Bianca Therese L.

Angeles

12- St. Ambrose

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

Pedigree

- Making use of diagrams showing the ancestral relationships and transmission of genetic traits
over several generations in a family
- Uses:
1. Describe the mode of inheritance of a trait
2. Calculate the probability of occurrence of an affected offspring in the given cross

Mode of Inheritance

- The manner in which a genetic trait or disorder is passed from one generation to the next
• Autosomal dominant
• Autosomal recessive
• X-linked dominant
• X-linked recessive
• Multifactorial
• Mitochondrial inheritance

Proband

- The individual in the pedigree that led to the construction of the pedigree
- Are usually represented by an arrow on the lower left corner of the individual’s symbol

Autosomal Trait

- A trait whose alleles that control it are found in the autosomes (body chromosomes/ non-sex
chromosomes) autosomal: somatic cells

Sex-linked trait

- A trait in which a gene is located on a sex chromosome. In humans, the term generally refers to
traits that are influenced by genes on the X chromosome

Identical Twins

- Or monozygotic twins, are derived from a single fertilization event

Fraternal Twins

- Or dizygotic twins, are derived from separate fertilization events (two eggs fertilized by two
sperms) within the fallopian tube, resulting in two separate zygotes
 - If the trait is dominant, one of the parents must have the trait. Dominant traits will not skip a
generation. If the trait is recessive, neither parent is required to have the trait since they can be
heterozygous

- In x-linked recessive traits, males are much more commonly affected than females
- In autosomal traits, both males and females are equally likely to be affected (usually in equal
proportions)

- The terms dominant and recessive refer to the way that a trait is expressed, not by how often it
shows up in a family
- In fact, although it is uncommon, a trait may be recessive but may still show up in all generations
of a pedigree

Exercises
Mechanisms of Evolution

- Mechanisms that produce change in population

Population

- Interbreeding group of individuals of one species in a given geographic area at the same time
- A population evolves because it contains the collection of genes called the gene pool
- As changes in the gene pool occur, a population evolves (disturbed gene pool= evolution)
- Interbreeding: involved in sexual intercourse, can produce offsprings

Two kinds of selections

1. Natural selection 2. Artificial selection

- Survival of the fittest - Breeding plants or animals for specific
traits
- Involves human intervention, good
characteristics selected

Natural selection

- Fittest creatures are more likely to survive and pass their genes to their offspring, producing a
population that is better adapted to the environment
- Genes of less-fit individuals are less likely to be passed on to the next generation
- Important selective force in natural selection is the environment
- Ex. giraffes: long-neck and short-neck coexist in the wild.
Soil got richer= natural fertilizer= trees grew
Long-neck adapted, medium and short-neck didn’t adapt hence wasn’t able to survive and
disappeared from the wild because the gene wasn’t passed

Natural Selection and Genetic Equilibrium

Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution

- Darwin’s ideas about natural selection plus our modern understanding of genetics
- According to the Synthetic Theory of Evolution, natural selection disturbs genetic equilibrium
- As a result, allele frequencies will change
- In this way natural selection determines which adaptations are beneficial to species
- It’s possible that we came from the same ancestor (SINGLE CELLED ORGANISM) as apes (and
other animals like whales and birds) that’s why our DNA is similar
- Combination of environment and gene

Factors that affect Natural Selection

Environmental fitness

- Individual’s ability to avoid predators

- Greater resistance to disease
- Ability to obtain food
- Resistance to drought
- Enhanced reproductive ability, such as the ability to attract a mate

Types of Natural Selection

Stabilizing selection

- Occurs when the environment selects against organisms of a

population with extreme versions of a trait
- Most common; easiest to observe in the wild
- Two extremes disappear, only intermediate stays
Directional selection

- The environment selects for an extreme characteristic. The development of antibiotic-resistant

bacteria in the modern era is an example of directional selection
- Also called Unidirectional- one direction, from point a to point b
- Intermediate phenotype and one extreme disappear, only one extreme stays

Disruptive selection

- The environment favors extreme types in a population at the expense of intermediate forms,
thereby splitting the population into two or more subpopulations
- Opposite of stabilizing selection
- Two extremes flourish in the wild, only intermediate disappears
- Speciation: the rise of new species from the original population
- Example: crabs
- light tan (sand), dark brown (mud), in between (wala mataguan, vulnerable, nawawala)

Other Mechanisms that Produce Change in Populations

Mutation

- Random change in an organism’s genetic makeup, which influences the population’s gene pool
- A change in the nature of the DNA in one or more chromosomes
- Give rise to new alleles
- May be harmful or benign
- Not dominant trait in the wild, happens when there’s a change in the genetic information of
organisms
- Ex. albinism did not exist before, only existed because of mutation; namix na sa gene pool natin
- Colorblindness and hemophilia are also a result of mutation

Gene flow

- Occurs during the migration of individuals from one group or location to another
- Migrating individuals interbreed with the new population, they contribute their genes to the
gene pool of the local population
- Ex. Filipinos: According to history we are according to Malay descent (pango, pandak, kulot)
- 3 colonizers: Spaniards, nagkaroon ng gene flow – nagkaroon ng fair skin, straight hair, pointed
nose; Americans introduced new genes, gene pool got lawak; Japanese……..
Genetic drift

- Change in allele frequencies in a population from generation

to generation that occurs due to chance events

Founder Effect

- Refers to the migration of a small group of organisms from a

larger population to go settle in another environment
- They carry along with them a subset of genetic information
that existed in the larger population
- Decreases genetic variation
- Gene pool is determined by the founders of the colony

Bottleneck effect

- An extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size

of a population is severely reduced
- Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, fires) can decimate a
population, and leaving behind a small, random assortment of survivors.
- Basta merong human intervention, SEVERE REDUCTION of organisms

Super filtered na genes ng cheetah

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

- Fossil records
- Anatomical similarities (comparative anatomy)
- Embryological similarities (embryology)
- Molecular similarities (molecular biology)

Fossil records

- Any trace or remains of an organism that has been preserved by a natural process
- The fossil record is considered the strongest evidence of evolution
- Strongest because we have physical evidence

TYPES OF FOSSILS

1. Imprint
- Thin, soft object (leaf, feather) is buried, and sediments later harden

2. Mold
- Buried organism disappears and leaves an empty space
- Only general shape of the organism

3. Cast
- Mold filled by minerals (replica of organism)
- When molds are filled by crystallized minerals and hardens over time

4. Petrification
- Minerals replace hard parts (bones, teeth, etc.) of organism
- Crystallized minerals

5. Amber
- Entire organism fossilized in tree sap

6. Frozen
- Entire organism frozen in ice
- Just like amber, the entire organism is preserved this time by a very low temperature

7. Trace
- Footprints, trails, etc.
- Very similar to mold fossils but instead of entire shape,
only footprint or trails of the organisms

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

- Study of anatomical structures to find similarities and differences

- Types: homologous, analogous, vestigial structures
Homologous Structures

- Parts with similar basic structure (derived from same structures in embryo- same common
descent), but may vary in function
- Homologous structures organisms with similar basic structures may share common ancestor

Analogous Structures

- Structures that have the same function (may look somewhat alike), but have different structures
and do not have a common descent
- Evolved from different ancestors

Vestigial Structures

- Reduced body parts (in comparison to the same complex structure in other organisms) that
have little to no function; remnant of an ancestor
Embryology

- Patterns of embryological development can indicate a common ancestry

- During embryological development, if embryo looks alike, shared ancestor may be close

Molecular Structure

- Cytochrome c is a protein found in the mitochondria. It is used in the study of evolutionary

relationships because most animals have this protein. Cytochrome c is made of 104 amino acids
joined together.
- Below is a list of the amino acids in part of a cytochrome protein molecule for 9 different animals.
Ant sequences exactly the same for all animals have been skipped.

Cytochrome c

- An ancient protein common to all aerobic (oxygen breathing) organisms

- Amino acid sequence to make cytochrome c differs increasingly the
more distantly related two organisms are (very similar amino acid
sequence= closely related)
- The cytochrome c of humans and chimpanzees is identical