Inheritance

DNA structure
- DNA molecule= deoxyribonucleic acid, made up of two strands of nucleotide, double helix shape
- Four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
- Between two strands of nucleotides, adenine always paired with thymine (AT), and cytosine
always paired with guanine (CG). Bases held together by hydrogen bonds
- Chromosome = long piece of DNA that contains the genes. Each human cell contains 23
homologous (containing DNA code for the same gene) pairs of chromosomes
- Diploid cell (2n) = contains 2 sets of chromosomes (N.B. di)
- Only gametes are haploid (n) (=HAlf the number of chromosomes found in body cell of organism)

A labelled nucleotide

Mitosis
- Used for: growth, repair, cell replacement, asexual
reproduction
- Occurs in shoot tip and root tip in plants
- In animals, all cells divide by mitosis (except gametes), e.g.
Liver cells, skin cells
- Karyotype = photo of chromosomes from one cell
- First 22 pairs of human chromosomes = autosomes
- 23rd pair of human chromosomes determines gender
- Stages of mitosis using non-human example:
1. Nucleus contains 2 chromosomes
2. PROPHASE- Chromosomes → shorter, thicker (visible)
and DNA replicates (chromosomes copied). Nuclear
membrane breaks down
3. METAPHASE- Chromosomes line up along equator of
cell + spindle fibres attach at centromere
4. ANAPHASE- Spindle fibres contract → chromatids
pulled apart towards poles of the cell
5. TELOPHASE- Nuclear membrane reforms around each
set of chromosomes. Cytoplasm starts to divide
6. CYTOKINESIS- Cell splits → 2 genetically identical cells
each containing same number of chromosomes as
parent cell (diploid)

1
Meiosis (aka. Reduction division)
- During sexual reproduction 2 haploid gametes fuse
to make 1 diploid zygote. Gametes haploid or zygote
would have double the number of chromosomes
- Same as mitosis up to (and including) stage 3
4.The pairs of chromosomes are separated
and pulled to opposite ends of the cell
5.The chromatids separate and are pulled to
opposite ends of the cell. The cytoplasm divides
(2nd division)
6.Chromosomes no longer in matching pairs. 4
gametes formed.

Comparing mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis

Type of cell division

Involve movement of chromosomes

Same number of chromosomes in daughter Half number of chromosomes in daughter cells

cells as parent cell as parent cell

Division takes place in 1 stage Division takes place in 2 stages

2 identical daughter cells for growth and repair 4 genetically different daughter gamete cells per
produced per division division

Takes place in all cells (e.g. Skin) except Takes place in reproductive organs to form
gametes gametes

How to draw genetic cross and punnett square

Offsprings’ genotypes: FF, Ff, Ff, ff

Offspring’s phenotypes: 3 brunets, 1 blond
There is a ¼ chance the offspring will be blond

Inherited diseases
- Cystic fibrosis- caused by recessive allele. CF sufferers produce abnormally thick and sticky
mucus in lungs and airways → more susceptible to respiratory infections. Antibiotics fight
infection, daily physiotherapy helps relieve congestion. CF affects gut and pancreas → food
not digested properly
2
- Huntington’s disorder- caused by dominant allele (written as H). Symptoms develop in middle age
and include: short-term memory lapses, mood changes, lack of concentration and slight,
uncontrollable muscle movements

Pedigree chart example

Square = boy, circle = girl, blue = sufferer, white = no symptoms (could be carrier too in this case
as sickle cell anaemia is recessive)

Terms
- Allele- one specific form of a gene (e.g. GREEN eyes)
- Genotype- alleles possessed by organism
- Phenotype- observable characteristics of organism
- Homozygous- having 2 identical alleles of a gene (e.g. bb or BB)
- Heterozygous- having 2 different alleles of a gene (e.g. Bb)
- Recessive allele- can be masked by another allele and only expressed if 2 copies are present
- Dominant allele- always expressed when present
-Gene- portion of DNA controlling specific characteristic. In specific locus on chromosome
-Mutation- rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited

How to answer natural selection question

- Very (variation)
- Clever (competition)
- Animals (advantageous allele)
- Survive (survive) to
- Breed (breed)
- E.g. How have insects become resistant to insecticide?
There is variation among insects, and competition between them to survive. Some insects will
have an advantageous allele (which developed by mutation) which makes them resistant to
insecticide. These insects will survive, so will be able to breed to pass on the allele.