
inbred sires in three-line rotation crosses on crossbred females for commercial production
because of their reduced performance as a mother.

6. From the research standpoint, inbreeding is of value to determine the type, or types, of
gene action that affect the various economic traits in the farm animals. If inbreeding
affects are very great, the trait affected by non-additive gene action. If inbreeding affects
are very small or non-existent, the trait is affected mostly by additive gene action.
 TOPIC 4. CROSSBREEDING FARM ANIMALS

At the end of the topic you should be able to:

1. Differentiate crossbreeding from outbreeding and discuss fully their genotypic effects.

2. Illustrate the various types of crossbreeding.

3. Explain hoe heterosis is brought about by crossbreeding and also determine the percent
heterosis attained by the individual.

4. State the physiological basis of heterosis.

5. Give the practical value of crossbreeding as well as outbreeding.

4.1. Crossbreeding Defined

Crossbreeding refers to the mating of individuals belonging to different species (interspecific

hybridization), breeds, varieties, or strains (interspecific hybridization) for the purpose of obtaining
hybrid vigor or heterosis. The mating of unrelated animals within the breed is known as outbreeding.
Although crossbreeding is more extreme than outbreeding, the genetic effects of both are similar.

4.2. Types of Crossbreeding

Depending on the number of population with diverse genotypes involve in the mating,
crossbreeding can either be:

1. One-way or single cross – crossing two population with diverse genotypes, e.g.

P1 Brahman x Sta. Gertrudis

Brahman

--------------------

Sta. Gertrudis
2. Triple crossing – crossing three populations with diverse genotypes, e.g.
P1 Large White x Landrace
!
!
Large White
F1 _______________ x Hypor
Landrace !
!
Hypor
_______________
F2 Large White
_______________
Landrace

3. Four-way crossing – croosing four different population with diverse genotypes, or crossing, e.g.
P1 New Hampshire x Rhode island Red
!
!
New Hampshire
F1 _________________ x Arbor Acre
Rhode Red Island !
!
N.H/R.I.R
F2 __________ x Vantress
Arbor Acre
!
!
N.H. /R.I.R
____________
Arbor Acre
____________
Vantress
Or
P1 N. H. x R. I. R. A. A. x V.
! !
! !
N. H. A. A.
F1 _______ X _______
R. I. R ! v
!
!
N. H. / R. I. R
F2 ____________
A. A. / V.
4. Backcrossing – the successive crossing of the progeny to the common ancestor, e.g.
P1 Anglo-Nubian x Toggenberg
!
!
Anglo-Nubian 50%
F1 __________________ x Toggenberg
Toggenberg 50% !
!
!
Anglo-Nubian 25%
F2 ___________________ x Toggenberg
Toggenberg 50% !
!
Anglo-Nubian 12.5%
___________________
Toggenberg 87. 5%

5. Crisscrossing – crossing thee crossbred progeny to the parental types using them alternately,
e.g.
P1 Duroc x Berkshire
!
!
Duroc 50%
F1 _____________ x Duroc
Berkshire 50% !
!
Duroc 75%
F2 ______________ x Berkshire
Berkshire 25% !
!
Duroc 37.5 %
F3 _______________
Berkshire 62.5%

4.3. Genotypic and Phenotypic Effect of Crossbreeding

Crossing increase the heterozygosity of the stock; when a homozygous dominant is mated
to a homozygous recessive, the resulting offspring will all be heterozygous as shown in the
illustration below.

P1 AA x aa
Homozygous ! homozygous
Dominant ! recessive
F1 Aa
All heterozygous
It should be pointed out that maximum amount of heterozygosity is attained in the F 1; this
decreases in the succeeding generations.

When two or more pairs of genes are involved, the degree of variation observed become
even wider. In other words, a bird is more, or less, heterozygous than another for a particular
trait.

P1 AABBCCDD x aabbccdd
!
!
F1 AaBbCcDd x AaBbCcDd
!
!
F2 256 offspring
Of different genetypes

Crossbreeding do not breed true to type because the wide diversity in genotypes possessed
by them, because of this, they are less likely to transmit same genes to all of their offspring.

4.4. Crossbred Animals Exhibit Hybrid Vigor or Heterosis

Heterosis, or hybrid vigor, is the name given to the increased vigor of the offspring over that
of the parents when unrelated individuals are mated. Hybrid vigor includes more than just
hardiness. It includes greater viability, faster growth rate, greater milk producing ability and
fertility. This phenomenon has been known for many years. The best known example in animals
is the mule, which is noted for its ability to withstand hot weather and hard work.

In recent years, swine procedures have used crossbreeding to include hybrid vigor in the
commercial production of hogs.

The heterotic effect of crossbreeding is governed to some extent by the genetic action
involved.

1. Dominance - the dominant action of some gens has strong masking effect on the recessive
genes. For instance, where several pairs of genes control one trait, one trait breed could be
homozygous dominant for several pairs and homozygous recessive for another (AABBCCdd),
while the second could be respectively homozygous recessive and homozygous dominant
fro those pairs (aaBBCCDD). When animals of the two breed types are crossed, the F 1
AaBBCCDD would be superior to both parents in that particular trait, having at least one
dominant gene in each pair.

2. Overdominance – Where several pairs of genes with overdominant cation affect the same
trait, the effect of the different pairs may not be equal; some have greater effect than
 others. This is due to the fact that the gene action is entirely dependent upon
heterozygosity. Hence to take advantage of such kind of gene action would then be to first
form inbred lines and make them homozygous by inbreeding, the lines would be tested in
crosses to find which lines combine best and induce the most heterotic effect in their
offspring. And the best combining original parents would be used to produce heterozygous
individuals.

3. Epistasis – while in dominance and overdominance the heterotic effect is due to the
interaction is between pairs of genes that are not alleles. In this case, it becomes difficult, if
not impossible, to fix heterosis or maintain it by mating individuals having the highest
degree of heterosis. To avail of heterosis, it is then important to form distinct lines of breeds
and cross them to find those which give the greatest hybrid vigor.

4.5. Estimation of Hybrid Vigor

Heterosis cannot be measured accurately for a single mating because no n-genetic factors may
cause a great deal of variation in a particular trait in a single mating, more accurate estimation can be
done by comparing groups of crossbred and purebred animals. Some do not agree with this; they feel
that heterosis is best measured by the amount that the F 1 exceeds the higher parents. Others feel that
heterosis is best measured by comparing the mean of the F 1 offspring with that of the purebred parents,
using the formula –

Mean of F1 offspring - Mean of parent Breeds

Percent heterosis = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100

Mean parent breeds

From the genetic standpoint, the above formula seems to be reasonable method.

Heterosis can also be expressed as the average of the F 1 offspring minus the average of the parent
population:

H = M f 1 - Mp

Where: M f 1 is the mean of F offspring

M p is mean of the parents; it is equal to

M p I + Mp II

Mp = ---------------------

When M f I - Mp = 0, this does not really mean that there is not heterosis because genetic value of
the loci is the sum of the + and – values of the genes or genetic action. This could be equal to zero. For
example, if we cross two White Leghorns we may not get any heterosis at all as far as many loci and the
combined possible effect at the different loci may show no heterosis.
4.6. Practical Uses of Crossbreeding

The uses of the crossbreeding include the following:

1. To established a broad genetic basis for the development of the new breed. The initial
crossbreeding is then followed by the inbreeding and selection for the characteristics desired in
the new breed. An example of this system is the development of the Sta. Gertrudis breed of
cattle by the King Ranch in Texas from a Shorthorn x Brahman cross. Other examples are the
development of several new breeds of swine.

2. To maintain heterosis which cannot be fixed within a pure line or breed. Crossbreeding is used
widely for the production of market hogs and also beef cattle.

Many breeders object the use of crossbreeding for various reasons. One reputed
disadvantage of crossbreeding is that the offspring lack uniformity of coat color. This objectives
is more likely to be valid where three or more breeds are used in crossbreeding program; some
breeders have overcome this difficulty by developing inbred lines all the same color.

4.7. Other systems of Breeding

1. Grading – in grading, purebreeds males of superior merit are mated to grade females of low
quality. One of the feature of grading is that the greatest improvement is usually made with the
first cross, with less improvement made in the later generations as the level of quality in the
herd increases. Some of the improvement made in the first cross is due to heterosis; in later
generations the level of heterosis tends to regress. The factor that could be responsible for
continued improvement when grading is practiced is the introduction of desirable additive
genes with plus effects into a herd which originally lacked them.

2. In-cross breeding – this is relatively new system of breeding evolved by poultry breeders in their
attempt to produce more productive birds. It is patterned after the production of hybrid corn.

This system involves the creation of inbred lines from the same or different breeds and the
subsequent mating of the selected lines. By first resorting to inbreeding for three or four
generations, purification of the good s well as the bad traits occur. In other words, the resulting
inbreds become homozygous for the characters they carry, either good or bad, and these
characters are expressed in the appearance or performance of the birds. The wastage during
this period is generally heavy since many of the lines will show their hidden defects. Strict
selection follows, retaining only the families which possess those characters of commercial
value. Test-crossing of selected inbred lines (two-way cross) is then made to find out their
nickability or ability to complement each other’s defects. The successful crosses (incrossed) are
further tested-mated to other crosses of inbred lines resulting in a four-way cross. The product
of the mating of two selected in-crossed lines is what is called the commercial hybrid, which is
generally superior in performance than ordinarily bred lines.
Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister
! ! ! !
Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister
! ! ! !
Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister Brother x Sister
! ! ! !
Inbred A Inbred B Inbred C Inbred D
AB CD
Commercial Hybrid
(ABCD)
 TOPIC 5. SUMMARY OF ANIMAL BREEDING PRINCIPLES

After studying this topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify the breeding principles often used in the improvement of livestock.

2. Design a breeding program/plan for a particular species of animal to improve traits of

economic importance.

5.1. Sampling Nature Inheritance

The inheritance of individuals is transmitted from parents to offspring by means of genes

located on the various chromosomes. There are hundreds and probably thousands of genes and
they occur in pairs except those on the nonhomologous parts of the X and Y chromosomes. Of
each pairs of genes, the individual receives one from the mother and one from the father and to
each of his offspring the individual will give one member of the pair. Thus, for every pair of
genes, each offspring receives a sample one-half of its inheritance from each parents. Since
there are many pairs of genes, and some are the homozygous and some in the heterozygous
state in the individual the samples may be quite different for any two.

5.2. Role of the Animal Breeder

Differences in genes, or variations due to the differences in genes, is the raw material with
which the animal breeder must work. The animal breeder cannot create new genes, but must
work with the genetic variations that already exists in his animals.

Genetic variation is the result of mutations of genes which have occurred during the
production of many, many new generations of animals. These mutation, along with selection,
have made some animals more suitable for particular purpose. The dairy-cattle breeder is
interested in developing a herd that gives the largest amount of milk per animal for the smallest
amount of feed consumed. The beef producer is interested in the efficiency of beef production,
but recently he has been giving increased attention to carcass quality. In other word, the
problem now is not to develop new and better breeds, but to improved existing ones or to
combine them in a way as to take advantage of heterosis. Of course, some new breeds have
been developed from the crossbred foundations, but their superiority to the more popular older
breeds has still to be proved. There seems to be some potential for the development of new and
superior breeds from a crossbreed foundation if the two or more parent breeds possess
different desirable genes.
 The role of the animal breeders is to identify those animals and to concentrate in his herd as
many of these genes as possible. In attempting to find superior animals, he is often confused by
environmental effects and by the different modes of gene action and interaction. He should
compare prospective breeding animals in as like environments as possible, preferably in one
similar to that in which their offspring would be raised; and he should compare animals near the
age at which he would market the offspring. He must choose superior individuals on the basis of
information in pedigrees, the individuality of the prospective breeding animals, and on
information on collateral relatives and progeny when their records are available. His breeding
program will be effective if the traits to be selected for have been measured accurately and if
they are highly heritable, indicating that additive gen action is the cause of most important
genetic influence on the traits he plans to select for, his breeding program will have to include
the development of inbred lines first. Then these will have to be tested in crosses to identify
those with the superior combing ability in order to take advantage of nicking or heterosis.

5.3. Information Needed to Formulate Effective Mating and Selection Systems.

When developing a breeding program the breeder must first decide what traits are the most
important to select for from the economic standpoint. His decision will depend upon the species
of farm animals with which he is working, the feeding program he intends to use, the kind of
product he intends to market, and the sale price of the product. In most cases, the breeder will
limit the number of traits selected for and will include these traits in an index. The amount of
weight he gives each trait, its relative economic value, and the genetic correlation of that trait
with others of economic importance.

Next he must acquaint himself with the methods that have been devised to accurate
measurements and records; thereby, the breeder can distinguish more satisfactorily between
the genetic and environmental effects both in prospective measurements of such traits as
weight, milk production, or percentage of lean cuts should be made and not estimated. The use
of correction factors to adjust records of all animals in the herd to a comparable age, to the
same-age-of dam basis, for sex, and other variables, whenever applicable, enables the breeder
to make comparisons more accurately. His accuracy in choosing genetically superior animals for
breeding purposes and in evaluating the progress of his breeding program will be increased if he
keeps detailed written records.

Another fact the breeders needs to know in planning his program is which kind of gene
action, additive or non-additive, has the greater influence on each of the important economic
traits. Additive gene action is indicated when the heritability of the trait is high, as measured by
the resemblance between parents and their offspring, and when the crossing of breeds results
in an average of the F1 that closely approximates the average of the parents. Additive gene
action is also indicated, but not yet proven, when sex differences for a trait are large. When the
additive gene action has more influence, mass selection (mating the best of the best) will be
effective. Non-additive gene action is indicated when the heritability of a trait is low, when
inbreeding has had detrimental effects, and when outbreeding or crossbreeding has had
beneficial effects. Non-additive gene action is indicated when the heritability of a trait is low,
 when inbreeding has detrimental effects, and when outbreeding or crossbreeding has had
beneficial effect. Non-additive gene action is also indicated when the average of the F 1
individuals differs from the average of the two parental groups (heterosis). When non-additive
gene action has more influence on a trait, the greatest improvement in performance will come
from the crossing of strains or lines known to have good nicking or combining ability. The
breeder may want to breed and select for several different traits of which some affected by
additive and some non-additive gene action. The recommended procedure here would be form
from pure lines or breeds by selection for improvement in those traits that are highly heritable;
then, cross these lines or breeds to improve those traits that how heterosis.

The breeder should also know whether genetic correlations are important among the
different traits selected for and whether the correlations are positive or negative.

The breeder can make more effective plans if he also can determine or not genetic-
environmental interactions influence the traits he wishes to select for.

5.4. When to Use Inbreeding and Linebreeding

Inbreeding and line breeding are practiced to produce seed stock. Intensive inbreeding is
done, as a general rule, with the intention of using inbred animals for crossing purposes.

If this is not the breeder’s main objective, intensive inbreeding might not be desirable, for
the main phenotypic effect of inbreeding and linebreeding is a decline in the performance traits
that are affected greatly by non-additive gene action. Much of this decline must due to the fact
that detrimental recessive genes are revealed by increased homozygosity. In general, the traits
affected most by inbreeding are those associated with physical fitness. The decline in
performance in others but in general, the decline occurs in spite of the selection against it.

The producer of seed stock, himself, must be prepared to accept a certain amount of decline
in performance of his stock and must expect the appearance of some inherited defects. He must
decide whether or not the expected increase in preprotency or uniformity of genetic
composition will overbalance the decline in performance.

Inbreeding is practiced for some other purpose than the production of seed stock to used in
crosses, such as the production of purebreds for show-ring purposes, the degree of inbreeding
should be held to a minimum and should be increased slowly, with intensive culling and
selection of breeding animals that reproduce that line. These methods of breeding should not
be used by commercial livestock procedure, who is an animal multiplier and not a producer of
seed stock.

Inbreeding and linebreeding should not be used in herds made up of average or mediocre
breeding stock for several undesirable recessive genes may be present and frequently will be
bought together and appear phenotypically; this may result in the discarding of the whole
inbred line sooner or later.
 The building of superior inbred lines of livestock is a slow, time-consuming, and methodical
process and probably should be undertaken only by the breeder who has the knowledge, the
time, and the necessary capital to continue the process to its completion.

5.5. When to Use Outbreeding and Crossbreeding

Outbreeding is the form of mating most often used by present-day purebreds breeders in the
production of purebreds. It will probably continue to be widely use, because, by mating females
in is herd of flock nonrelated males the breeder avoids the effect of inbreeding. In outbreeding,
the breeder must attempt to purchase the best genetic materials he can find at a price ha can
afford to pay, and he must always try to find a male that is superior to the females in his herd.
Recently, breeders have been selecting males on the basis of both type and performance rather
on type alone. The use of superior males proved by performance tests should improve the
overall performance of the herd and produce superior seed stock to sell to the commercial
livestock procedures.

Crossbreeding is the mating system that should be used by the livestock multiplier or the
commercial livestock procedure. The class of livestock may be important, however;
crossbreeding is useful in swine, but may not be in dairy cattle. Crossbreeding effects ate the
opposite of inbreeding and linebreeding effects in that traits associated with physical fitness are
improved; but the breeding worth of the individuals may be lessened to a certain degree
because they are heterozygous and do not breed as uniformly true as inbred animals.

Some livestock procedures become so enthusiastic about crossbreeding that they may forget
that some traits in farm animals do not show heterosis. Thus, it is important for the breeder to
be familiar with which traits show heterosis and which ones do not.

5.6. Conclusion

In conclusions, it is well to emphasize that, for the greatest improvement in livestock

breeding, the breede must not only be familiar with the raw material and the tools available to
mold this raw materials, butbmust also know how to use both to the greatest advantage.

Assignment: Develop a breeding plan for the improvement of a livestock herd of your choice,
using the attached format. This is to be submitted at the end of term before
taking
the final examination.

Organization of On-Farm Breeding Plans

Steps for deriving the aim:

1) Definition of background and aims:

 o Both breeder and genetic adviser should clearly define aims of breeding plan (ex.
Production for slaughter, or reproductive-stud-stock).

o Both define the resources of the land, personnel and facilities and the sort of data
that can be collected.

2) Definition of traits:

o Each trait to be considered must be defined so that it can be measured.

o Establish for each trait what its economic distribution will be.

Ex.
High prices of real are quite irrelevant to a breeding situation in which the turnoff is
from 2-1/2 old bullocks and old cows.

o Summarize definition of traits by placing all traits into an order of importance for
the particular situation, to limit the no. of traits to be improved.

‘’ The fewer traits considered, the more progress can be made in any particular
trait”.

3) Estimates of genetic parameters.

o Estimates of h2, heterosis and genetic correlations with other traits for all traits
listed above-provided by genetic adviser from literature.

In general, traits concerned with reproduction are low h2 but show high heterosis.

o Traits concerned with growth have medium h2 (0.1-0.3) but show little heterosis,
except when confounded with heterosis in material effect.

Carcass traits, highh2 (0.3) but no heterosis.

4) Appropriate method of improvement for each trait.

o In quantitative genetics, traits of medium or high h 2 are improved most rapidly by

selection on the basis of individual phenotype.
 o For the traits of low h 2, selection on family average, or within-family selection, are
most appropriate.

o If family members all experience the same environment, which is different from that
of the other families, within-family selection is appropriate. Within family selection
reduces the rate of inbreeding.

o Sometimes the nature of traits forces the use of variations of family selection, such
as selection of surviving family members after slaughter and measurement of
randomly selected group of sibs, or selection on progeny test.

o For traits showing substantial heterosis crossbreeding is required.

o If none of these suitable 9ex. Trait with low h 2 and low heterosis) no significant
genetic improvement can be expected. Such traits should be excluded in the
breeding program and must be improve by modifying the environment.

Only 3 to 4 most important trait, capable of genetic improvement and are not
strongly positively correlated, should be considered further.

5) Synthesis of Overall Breeding plan.

o This is the point where selection indices for combining the various traits to be
selected must be calculated, or independent culling level must be set.

o One may also combine the requirement of selection for some traits with
crossbreeding for others.

o There may be some constraints imposed by background, ex. A stud breeder may be
willing to crossbreed.

6) Tests for the Synthesis Breeding Plan.

o Estimation of rate of inbreeding is required for breeding plans that involve “closing
of herds”. Increment of inbreeding (AF, Falconers) should be no greater than 1% per
generations as calculated by:

1 1 1
AF = ----------- ----------- ------------- where
2 Ne 8 Nm 8 Nf

Ne = effective pop’n size

Nm = no. of breeding males
 Nf = no. of breeding females

o If AF is >1% per generation, a system of breeding families, with systematic

movement of males between families should be considered.

Alternatively, periodic opening of breeding plan may have to occur; but one may
avoid introducing outside stock, if systematic application of the breeding plan has
already resulted in significant improvement.

o Other test may involve checks on the estimated requirement of labor and facilities,
calculating the progress in the breeding plan and comparing with expected costs.

- For modification of the plan.