ECOLOGY

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Understanding Ecology
‘Ecology may be defined as the
scientific study of the relationship of
living organisms with each other and
with their environment.’

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Levels of Ecological Organisation

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Population ecology
▪ It is also called as Autecology

▪ Population is a group of organisms of the

same species present in a specific area
(habitat).

▪ Species - a group of organisms which are

capable of interbreeding and to produce fertile
off-spring.

▪ Biotic Potential -  is the ability of a

population to increase under ideal
environmental conditions.

▪ Limiting factors - places an upper limit on

the size of a population. Insufficient food
supply, predators, and disease.
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Community Ecology

▪ It is also called as Synecology

▪ Community is populations of species

living together in same habitat.

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Biotic interactions

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 Amensalism
▪ In Amensalism one is destroyed and the other
is unaffected.

▪ Examples: Elephants stepping on ants or

leveling brush does not benefit the elephant
but causes harm to plants and ants.

As wild pigs forage, they often disturb the upper layer of soil and many
organisms may be taken from their burrows and exposed to the
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Predation and Prasitism
▪ In Predation one organism (predator) captures, kills
and eats another organism (prey).

▪ In Parasitism, one species is harmed and the other

benefits.

▪ Eg: Many organisms like animal, bacteria and

viruses are parasites of plants and animals.

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Commensalism
▪ In Commensalism, one of the species benefits
while the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.

▪ Eg: trees and epiphytic plants and sucker fish

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Mutualism and Symbiosis
▪ In Mutualism, two species in which both the species benefit.

▪ Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting species can

no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each
other to survive. This is called as symbiosis.

▪ Eg- Hermit crab and Sea anemone, Most reef-building corals

contain photosynthetic algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in
their tissues. Mycorrhizae (fungus) is the mutualistic relationship
between fungi and roots of most plants.

▪ Eg: humming bird pollinates flower while gaining nectar for itself.
Lichen is a symbiotic association of an algae and fungus. The main
body of lichen is formed of fungus. Fungus provides fixation, water,
mineral and shelter to the algae and algae provides food to fungus.

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Competition
▪ Competition has a negative effect on both of the
species (-/- interaction). In interspecies
competition, two species use the same limited
resource.

▪ A species' niche is basically its ecological role,

which is defined by the set of conditions,
resources, and interactions it needs.

▪ The competitive exclusion principle or Gause’s

Law says that two species can't coexist if they
occupy exactly the same niche (competing for
identical resources).

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Biome
▪ Biome is a set of ecosystems sharing similar
characteristics.

▪ Biosphere is the sum of all the biomes established on

Earth.

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Ecosystem

▪ Ecosystem is a community of interacting

organisms and their physical environment.

▪ The maximum population size that can be

supported indefinitely by a given environment is
known as its 'carrying capacity'. 

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Types of Ecosystem

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Ecotone
▪ An ecotone is a transition area between two
biomes. It is where two communities meet and
integrate.

▪ The influence of the two bordering

communities on each other is known as
the edge effect.

▪ An ecotonal area often has high biodiversity.

▪ Examples - one body of water meets another

(estuaries and lagoons) or the water meets the
land (marshes and beaches). 

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Components of Ecosystem

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Abiotic- Biotic interaction

Acclimatization Adaptation
It is the process by which the process of change by
animal adjusts to changes in which species becomes
its environment better suited to its
environment.
Occurs with in an individual Occurs with in a group
Changes with a lifetime Changes over several
generations
Is reversible (temporary) Is irreversible (permanent)
Dollo’s Law
Physical reaction Genetic change

Ecological response Evolutionary response.

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Types Response to Abiotic Factors
▪ Regulators : are animals that can
maintain constant internal conditions,
even if the external environment
fluctuates. They are also known as an
endotherm or warm blooded. Eg - Humans
▪ Conformers : are animals that allows its
internal conditions to fluctuate in
response to its external environment.
They are also known as an ectotherm or
cold blooded. Eg - Eq: Several fishes,
snakes, lizards.

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Continued…
▪ Migration : Travel to far off places
during a particular weather condition
and return when the weather
condition is restored. 
▪ Suspend : other mechanisms to avoid
stress. Bears go into hibernation
winter, some snails and fish go into
aestivation in summer.

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Functions of Ecosystem
▪ 1. Energy flow

▪ 2. Nutrient Cycling

▪ 3. Ecological Succession

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ENERGY FLOW

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Energy flow in Ecosystem
▪ Energy flow through trophic levels is
unidirectional.

▪ Energy level decreases from the first

trophic level upwards.
▪ 10% law - Only a 10% of the energy
available at one trophic level is
transferred to the next trophic level;

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Food Chain
▪ Food Chain is series of organisms through
which the food and energy passes in an
ecosystem.
▪ Food chains can be classified in to various
types
▪ Terrestrial and Aquatic food chains
▪ Grazing and Detritus food chains

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Examples of aquatic food chain

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▪ 1. Grazing food chain – starts with autotrophs

▪ 2. Detritus food chain – starts from saprotrophs

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 Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

It starts with green pants It begins with detritivores or

are the first trophic level decomposers are the first
trophic level

Energy for this food chain Energy for this food chain
comes from the sun. comes from remains of
Hence dependent on solar detritus. Hence not so much
radiation. dependent on solar radiation.

Food chain adds energy This food chain take up energy

into the system from the detritus, ensuring
maximum utilisation and
minimum wastage

Little role to play in This food chain helps in fixing

nutrient cycling inorganic nutrients
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Food web
▪ Food web is a network of interconnected food
chains in an ecosystem.

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Ecological Pyramid
▪ Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of
trophic levels.

▪ They are of three types

▪ 1. Pyramid of Numbers
▪ 2. Pyramid of Biomass
▪ 3. Pyramid of Energy

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Pyramid of biomass
▪ A biomass pyramid shows the total mass of the
organisms that each trophic level occupies in an
ecosystem. Usually, producers have a higher
biomass than any other trophic level.

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Pyramid of numbers
▪ It is the graphical representation of total number
of individuals of different species belonging to each
tropic level.

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Pyramid of energy
▪ It shows the energy content at each trophic level

▪ The pyramid of energy is always upright.

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BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL
CYCLES

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Biogeochemical cycles

▪ The cyclic movements of chemical

elements between the living organism
and the environment are referred to as
biogeochemical cycles.
▪ There are two types of biogeochemical
cycles
▪ Gaseous cycle - carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, water, etc
▪ Sedimentary cycle - sulphur,
phosphorus, iron, calcium, etc.

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Carbon cycle

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A carbon sink is a natural or artificial
reservoir that accumulates and stores
some carbon-containing chemical compound
for an indefinite period. 

Carbon sequestration describes long-term

storage of carbon dioxide or other forms
of carbon to either mitigate or defer global
warming and avoid dangerous climate
change.

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Nitrogen cycle

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aerobic - azobacterium, anaerobic
clostridium, cynobacteria (blue green algae),
Rhizobiumes - directly fix atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonium ions

Ammonia to nitrite - nitrosomonas

Nitrite to nitrate - nitrobacter

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Surphur Cycle

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The largest sulphur reservoirs on the Earth are iron
sulphides (pyrite; FeS2) and gypsum (CaSO4) in sediments
and rocks (7,800 x 1018 g sulphur) and sulphate in
seawater (1,280 1018g sulphur). Sulphur, which is a
necessary element for life, is taken up as sulphate by
microorganisms and plants, and subsequently by animals.
Decomposition of dead organisms in the absence of oxygen
releases the sulphur again as hydrogen sulphide. The
combustion of fossil fuels and emission of volcanic fumes
releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, where it
reacts with water, thereby forming sulphuric acid and
resulting in acid rain. Microorganisms play an important
part in the recycling of these sulphur compounds.

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Phosphorous Cycle
The phosphorus cycle differs from the other major
biogeochemical cycles in that it does not include a gas phase

▪,

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Oxygen

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Water cycle

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

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Ecological succession
▪ It is the gradual process (the series of changes) by
which ecosystems change and develop over time.

▪ Primary community –> Seral community !Climax

community

▪ Climax community refers to a biological community of

plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of
ecological succession in the development of vegetation
in an area over time, have reached a steady state.

▪ Succession is characterised by the following:

▪ increased productivity
▪ increased diversity of organisms
▪ increase in the complexity of food webs

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Ecological succession

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Differences
Primary
occur on an entirely new
habitat which has never been
colonized before.
Secondary
take place on a previously
colonized, but disturbed or
damaged habitat.

Surface soil cover is absent Soil cover is already present.

It needs more time to Pioneer species develop partly

complete. from existing ecosystem.

For example, a newly quarried For example, after felling trees

rock face or sand dunes.  in a woodland, land clearance
or a fire.

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▪ Pioneer species are species which are the first to
colonize previously disrupted or damaged ecosystems,
beginning a chain of ecological succession that
ultimately leads to a more biodiverse steady-state
ecosystem.

▪ Invasive species are species that is -

▪ 1. non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under

consideration and

▪ 2. whose introduction causes or is likely to cause

harm to ecosystem.

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Types of Succession
Xerarch vs Hydrarch

Succession that occurs on land where moisture

content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as
xerarch. Succession that takes place in a
water body, like ponds or lake is called
hydrarch.

Autogenic and Allogenic Succession

When succession is brought about by living

inhabitants of that community itself, the
process is called autogenic succession, while
change brought about by outside forces is
known as allogenic succession.

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Ecosystem Services
▪ They are grouped into four broad categories: 

▪ Provisioning, such as the production of food and

water.

▪ Regulating, such as the control of climate and

disease.

▪ Supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop

pollination.

▪ Cultural, such as spiritual and recreational

benefits. 

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Realms/domains of Environment
▪ There are five great “spheres”
that shape the environment of
Earth. These are
1. Lithosphere - hard and rigid
other layer of Earth
2. Biosphere - Earth’s living
things
3. Cryosphere - Earth’s frozen
regions, including both ice
and frozen soil
4. Hydrosphere - Earth’s liquid
water
5. Atmosphere - the air
surrounding our planet 

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THANK YOU
ANY DOUBTS !

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