Section C: Continuity and Variation

NB. The page numbers that follow are for the text book, Biology for CSEC 2nd Edition

1.1
Definitions:
1. DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material, it is the carrier of genetic
information. Found in the nucleus of a cell.
2. Chromosomes- Thread like structures made from DNA and proteins known as histones.
See the structure of a chromosome Pg. 271

3. Diploid cell- A somatic cell (normal body cell) with all its chromosomes in two sets. The
diploid number of chromosomes is indicated by 2n. In humans there are 23 pairs of
chromosomes or 46 chromosomes, 2n=46
4. Haploid cell- cell containing half the number of chromosomes of a diploid cell. These are
usually the reproductive cells (the male and female gametes). The haploid number of
chromosomes may be represented by n. In humans n=23
5. Genes- basic unit of heredity, a section on the chromosome responsible for determining a
characteristic or producing a specific protein. Eg. gene for colour
6. Allele- different/ alternate form of the same gene responsible for determining contrasting
characteristics and occupies the same relative position on homologous chromosomes.
Eg. In the gene for color one allele may represented and another allele, white.

7. Homologous chromosomes- Chromosomes that are similar in length, position of genes and
centromere. They carry genes for the same character even though the alleles may be
different.

Watch this video: Genes, DNA and chromosomes

Homework- Arrange these structures by size from smallest to largest: histone, nucleus, gene,
chromosome and cell.
2.1
Pg. 272
Pg. 157 of Biology study guide
Mitosis- Before mitosis the cell divides makes copies of the genetic information in the DNA of each
chromosome. After copying each chromosome appears as a double-stranded structure (two
identical strands). Each strand is called a chromatid. When DNA is copied it is known as replication.
Mitosis ensures:
- that the species number of chromosomes is maintained.
- that each daughter cell receives an identical combination of genes.

2.2-2.3
Pg. 272-273
Mitosis occur in
1. Growth- starts with the first division of the zygote and then throughout the body of the plant or
animal embryo. Later is it restricted to the meristems in plants and growth regions in long bones
2. Tissue and wound repair
3. Replacement of cells- eg. red blood cells as they do not live long and do not possess and nucleus
and cannot divide
4. Asexual reproduction- occurs in fungi and plants, rarely in the animal kingdom. Offspring is
genetically identical to the parent. Asexual reproduction in plants (vegetative propagation) can be
done in the following ways: cuttings, layering, cloning/tissue culture, grafting and budding, runners.
Review the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction.

Watch these videos: Asexual reproduction in the Bryopyhllum ,

Asexual reproduction in sugar cane

2.4 -2.5
Pg. 274-275
Pg. 158 of the Biology study guide

Meiosis ensures that:

-each daughter cell has different combination of genes
-each daughter cell has haploid number of chromosomes so that the diploid number can be
restored during fertilization

2.6 pg 160 of the study guide

Meiosis generates variation by:
1. Random assortment- many different arrangements of the homologous chromosomes.
2. Crossing over- where homologous chromosomes exchange parts between them.
Homework pg 161 of study guide
Copy and complete the following table for the difference between mitosis and meiosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Number of division in nucleus
Pairing of homologous
chromosomes
Crossing over
Number of daughter nuclei
produced
Genotypes of daughter nuclei
Roles in organisms
Chromosome number of
daughter nuclei

2.7
Dominant trait- allele if present expresses itself in the phenotype in both the homozygous and
heterozygous condition.
Recessive trait- allele only expressed in the phenotype is if it is homozygous.
Codominance- both alleles express themselves in the in the heterozygote eg. Blood group
Incomplete dominance- neither allele dominate and a third phenotype is formed.
Genotype- genetic composition of an organism.
Phenotype- Physical appearance of an organism, what we see eg. hair colour to what we do not see
eg. Blood type
Homozygous-the alleles of gene are identical found in corresponding position on homologous
chromosomes.
Heterozygous- the alleles of gene are different found in corresponding position on homologous
chromosomes.
2.8-2.10
This will be covered by completing Punnet squares and Pedigree charts.
Punnett Squares, Pedigree chart explained

3.1-3.3
Variation refers to the differences within species and between species. Variation makes it less likely
that a change will wipe out the entire species of an organism. Genetic diversity also reduces the
incidence of unfavorable inherited traits.
Types of Variations
1. Continuous variation- The data does not fit into a distinct group as there are many variations in
between the two extremes eg. height in humans and plants, intelligence, leaf size, skin tone
2. Discontinuous variation-There are no intermediates, the differences are clear cut eg. fixed or
loosed ear lobes, blood groups in humans, presence or absence of horns on cattle, plain green or
variegated leaf in a species of a plant, fruit flies with red or black eyes etc.
Causes of variations
1. Genetic- are normally inherited. Enables species to adapt to changes in environment.
* Random assortment of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
* Crossing over
* Sexual reproduction- random fusion of gametes during fertilization where genetic material
recombines in new ways in the zygote.
*alleles of all the genes that are inherited are from genetically different parents
* Mutations- where new genetic material is formed due to sudden change in genetic material
which makes new DNA slightly different to the original. Occur at a slow rate in nature by mutagens
eg X-rays, UV light, radiation, and certain chemicals. Can be of two types: Chromosomes mutations
where there is a change in the number or structure of the chromosome or gene mutation which
occurs by a copying error during replication of DNA.

2. Environmental- not inherited

* Nutrients- food we eat and minerals available leads to variation. Same for plants
* Drugs- some can cause deformations in children of pregnant women
* Temperature- affects the rate of enzyme controlled reactions eg plants in warm condition show
faster rate of photosynthesis and develop and grow faster than those in cold conditions.
* Physical training – use muscles increase in size and strength.

4.1
Species- a group of physically similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding and produce
fertile offspring. When two unrelated species mate their offspring is not viable (dies) or is infertile
eg mule (horses and donkeys). Research Ligers, wholphins, Zebroids (zonkey, zorse, zoni)
Example of birds that can interbreed-Hybrid birds
Research plant hybridization.

4.2
Formation of new species or speciation
1. Speciation caused by physical geographic- separation by geographical barriers, such as a river
forming, colonizing a new island or rise of a mountain range (occurs with loss of habitat or the
formation of new habitat), dessert, oceans. Isolation allows for the emergence of genetic
differences over a period of time due to natural selection.

2. Speciation caused by ecological and behavioral- this occurs within a population without barriers
due differences such as courtship behaviour/ differences in coloration (different mating seasons,
different mating rituals).
Homework- Explain using an example of causes of extinction of organisms. Name an organism that
became extinct by EACH cause.
5.1
Natural selection (selective breeding)- process whereby a population retains those genes that
makes it possible to adapt to its environment. Genetic variation is the raw material for natural
selection. It ensures that there are different phenotypes in each generation and the environmental
factors (competition, disease, predators) selects the most favourable phenotype in a particular
situation.
Evidence of natural selection
In the following examples humans are responsible for changing the environment by introducing
antibiotics, pesticides or pollution but did not consciously choose which organisms will breed.
1. Pepper moth- going from predominantly black and white to black especially those found in
polluted industrial areas
Pepper moth
2. Resistance as a result of mutations. Bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics, fungi to
fungicides etc. Advantage they are more likely to survive and reproduce
3. Sickle cell anaemia mutation causes heterozygous individuals to be more resistant to malaria.
Homework- why is this so?

5.2
Artificial selection- involves man isolating natural populations then selectively breeding individuals
thus producing new breeds, varieties of plants and animals with more favorable characteristics
(faster growing rates, earlier maturation, higher yields , increase resistance to diseases, greater
suited to their environment). Produces new varieties in short space of time unlike natural selection.
Can be inbreeding (closely related individuals) or outbreeding (genetically distinct populations)
Eg. Farming: breed cattle for meat, cows for milk, vegetables, increase in yields of cereals (rice,
wheat and corn), resistance to certain diseases, ability to grow under certain conditions etc.
Research.
6.1
Genetic engineering (biotechnology)- involves moving genes from one organism to another. Can be
done by inserting the gene directly into the cell or it can be placed into a vector (virus, plasmids)
the carries in into the cell.
DNA produced by joining DNA from two or more organisms is called recombinant DNA. Organisms
that contain recombinant DNA are referred to as genetically modified organisms.
Application
1. Food production/farming
Develop genes which can be inserted into plants to make them resistant to pest, herbicides and
drought, produce healthier farm animals which produce higher yields, develop hybrid plants( cross
a tomato and potato), introduce beta carotene producing genes in rice for places where population
is suffering from night blindness.
Eg. potatoes- virus resistant, tomatoes- last longer so not spoil when being transported, corn –
insect killing genes so don’t have to spray with herbicides, soy beans (use in ice cream, cereal),
cows growth hormones that can be found in their milk
2. Medicine-
Genetically produced insulin (transfer human genes for insulin production into bacteria), human
growth hormones. Production of antibodies, mass produce antibiotics from fungi. Bacteria are not
always very good at producing human proteins so yeast and certain mammalian cells are also used.

3. Gene therapy where aim is to remove faulty genes. It involves putting a dominant allele into
human cells. Used to treat leukaemia and a disorder of the retina.
6.2 The following link talks about the PROS AND CONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
HW: What is DNA testing and how it does it work? Use the following link as a source for
information. DNA