Environment & Ecology

ENVIRONMENT
AND ECOLOGY
Lavkush Pandey
MA: Political Science
dm.lavkush@gmail.com
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and ideas discussed in our lectures and readings. As a diligent student, I have taken detailed notes to capture the most
important information presented in class, as well as my own insights and reflections.
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Lavkush Pandey – dm.lavkush@gmail.com 2

ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY
 Ecology
 Environmental degradation
 Biodiversity
 Conservation efforts
 Sustainable development
 Environmental impact assessment and environmental ethics.
 Disaster Management.
ECOLOGY
o Environment- It is the sum total of all conditions and inferences that affect the development and life of
all organisms on the earth. It is one's surroundings.
o Ecosystem- An ecosystem is defined as a community of life forms in concurrence with non-living
components interacting with each other. It is a complex relationship between the biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living) components.
o Ecology- It is the scientific study of the interaction of organisms with their physical environment and
with each other.
o Autecology- It is the study of the individual organism in relation to its environment.
o Synecology- It is the study of a group of organisms and their relationship with the environment.
o Gaia hypothesis was proposed by James Lovelock in 1972- It proposed that the earth's physiochemical
properties are tightly coupled to the activity of living organisms it supports.
Level of organisms:
o Individual- which can survive alone.
o Population- Group of the same species (like humans).
o Community- population of various species like animals, humans, etc.
o Ecosystem- Community and its non-living surroundings.
o Biosphere - The zone of life on earth, a zone where the atmosphere (Air), lithosphere (land), and
hydrosphere (water) interact.
o Biome- It is a larger area of land with distinct climates and plant and animal species.
o Ecosystem- It is the interaction of abiotic and biotic components between each other in a given area.
Difference between Biome and ecosystem:

Components of Ecosystem:
Energy flow in the ecosystem: 6CO2+6H2O + Sunlight = C6 H12 O6 + 6O2.

1. Food chain- The transfer of energy from one level to
another is referred to as the food chain. It is the chain
of organisms existing in any natural community
through which energies are transferred.
Types of the food chain: There are two types-

 Grazing food chain- The food chain begins with
living organisms i.e. producers is called the grazing
food chain example- the food chain in grassland.
 Detritus food chain- Here the food chain begins
with dead organic matter example - dead matter,
microorganisms, worms, and carnivorous birds.
2. Food web- A network of interconnected food chains that forms a number of feeding relationships among
different organisms of a biotic community.
3. Ecological Pyramids- A pyramid is the representation of life in an ecosystem. The graphical

representation of the relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem is called an ecological
pyramid. The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in the ecological pyramid. The trophic
can be represented in a food chain. A particular species may occupy more than one trophic level
depending on the functional role played by it.
 Pyramid of numbers- It represents the number of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels.
An upright pyramid of numbers is found in grassland ecosystems. The inverted pyramid of numbers
in found in tree ecosystems.
 Pyramid of Bio-mass- It shows the amount of bio-mass present per unit area at each trophic level
with producers at the base and top carnivores at the top. Biomass is measured using the dry weight
of an organism. An upright pyramid of bio-mass is found in the grassland ecosystem. An inverted
pyramid of biomass is found in the aquatic ecosystem.

 Pyramid of energy- it represents the flow of energy through each trophic level of an ecosystem. The
pyramid of energy is always upright. It is due to the 10% rule i.e. the amount of energy decreases with
successive trophic levels and only 10% of energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
ones.
 Ecological productivity- It refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by plants and subsequent
use of that energy by plant-eating herbivores, carnivores, and detritivores.
The productivity of producers i.e. green plants and phytoplankton is called primary productivity.
Secondary productivity refers to productivity at the level of primary consumers.
Tertiary and quaternary productivity.
Gross primary productivity is the total amount of energy i.e. fixed by plants or phytoplankton.
Net primary productivity is adjusted for energy loss due to respiration. GPP= NPP + respiration
losses.
Factors deciding productivity are the availability of sunlight, water, and nutrients.
Regions with high ecological productivity- Tropical rain forests, coral reefs, and wetlands.
Regions with low ecological productivity- Deserts, polar regions, and deep oceans.
Ecological succession: The process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time is
called ecological succession. The developmental stages of a community during ecological succession are
known as seral stages. The first stage is the pioneer stage with the pioneer community. The final stage is the
climax stage with the climax community. The series of communities i.e. characteristics of a given site is called
a Sere. Primary succession occurs in a lifeless area. E.g. Volcanic islands. Secondary succession occurs in areas
with a community that previously existed and has been removed. E.g. Regions of the forest fire. Autotrophic
succession: where the sere is dominant in autotrophs. Heterotrophic succession- heterotrophs are dominant.
Autogenic succession- it involves the succession of a community from itself as a result of reactions within the
environment causing its replacement by new communities. Allogenic succession-it involves the replacement
of existing communities by other external conditions and not by the existing community itself.
Functions of the ecosystem:
Ecological niche: It is the role played by an organism in a community of ecosystems. The ecological niche of
species encompasses both the physical and environmental conditions it requires and the interactions it has
with other species. No two species can have the same niche. If it occurs, one species will outcome the other
and the other has to adapt and change or get extinct. Species with a narrow or limited niche is a specialist
species. E.g. Panda, Koala Bear. Species with a broader niche that can eat and survive in a wide variety of
conditions are called generalist species. E.g. Goats, rats, human beings, etc.
Biotic Interaction: In ecology, a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together
in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of
different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like pollination and predation,
or long-term; both often strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. Interactions can be indirect,
through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies.
Positive Interaction: This term is used for the types of interspecific relationships which are mutually
beneficial and where one or both partners are benefited and no one is harmed. The benefit may be in terms
of food, shelter, substratum or transport. This is mainly divided into three categories.
1. Mutualism: It is mutually beneficial relationship between two organisms; here both species derive
benefit. The relationship may be compulsory(obligatory) or facultative(optional). Examples – coral
polyps and zooxanthellae; sea anemones and clown fish. (Note-An intense form of mutualism is called
symbiosis). sea anemone and a hermit crab.
 Lichens: The term means” living together” This is an example where contact is close and permanent
as well as obligatory. The fungus provides moisture as well as minerals and protection to algae;
whereas alga manufactures food material. Neither of the two can grow alone independently.
 Crocodile and Bird association - Here the bird

enters the mouth of crocodile and picks up leaches
found between the teeth and feed on them. Thus,
birds clean the teeth and crocodile is benefited;
while the bird gets is nutritional requirement.

2. Commensalism: In this inter-specific relationship, one of the partner is benefited and other partner is
neither benefited nor harmed. Here, the partner getting the benefit is called commensal. e.g. cow and
dung beetles; trees, and epiphyte plants; elephants and frogs in an equatorial rainforest.
 Ecto commensalism: Here, the commensal lives on the body of the other partner, which may be
called host.
Example –
Association between suckerfish (or Remora or Echeneis) and shark - The sucker fish has the
dorsal fin modified as a sucker (or adhesive) disc, with the help of which it is attached to the body of
shark so that the suckerfish gets free transportation. The sucker fish releases the attachment after
sometime and swims in search of food.
 Endo Commensalism: Here the commensal lives within the body of host.
Example –
Association between saprophytic bacteria and fungi - A variety of microorganisms, saprophytic
bacteria and fungi and protozoans live within the tissues or cavities of higher plants and animals.
Many microorganisms like bacteria live as commensals in the digestive system of various animals.
The microorganisms use undigested food for their nutritional requirements. coli lives in the intestine
of humans.
3. Protocooperation: Protocooperation is a form of mutualism, but the cooperating species do not depend
on each other for survival. e.g. animals &cattle egrets; ants, and aphids.
Example –
 Flowers and Insects - The flowers of plants that re pollinated by insects and birds benefit from
protocooperation. The plants with colourful flowers, experience cross pollination because of insect
activities. This is beneficial to the insect that has got its food supply as well.
Negative Interaction: These interactions include association where one or both individuals are harmed. The
harm may be caused by eating other organism, competition for food, excretion of harmful wastes, etc. These
have been sub-divided into.
1. Amensalism: This is a type of biological interaction where one species causes harm to another organism
without any cost or benefits to itself. It can be seen as a form of interaction or competitive behaviour
among other organisms. e.g. Eucalyptus; a big tree suppressing the small plant.
2. Parasitism: This is an interaction between two organisms in which one (called parasite) derives
synthesised food from another living organism (Called host). A true parasite though obtains its food from
the host, seldom kills it. Examples - Among the animals, ticks, mites and lice are external parasites or
ectoparasites. The fungal parasites include Erysiphe (powdery mildew), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust),
etc; which cause diseases that result in serious losses of economically important crops.
3. Predation: In contrast with a parasite which derives nourishment from its host without killing, a
predator is free living which catches and kills another species for food or predator is a direct food
relationship between two individuals in which an animal that remains free living (called predator)

catches and kills another animal (called prey) for food. Examples- Tiger (predator) eating deer (prey),
frog eating insects.
4. Cannibalism: This is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food e.g. King cobra
(national reptile of India); Head hunters of Papua New Guinea.
5. Competition: Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both the organisms
or species are harmed. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food. water and territory) used by
both can be a factor Species compete each other. An example among animals could be the case of Cheetah
and lions since both species feed on similar prey, they are negatively impacted by the presence of the other
because they will have less food, however they still persist together, despite the prediction that under
competition one will displace the other.
 Antibiosis - This is a complete or partial inhibition of one organism by another either by secreting
some substance or by modifying its immediate environment. The substance or conditions produced
by an organism are generally harmful for the other organism. This phenomenon is very common in
micro-organisms which secrete substance called antibiotic. Example - Bacteria, actinomycetes and
fungi produce a number of antimicrobial substances which are widespread in nature. Lichens as well
as large number of higher plants produce substances that inhibit molds and bacteria.
Different types of species in an ecosystem:

 Frugivores-Fruit eaters.
 Nectarivores- Nectar eaters. E.g. Hummingbirds (not found in India, found in South America).
 Graminivores-Grass eaters.
 Flagship species: Species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for a defined habitat, issue,
campaign, or cause. They are relatively large and charismatic. E.g. Elephant.
 Keystone species: It plays an essential role in the functioning or structure of an ecosystem. Their
disappearance causes a significant change in the ecosystem. E.g. Honey bees in pollination.
 Indicator species: The indicator of the state of an ecosystem of a certain process. E.g. lichens for air
pollution, Gangetic dolphin-water pollution in Ganga, and corals-siltation.
 Umbrella species: It is the representative of an ecosystem. By protecting this, other species that are part
of the same ecosystem get protected. E.g.-Corals in coral reefs, tigers in the forest.
Ecosystem services:
 Provisioning services: Products obtained from ecosystems. E.g.-food, fibres, fresh water, medicines,
biofuels, genetic resources, etc.
 Regulating services: Benefit obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes. E.g.-climate
regulation, flood prevention, pest control, pollination, disease regulation, seed dispersal,
 Cultural services-Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems. E.g.-educational, recreational, sense
of place, spiritual, cognitive development, stress relief, gardening, etc.
 Supporting services-Services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. E.g.-
biodiversity, nutrient recycling, primary productivity, etc.
Biogeochemical cycles: The flow of chemical elements and compounds between organisms and the physical
environment is called the biogeochemical cycle. There are two types of biogeochemical cycles:
1. Gaseous cycle -in which the reservoir pool is the atmosphere. E.g.-carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and water.
 Carbon cycle: CO2 is in an atmosphere in gaseous form-> enters the plants/producers through the
process of photosynthesis -> CO2 converted into glucose -> parts of glucose consumed by producers –>
respiration -> consumers –> release the CO2 through the process of respiration -> decay of organic matter
-> decomposition -> combustion (burning of fossils fuels) -> CO2 back in the atmosphere. Producers ->
consumers -> decomposers. Photosynthesis -> respiration -> combustion.
 Oxygen cycle: Reservoir is atmosphere->O2 taken by both producers &consumers->CO2 released by both
producers and consumers->CO2 in atmosphere consumed by producers-> Photosynthesis->Respiration.

 Hydrogen/Water cycle: Water vapour->condensation, cloud formation, and precipitation-> rains fall
and accumulated in water bodies->water vapour through the process of evaporation (producers take the
water through consumption and released it back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration;
consumers take water through consumption and releases it through the process of excretion).
 Nitrogen cycle: N2 -> Ammonia-Nitrite -> Nitrate -> N2. N2 fixation through the free-living organism ->
Azotobacter, clostridium& symbiotic organisms –> Rhizobium, blue-green algae-an Anabaena, spirulina.
NH3 converted into nitrite by nitrosomonas. Nitrite into nitrate by Nitrobacter. Nitrites and nitrates are
converted into nitrogen by pseudomonas through the process of denitrification. Lightning also converts
free N2 into ammonia (a natural process). Industrial process-in the fertilizer industry-also convert free
N2 into NH3.
2. Sedimentary Cycle: The reservoir pool is the earth's crust or lithosphere. E.g.-Sulphur and phosphorus.
 Phosphorus Cycle: Stored in the rocks in the form of rock phosphate. Rocks undergo weathering to
release phosphate in the soil. These phosphates are taken by the producer (i.e. plant roots, blue-green
algae, etc.) through assimilation. Phosphates are released back into the soil through excretion by
consumers and decomposition of producers. Soil having phosphates may undergo sedimentation and
deposition to form rocks.
 Sulfur Cycle: Sulfur is used during the synthesis of amino acids. Sulfur is present in nature in both organic
(fossil fuel) and inorganic (sulphides or sulphates) forms. Sulphur enters the food cycle through
assimilation by producers. Sulfur is released back into the soil by excretion and decomposition. Volcanism,
the burning of fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide (SO2). Decomposition of dead and a few other organic

processes releases hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. This hydrogen sulphide burns to give sulfur dioxide.
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and results in acid rain.
Types of Ecosystem:
Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
Land-based Water-based
Abundance of oxygen Limited oxygen
Abundance of sunlight Limited sunlight
Abundant soil-based nutrients Soil-based nutrients are scarce
Higher temperature range Lower temperature range

Type of Biomes:
1. Tundra Biome: Tundra means barren or treeless because of permafrost. Seasonal vegetation like mosses,
lichens, ferns, etc. The life majorly in the form of insects with short life cycles and migratory birds. Reptiles
and amphibians are almost absent. Animals found are polar bears, seals, walrus. It is less diverse with
fragile and not well-developed 6.00. Migratory animals like reindeer, arctic foxes, and musk ox can be
found in the summer season. Penguins are found in Antarctica. Adaptation of species in the arctic region-
thick feathers for birds and thick furs for animals have large body sizes with small tails and ears.
2. Taiga Biome or Boreal Biome: It is the largest land-based biome. Present only in the northern
hemisphere. It is south of the arctic region. Vegetation is evergreen and coniferous type i.e. conical shape
trees and needle-shaped leaves. Low diversity in vegetation. Podzol soil is present. The Siberian tiger
(largest cat), bears, red fox, moose, eagles, and owls are found here.
3. Grassland biome: Two types of grassland viz. temperate and savanna grasslands.
i. Temperate (steppe) grassland: Warm temperate continental-type climate. Fresh and green
(regenerates every season). Moderate precipitation (influence of temperate cyclone). Soil is rich
and fertile (calcification). They are converted into a large-scale commercial agricultural field.
Practically treeless. Not much wildlife is present because of excess agriculture. American bison
and prairie dog (ground squirrels) are found here.
ii. Tropical (Savanna) grassland: Hot zone continental-type climate and has a definite dry season.
Savanna grass is dry, tall, and yellow-coloured grass. Lower precipitation. Dry soil. Major hunting
grounds of earlier times. Scattered trees and drought resistant having thick barks and seed coats.
They have water storing capacity e.g. Baobab trees. The spread of grass in savannah grasslands
is checked by: Low rainfall, Grazing and Fire. Savannah grasslands are called big-game country.
They are known for their rich life. Zebra, wildebeest, giraffes, gazelle, kangaroo, elephant,
cheetahs, lion, hyenas.
4. Desert Biome: Desert-type climate with extreme temperature and low precipitation. Vegetation is
xerophytic (drought resistant) e.g. cactus. Adaptations include short shrubs, thorns instead of leaves,
waxy coating, deep roots, stems capable of storing water, seeds having thick and tough skin allowing
them to remain dormant for a long time. Animals found here lizards, geckos, toads, jackrabbits, camels,
snakes, spiders, meerkats, fox etc.
5. Tropical Rainforest Biome: It is the oldest living ecosystem. It covers only 6% of the earth's surface
despite this, it is home to more than 50% of species. It is an equatorial type of climate. A large number of
big sized insects, amphibians, and reptiles are found here. Green mamba and gorillas found in the Congo
rainforest, Jaguars (strongest biting force among big cats) found in the amazon forest. Some other faunas
include flying mammals like bats (flying fox), pygmy gliders and bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea,
flying lizard Draco in western Ghats.
Aquatic Ecosystem:
Types of aquatic ecosystems on the basis of salinity:
1. Freshwater ecosystem: Here the salinity is less than 5 ppt. It can be of two types:
 Lotic: It is a flowing freshwater ecosystem. E.g. rivers, springs.
 Lentic: It is a stagnant freshwater ecosystem. E.g. lakes, ponds, swamps.
2. Brackish ecosystem: Soil salinity is between 5-35ppt.
3. Marine ecosystem: Soil salinity is more than 35ppt.
Zones in an aquatic ecosystem: The littoral zone is where water is shallow in an aquatic ecosystem
continental shelf. The pelagic zone is the deeper water zone. The photic zone is the zone of sunlight with the
possibility of photosynthetic activities. An aphotic zone is where sunlight is absent and there is only
respiration without photosynthesis. It is also called a profundal zone.

Different types of organisms in an aquatic ecosystem:
 Neuston: The organism living at the air-water interface.
 Periphytons: They are the organisms that remain attached to the stems and leaves of rooted plants
below the water.
 Planktons: These are microscopic floating organisms that include algae, diatoms, protozoans, etc. They
can be phytoplankton and zooplankton. Their distribution is controlled by wind and ocean currents.
 Nektons: These are organisms capable of swimming.
 Benthos: The organisms which leave at the bottom zone on the floor.
Wetlands: It is a transition zone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where the water depth does not
exceed six meters. It is an example of ecotone. An ecotone is a transition zone between two different
ecosystems, where a specific type of ecosystem is developed e.g. wetlands. Changes in population or
community structure that occurs at the boundary between two habitats are called the edge effect. Within
ecotone, the edge effect usually results in higher biodiversity. The species that are found in ecotone are called
edge species.
Characteristics of wetlands: The water is not very deep and has varying levels of water. The soils of
wetlands are called hydric soils which are saturated with water and have lesser gases including oxygen. The
wetlands are the zone of high primary productivity.
Lake vs wetland:
Characteristics Lake Wetlands (shallow lake)
The largest is due to tectonic forces:
Origin Fluvial, Geomorphic, increase in the Mostly fluvial, residual lakes
water table, etc.
Water turnover Permanent Permanent or temporary
Water level changes Relatively small Relatively large
Thermal stratification Yes No
Vertical mixing Thermally regulated Wind regulated
Dominant producer Phytoplankton Macrophytes
Food chain Grazing pathway Detritus pathway
Productivity Low High
Trophic status Oligotrophic Mostly eutrophic
Flood control Less significant Significant
Waste treatment No Yes
Significance of wetlands: Wetlands are called kidneys of the environment as it helps in filtering sediments
and pollutants and purify the water. It helps in nutrient recycling. It helps in groundwater recharge, as the
water slows down it sinks and percolates into the ground. It supports a large variety of life and provides a
rich biodiversity. It provides drinking water and foods like fish, vegetables, and rice. It controls soil erosion
and helps in flood control. It provides for cultural and tourism activities. It helps in climate mitigation
through carbon sequestration
Issues associated with wetlands: Encroachment due to unplanned urbanization. Increased water pollution
due to the release of urban sewage and industrial wastes. Release of methane e.g. Bellandur lake in
Bangalore. Excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture causes the eutrophication of wetlands. Use of antibiotics
in aquaculture. Excessive sand extraction. Overfishing and overgrazing. Unsustainable tourism.
Majors taken: At the international level, the Ramsar Convention for the conservation of wetland. At the
national level, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, of 1974. Wetland (Conservation and
Management Rules), 2017.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Water stress: Where the demand for water is mismatching with the supply.
Traditional water conservation system:
Water Pollution: Any undesirable change in physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of air, water,
land, or soil is called pollution. The agents bringing the change are called the pollutants. The addition or
increase in the level of undesirable substances in water is called water pollution
Types of water pollution:

1. Natural pollution: Due to erosion, sedimentation, leaching, and decay of organic matters.
2. Anthropogenic pollution: Due to various human activities such as agriculture, industries, etc.
Source of water pollution:

 Point Source: It has a single identifiable source of pollution and the pollutants enter the water body
directly from the source. For example, industries, sewage, etc.
 Non-point Source: When there is no single identifiable source or pollutant originating from a very wide
area or pollutants enter the water body at multiple locations in a dispersed manner for example,
agricultural runoff, shipping, etc.
Impact of water pollution:

1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): It is the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The temperature of the water
body determines the value of DO, the higher the temperature lower will be DO. 8mg/l is the value of DO
in normal non-polluted water.
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The Chemical Oxygen Demand of a source of water is the amount of
oxygen required to breakdown all the organic substances present in the water body chemically and
convert them into carbon dioxide and water.
3. Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD): It represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other
microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic conditions.
COD measures the oxygen demand for all organic materials while BOD measures the oxygen demand for
only those organic materials that can be biologically degraded. For a given water sample, the COD is
always greater than BOD.
4. Eutrophication: [Trophic status-amount of nutrients dissolved in water] - The enrichment of water

bodies with nutrients is called eutrophication. It can be due to natural factors such as erosion, rainwater
runoff, etc. A rapid increase in nutrient availability due to anthropogenic factors is different from natural
aging and is called cultural eutrophication.
Sources of eutrophication- Agricultural runoff, discharge of sewage water, the release of industrial
effluents, cultural and religious practices, etc.
Impacts of eutrophication:
o Reduces the dissolved oxygen.
o Increases COD and BOD.
o Increased growth of algae, water hyacinth, and duckweed.
o Decreases the amount of sunlight availability.
o The number of species in the water body decreases due to low levels of oxygen and sunlight.
Harmful algal blooms(HAB): It refers to the excessive growth of algae in a water body that is
undergoing eutrophication.
Reasons:
o Excessive eutrophication mainly from agriculture field.
o Excessive release of urban runoff, sewage, and industrial waste.
o Thermal pollution.
o Climate change, etc.
Impacts of HAB:
o Very low levels of dissolved oxygen.
o Rapid decrease in other species.
o Discoloration of water.
o Release of foul smell due to decomposition.
o Making water unfit for consumption.
o Release of certain toxins due to decomposition.
o Creation of hypoxic conditions (low level of O2 ).
o Gradually it results in the formation of dead zones (where the water can no more support life).
o Under anaerobic conditions, certain toxic bacteria grow which are deadly for aquatic organisms
and birds.eg-clostridium botulinum.
Measures to control eutrophication: Stop the agriculture runoff and reduce the inflow of
rainwater, increasing aeration. Removal of blooms manually. Spraying certain chemical compounds
like clay particles that bind HAB cells and sink to the bottom.

 Biomagnification & Bioaccumulation: Rachel Carson in 1962 wrote the book –Silent Spring (impact of
DDT and biomagnification).
 Bioaccumulation: It is the process through
which the concentration of certain chemical
substances increases continuously in the body
tissues of organisms within a trophic level
due to absorption from food and the
environment.
 Biomagnification/Bio-amplification: It is
the process by which certain chemical
substances become more concentrated in the
body tissues of organisms as one moves up the
food chain. The properties of chemicals that
make them suitable for biomagnification-
long lived, persistent-i.e. cannot be easily
broken down by environmental processes,
and water insolubility. Examples of such
chemicals-mercury, copper, cadmium, lead,
tin, cyanides, and polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Impacts of biomagnification: Failure of eggs due to thinning of eggs in top predators. E.g.-Bald eagle.
Impacts the immune system, fertility, and child development and increases the risk of cancer in human
beings. Also impacts the nervous system. Diclofenac for cattle treatment is banned.
Important water pollutants:

 Mercury - Minamata disease, impact on the nervous system, causes dropsy in fishes.
 Lead- Dyslexia (impairment in learning capacity).
 Cadmium- Itai-Itai disease (ouch-ouch disease).
 Fluoride- Fluorosis (dental and skeletal).
 Arsenic- Black foot disease.
 Nitrates-Blue baby syndrome (low Haemoglobin).
 Iron-Skin problems.
 Uranium-Kidney disease.
Measures to control water pollution:

o The water act of 1974.
o Environmental protection act. 1986.
o Namami Gange Programme.
o Minamata and Stockholm convention.
Air pollution: Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere
that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to
materials.
WHO-9/10 people breathe polluted air. Nearly 7 million deaths happened every air due to air pollution at the
global level.
Sources of Air pollution:

 Primary pollutants-an air pollutants emitted directly from a source. Example -SO2, Oxides of nitrogen,
etc.

 Secondary pollutants are not emitted as such directly but form when other pollutants react in the
atmosphere. Example -Smog, acid rain, etc.
Important primary pollutants

Pollutant Source Effects
oxides of carbon- (CO and CO-incomplete and inefficient CO-highly poisonous, reduces 02
CO2) combustion of hydrocarbons from levels in the blood. CO2-Global
biomass burning, low efficient warming, the greenhouse effect, and
vehicles. CO2-any kind of ocean acidification. Also causes
combustion/Burning of fossils fuels. dizziness, suffocation, nausea, and
tiredness.
Oxides of sulphur- (SO2 Burning of fossil fuels, petroleum SO2-Acid rain, respiratory issues like
and H2S) refineries, power plants, and volcanic asthma, bronchitis, and chlorosis
eruptions. (discoloration of plants due to loss of
chlorophyll in plants).
Oxides of nitrogen-NO2, Automobile exhaust, Lightening & Acid rain. The low productivity of
N2O, NO Burning fossils fuels plants. Irritation in eyes and lungs
Hydrocarbons-benzene, Automobiles and petroleum Respiratory issues, carcinogenic
ethylene industries
Black and brown carbon Brown carbon-burning of organic Greenhouse effect.
(both are particulate matter. Black carbon(soot)-high-
matter) temperature combustion processes
such as diesel engines as well as
incomplete combustion processes.

Particulate pollutants: Fly ash-thermal power plants, Breathing problems, carcinogenic,
Fly Ash, Metals, Dust, automobile exhausts. Dust-erosion, smog formation, etc.
Fibers (cotton, wools etc), construction activities, sandblasting
Pollens. activities. Fiber-textile and carpet
industry. PM10,2.5-stubble burning
Fly Ash: It is a particulate matter produced by the burning of coal. It is finer than cement with a size varying
between 10-100 microns. It is part of flue gas released from thermal power plants. It is made up of silicon
dioxide, aluminium oxide, ferric oxide, calcium oxide, and many other minor metals.
Impacts:
 Respiratory diseases.
 Reduces photosynthetic activity.
 The leaching of metals into soil causes soil pollution.
 Water contamination.
 Carcinogenic.
Management of fly ash:

 Collection-Fly ash can be collected from thermal power plants using electrostatic precipitators from flue
gas.
 Disposal-there are two methods of disposal:
o Dry-through burial or covering with soil layer etc.
o Wet-by mixing with water and creating fly ash ponds
 Utilization-brick/cement manufacturing, road construction, soil stabilization.
Advantages of fly ash brick: Cheaper, lighter in weight, has the highest strength, reduces the cost of
construction, requires less mortar, absorbed less heat, and has good insulation of sound.
Disadvantages of fly ash brick: If it is poorly made, strength will be less. Not suitable for cold weather
conditions.
Acid rain: It is precipitation with a PH less than 5.6, it is formed majority due to the release of Sulphur and
Nitrogen compounds into the atmosphere by vehicles, industries, thermal power plants, etc. There are two
ways the acid rain comes down to the surface wet and dry deposition.
 Wet Deposition- When it falls down with precipitation, it gets deposited on the surface along with the
flow of water.
 Dry Deposition- When there is no precipitation the acidic compounds get attached to particulate matter
and fall to the surface in powdered form. When it is washed by rain or surface water it results in an acidic
runoff mixture.
Impact of acid rain: Impact on buildings and

monuments e.g. Taj Mahal. Reduces agriculture
productivity by reducing soil productivity. It impacts
the crops. It disturbs the water quality and PH of
water bodies and marine ecosystems. Skin and eye
irritation. Results in corrosion of metals. Cause bad
odour or smell during rain. It reduces visibility.
Causes respiratory issues.
Smog: Smog is a secondary pollutant form in the

atmosphere due to the reaction among various
chemical compounds and gases released through the
burning of hydrocarbons, oil refineries, and industrial processes. Components of smog include Tropospheric
ozone, Peroxyacetyl nitrate, formaldehyde, Acrolein, etc.
Types of Smog
Impact of Smog: Reduce visibility. Decreases temperature due to low sunlight. Various health issues
such as eye irritation, breathing, cough, chest pain, etc. Damage to plant life. Reduces
photosynthesis. Causes corrosion of metals.
Sources of pollution in New Delhi: Vehicles, Stubble burning, Construction activities, Industries, Thermal
power plants and Burning of waste etc.
The condition in Delhi is worst in a month from (Oct-Feb)- Calm winds due to the transition between
South West and North East monsoon. Air near the surface becomes stable and triggers temperature inversion.
There is a completely calm and windless condition leading to the trapping of air pollutants. Burning of
crackers during Diwali.
Stubble burning- Reasons- Costly, saves time, the misconception of increase in fertility of the soil, lack of
technology, etc. Stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana due to a lesser gap between rice harvest and wheat
sowing. The Punjab preservation of sub-soil water act stipulates the transplantation of rice only in the month
of June in order to control soil salinization. The introduction of combined harvesters during the green
revolution has resulted in stubble left over during rice harvesting.
Location or Space- The regions around Delhi that are far from the ocean experience calm and light winds
during winter. This entire region is a huge basin trapped between mountains which causes the pollutant air
to accumulate for a longer duration.
Solutions or Alternative of Stubble burning-

 Happy seeder - a machine that is capable of sowing seeds without removing the stubble.
 Produce bio-fuel.
 Use of microorganisms that can decompose this stubble fast.
 The stubble can also be used to produce pellets.
 Measures to control Air pollution in Delhi- Grab mechanism, commission, etc.
Land degradation: IPCC defines land as the terrestrial portion of the Biosphere that comprises natural
resources, ecological processes, topography, human settlement, and infrastructure that operates within that
system.

Land degradation: it is a negative trend in land conditions caused by direct or indirect human induce
processes expressed as long-term reduction or loss of biological productivity, ecological integrity, or value to
humans.
Types of land degradation:

o Slight degradation- >10%
o Moderate- < 10%-50%
o Severe- <50%
Natural reasons for land degradation:

 Excessive evaporation.
 variation in precipitation.
 El Nino.
 Negative IOD.
 Natural climate change.
 Forest fires.
 Weathering erosion, siltation, volcanic eruptions.
Anthropogenic reasons for land degradation:

 Intensive agriculture- Use of chemical fertilizer, over-irrigation, flood irrigation, monoculture,
shifting culture, etc.
 Deforestation - increases soil erosion, decreases water percolation, organic content in the soil
decreases, etc.
 Soil erosion- removal of the top layer of soil resulting in loss of fertility and its capacity to support
vegetation.
 Wind erosion- Deflation, abrasion,
 Water erosion- Types:
1. Splash erosion- impact on the top layer due to the following rainfall makes it loosen.
2. Sheet erosion- Removes the topmost layer of the soil due to flowing water.
3. Rill erosion- Due to the continuous flow of water, small finger-shaped rills are developed.
4. Gully erosion- Continuous soil erosion results in the development of large-scale gullies.
5. Slip erosion- The entire topsoil gets removed.
 Dumping of waste- Solid, liquid, e-waster, plastic and medical waste, etc.
 Overgrazing by animals.
Region and reasons for soil erosion:

o Western part- Wind, water erosion, etc.
o Himalayas- shifting cultivation, Overgrazing, mass movements, developmental activities, etc.
o North East- Shifting cultivation, water erosion, and deforestation.
o Northern plains- Flood irrigation, deforestation, water logging, pollution.
o Eastern part- Mining, industrial pollution, deforestation, water erosion.
o Southern part- deforestation, urbanization, coastal erosion, water-intensive agriculture.
Impact of land degradation:

o Food security.
o Food chain.
o Migration of animals and human beings.
Restoration Practices of Degraded Land Are of Two Types:

o Active: It involves restoration of land through active participation with afforestation, agro-forestry, etc.
Active restoration is faster but costlier.
o Passive: It involves no human involvement & land is left to regenerate naturally. Doing this by removing
the causes. Passive restoration is difficult to implement since it involves the local community's livelihood

Measures Required to Control Land Degradation:
o Afforestation & Reforestation: Through large-scale plantation done artificially and with the support
of irrigation & fertilizers. National Afforestation Program aims to increase the green cover in India.
o Agro-Forestry: The practice of growing forest near the peripheral area, uncultivated agriculture fields
combining routine crops & also known as Agri-silviculture. e.g. Coffee plantation.
Allelopathy: It is the release of chemicals & hormones by one plant which will affect the growth of
another. Allelopathy is used in agriculture by careful selection of trees. In agro-forestry allelopathy is
used to suppress pests, insects, & weeds.
Methods of Agro-forestry:
o Shelter Belt: The trees are planted parallel to the direction of the wind in a linear manner to protect
the cropland by providing a Shelter.
o Wind Break: The trees are planted in belts, perpendicular to the direction of winds to break the
winds. These above features are built to stop strong winds from destroying crops.
o Social Forestry: Forest planted in common/community land outside the conventional forest such as bus
stops, schools, etc. Green Highway Program in India is part of social forestry.
o Urban Forestry: Growing trees in urban areas. Miyawaki Forest is a method to grow mini forests in
urban areas. There are various issues associated with Urban Forestry like Construction activities, no
availability of open soil cover in urban areas, etc.
o Joint Forest Management: Forest area adjacent to village local community & management jointly done
by the forest department & the local community. The National Forest Policy, 1988 recognizes Joint Forest
Management. The forest is managed by a village forest committee which is allowed to use non-timber
forest produce (minor forest produce) except timber.
o Sustainable Agriculture: The methods are as follows:

 Terrace cultivation practiced in hilly & mountainous regions is also known as contour farming. As
the slope graduates through terraces, it reduces and stops soil erosion & increases water percolation.
 Contour Bunding: Involves the rise of bunds/lines to reduce soil erosion.
 Mulching: The material applied on the soil surface to check the moisture of the soil evaporation and
increase soil water & availability of nutrients.
 Mixed cropping:
o Mixed Cropping: It is growing different crops together at the same time in the same field like
strip cropping & intercropping.
o Sand Dune Fixation: It involves planting indigenous varieties of vegetation, and grass species in
order to stop the shifting of the dunes in desert areas.
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): This concept is given by the UNCCD (United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification) According to UNCCD, Land Degradation Neutrality is a state whereby the amount
and quality of land resources necessary to support the ecosystem functions & services and enhance food
security remains stable or increases within specified temporal & spatial scales. Bonn Challenge is a Germany-
led initiative to reverse land degradation through a plantation of trees. SDG Target 15.3 also acknowledges
Land Degradation Neutrality as one of its targets.
Climate Change: UNFCCC defines Climate Change as a change of climate that can be attributed directly &
indirectly to human activities that alter the composition of the global atmosphere & which is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

Causes of Climate Change:
 Radiative Forcing: The factor which will cause the change in the 'Heat Budget' is known as Radioactive
Forcing. The radiative forcing disturbs the global energy balance & causes changes in the Global Climatic
Pattern.
 Positive Forcing is the factor that results in the warming effect e.g. increase in greenhouse gases.
 Negative Forcing is the factor that results in the cooling effect, e.g. increase in aerosols.
Greenhouse Effect: Trapping of the terrestrial radiation in the earth's lower atmosphere by the gases further
warms the surface of the earth.
Important Greenhouse Gases:
Greenhouse Gases Atmospheric lifetime (years) Global Warming Potential
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 50 to 200 1

Methane (CH4) 12 to 3 21
Nitrous Oxide (NO2) 120 310
Hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs) 1.5 to 209 150 to 11,700
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 2600 to 50000 6,500 to 9,200
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) 3,200 23,900
Water vapor
Chlorofluorocarbon
Black Carbon
GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL: It is the measure of how much energy the emission of 1 tonne of gas is
absorbed over a given period relative to the emissions of one tonne of CO2.
Atmospheric Lifetime: It is the period up to which a gas stays in the atmosphere.

Sources of CO2: The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is 0.04%.
The highest release of CO2 happens while producing electricity for
domestic/industrial consumption approx. 73%. Agriculture &
Forestry release 18%. Industries account for 5.2%. As per the latest
report, the amount of CO2 in the earth's atmosphere is 418 Parts
Per Million (PPM). Two observatories: In Hawaii islands in Mauna
Loa and second in Antarctica record the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
Keeling Curve: This curve shows the amount of CO2 concentration
in the atmosphere. The highest amount of CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere of the earth in 8 Lakh Years. This assessment is done
by collecting ice sheets that are present in Antarctica.
Methane: It is a short-lived greenhouse gas that impacts more

than CO2.
Sources of Methane Release: Highest proportion of methane comes from wetlands (rice cultivation, shallow
water bodies). Ruminant Emission emitted from the gastro chambers of the cattle. (Cattle rearing), Bio-mass
Burning. Solid Waste dumping sites & landfills. Burning of coal and oil & gas. Ocean gas hydrates. Termite
Emission. Wildfires. Emissions through geological Sources like volcanoes, etc.
Sources of NO2 Emissions: Agriculture Soil Management due to the use of fertilizers in the farms accounts
for 74% of NO2 emissions. Remaining 26% through transportation, manure management, stationary
combustion & wastewater treatment. Fluorinated Gases: HFCs, PFCs & SF6. Kigali Agreement: To regulate
the fluorinated gases.
Evidence of climate change: At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established. According to the latest Annual Report 6 of IPCC the average
global temperature has risen since the late nineteenth century to 1.09 degrees Celsius. In that 1.07 degrees
Celsius is due to human activities 0.02% is due to natural factors. The warmest year on record is 2020 and
2016. Each of the last four decades has been successively warmer than any preceding decades. The top 100
meters of ocean water is showing warming of more than 0.33 degree Celsius. The global sea level rise in the
last century is 20 Centimetres. Melting of ice sheets & glaciers in the Himalayas, Alps, Andes, and Rockies.
Decrease in Arctic sea ice area by 10% in March & 40% in September and expected 100% by the year 2040.
Increase in extreme events like heat waves, cold waves, tropical cyclones, floods & droughts. Increase in ocean
acidification, the acidity of the ocean surface has increased by 30%. Increase in sea water levels in the
atmosphere from 80 PPM to 418 PPM for the last 180 years.
Impacts of climate change:

1. Impacts on Hydrological Cycles: Faster melting of glaciers, Retreat of glaciers. Increase in the water
fed by the glacier in the rivers, For Example- Himalayan rivers. Increased occurrence of Glacier lakes and
glacier lakes outburst floods. Increase of irregularity in the rainfall. (Due to changes in temperature and
pressure conditions). Increase in the occurrence of droughts. Impact on the water supply to agriculture.
o Ocean Warming: Ocean warming, results in the formation of warmer and more stable upper layers.
It leads to less mixing of deeper and colder nutrient-rich layers with the surface, reducing the supply
of nutrients to the upper layers. At the upper layer, the oxygen level will be decreased and the supply
to the lower layer will also be reduced. The higher temperature and lower oxygen level will impact
the metabolic activity of marine organisms. This impacts sensitive coral reefs and causes large-scale
bleaching. It will also reduce marine diversity.
o Ocean acidification: Ocean water absorbs higher carbon dioxides due to higher CO2 levels due to
decreased PH levels. Impacts on shell-building organisms such as corals, shells, etc. Impacts on fish
and seaweeds, it results in changes in growth, distribution of species and reproductive will get
impacted.

o Ocean Deoxygenation: At higher temperatures, Water holds lower oxygen due to stratification, and
reduced mixing oxygen supply to bottom layers decreases. At higher temperatures, the oxygen
demand of marine organisms increases through an increase in metabolic activity, and increased algal
blooms cause depletion of oxygen, hypoxic conditions, and the creation of dead zones.
2. Impacts of Climate change on Food security: Due to widespread droughts and adverse conditions
agriculture production will get impacted.
3. Impacts of Climate change on Gender: Water scarcity can expose women to gender-based violence.
Gender norms and power dynamics impact women's and men's exposure to physical hazards.
4. Impact of Climate change on Human Health: There are various impacts of climate change on human
health such as: Extreme heat increases heat-related illnesses and deaths. As per the AR6 report of IPCC,
some events mentioned in the report are as follows:

Ozone depletion:
Ozone: Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen with three oxygen atoms. It is pale blue gas with a pungent odour. In
the atmosphere, we have O2 at 20.95% and O3 at 0.000004%. Ozone is present in two layers i.e. Ozone in
Troposphere (Bad) and Ozone in Stratosphere(Good). Approx. 90% ozone is present in the stratosphere and
around 10% in the troposphere.
UV radiation: UV radiations can be categorized based on frequency such as:
UV-A Rays UV-B Rays UV-C Rays
It is damaging but 90% is blocked by the
stratosphere. It is biologically active. Long-
No issues, due to lesser term exposure might cause Skin burning, skin Most damaging and filtered in
frequency. damage, etc. However, there is one good thing the stratosphere.
is that it helps in the synthesis of Vitamin D in
the body.

Through the Ozone cycle, the UV rays get filtered into the atmosphere. 1 Dobson unit is 0.01 Unit of Ozone
measured at one atmospheric pressure at Zero degrees Celsius.
Ozone Depletion: Ozone-depleting Agents are as follows:
These ozone-depleting agents are used in industries due

to various properties like non-corrosive, non-
inflammable, chemically stable, and has a longer lifetime.
The chemical reactions involved in ozone depletion

are as follows:
Ozone Hole over Antarctica: The stratospheric clouds

found in the polar region are called Polar stratospheric
clouds. The winters in Antarctica are very cold and the
temperature is very low. Antarctica has a large extensive
area. Due to the above conditions Polar stratospheric
clouds are formed.
Timeline of Ozone Hole:

o June: Winter begins, the temperature falls, Vortex develops.
o July and August: Free chlorine, bromine atoms become non-reactive, and ice particles of polar
stratospheric clouds provide a surface for these chlorine atoms.
o September: First Sunlight falls over Antarctica, and Spring begins. Polar stratospheric clouds
disappear, and Reactive chlorine starts to destroy ozone.
o October: Lowest levels of Ozone
o November: Vortex weakens and fresh ozone enters.
Why the Ozone hole, not over the Arctic - Temperature is higher over the Arctic. Fewer Land areas
Polar stratospheric clouds are usually not formed. The polar vortex is usually not much strong.
Effects of Ozone Depletion:

Effects of Ozone Depletion
Damage to DNA, Genetic Mutations, Skin Diseases. Cataract and damage to eyes,
Humans
reduced immunity.
Crop productivity, Plant metabolism & Development cycle. Reproductive
Plants and Ecosystems
capacities, changes in species composition. Biogeological cycles.
The chemical reactivity of gases increases. Changes in the composition of O3,
Air Quality
and H2O2, OH Changes in lifetime of CH4 & other GHGs.

BIODIVERSITY
Rio Summit 1992 defines biological Biodiversity as variability among living organisms from all sources,
including, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are
part: this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.
Measurement of Biodiversity is done as follows:

Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity
It is the total number of genetic It is a total number of different species It is the variations in the
characteristics in the genetic that are naturally occurring and found in ecosystem within a
makeup of the species and the the ecosystem. Example- Tropical geographical location or
naturally occurring genetic rainforest ecosystem has higher species habitat. Example- Within
differences among the same diversity than the Arctic Ecosystems. the equatorial region, the
species. Example: Homo We have two ways of measuring Species different types of ecosystems
Sapiens of Africa, Asia, and Diversity: Species Richness & Species within rainforests.
Europe. Evenness
Species Diversity: Shannon Weiner Index is a species diversity Index, used by the Forest Survey of India.
Species Diversity considers two factors:
1. Species Richness: i.e. number of different species. It is measured in the following ways:
o Alpha diversity: It is several different species within the ecosystem.
o Beta Diversity: It is diversity measured by finding unique individuals by comparing the each of two
ecosystems.
o Gamma Diversity: Gamma diversity is overall diversity for different ecosystems within the region.
2. Species Evenness: i.e. It is the number of individuals per species (Relative abundance).
Distribution of Species:
1. Megadiverse countries- It is used to create awareness regarding the protection of natural biodiversity.
The criteria used for considering a country as a megadiverse country: It must have at least 5000 endemic
plant species. It must have a marine ecosystem within its border. Refer to the map as shown by the faculty
in the class for megadiverse countries.

2. Biogeographic realms: A Biogeographic realm is a large spatial region of the earth's land surface with
ecosystems sharing a similar biological evolutionary history and distributional patterns. There are 8
biogeographic realms. Each realm shares similar processes and major vegetation types.
3. Biogeographical regions of India: Biogeography is the distribution of species, organisms and

ecosystems in geographic space. India is divided into 10 biogeographic regions:
 Trans-Himalayas: Found in Leh and Ladakh, Spiti

Valley and some parts of Sikkim. Very low
precipitation (majorly in snow form), totally barren,
cold desert, dominated by wind erosion, low diversity
of vegetation (majorly alpine) and low diversity of
fauna (Snow Leopard, Tibetan Antelope, Yak, Black
Necked Crane, Tibetan Wild Ass etc.) It has Hemis
National Park in Ladakh and Pin Valley National
Park in Himanchal.
 Himalayas: Rich vegetation, higher precipitation,
Species include snow leopard, Kashmir Stag (also
called Hangul, found in Dachigam National Park),
Himalayan Tahr, Himalayan Bear, wild yak etc. It
includes national parks such as Dachigam,
Namdapha, Valley of Flowers etc.
 Gangetic Plains: Flat alluvial plains, the temperature is too extreme, and precipitation is around 50
to 200 cm. The species include Blue Cow (Nil gay), Swamp Deer (Barasingha), Hog Deer, Gharial,
Gangetic dolphin etc. The national parks include Valmiki National Park, Panna, Kanha, Sultanpur
etc.
 Semi-Arid Zone: Precipitation is less than 70 cm, vegetation is dry grassland and tropical thorn. The
species include Asiatic Lions, Black Buck, Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican etc. The national
parks include Ranthambore, Sariska, Gir, Tal chhapar in Rajasthan etc.
 Desert: The precipitation is less than 25 cm, and vegetation is xerophytic, found in western Rajasthan
and Northern Gujarat. The species include Camel, Black Buck, Desert Fox, Great Indian Bustard,
Indian Wild Ass etc. The national parks include desert national park (famous for dinosaur fossils) etc.
 Western Ghats: Topography is hilly terrain, High temperature, and high precipitation, wet
evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous. The species include Lion-tailed macaque, Malabar

civet, Malabar giant squirrel, Nilgiri Tahr, Great Indian Hornbill, Mahseer, tigers, elephants, and
leopards. The national parks include Kudremukh, Nagarhole, Bandipur, Periyar, Anaimalai and
Silent Valley.
 Deccan plateau: Found in Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. Dry
deciduous, moist deciduous. The species include tigers, elephants, sloth bears, blackbuck, monitor
lizards and Great Indian Bustard. The national parks include Srisailam Nagarjuna Sagar (Largest
tiger reserve of India), Achanakmar-Amarkantak and Satpura.
 Northeast: Temperature is high, precipitation is high i.e. around 200 cm per annum, and the
topography is mountainous and plain. Evergreen vegetation and moist deciduous. The species include
Great Hornbill, One-horned Rhino, Red Panda, Sangai deer, Bengal Florican, Golden Langur, pigmy
hog etc. national parks include Orang, Namdapha, Manas and Kaziranga.
 Coastal and Islands area: Found in the Coromandel coast, Utkal, Norther Circars, Konkan, Malabar,
Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. The vegetation includes tropical evergreen rainforests,
high temperatures, and high precipitation. The species include Olive ridley turtles, Irrawaddy
dolphins, dugongs, fishing cats, Leatherback turtles and the saltwater crocodile. The national parks
include Bhitarkanika, Sundarban, Gulf of Mannar etc.
Biodiversity loss: It refers to the reduction in the number of genes, species and individual organisms and
ecosystems in a given area.
Causes for Biodiversity Loss:
 Habitat loss: due to deforestation, land degradation, forest fragmentation, mining, infra projects,
urbanisation, forest fire (Ground fire, Crown fire, Bush fire) etc.
Forest Fire Causes-
o Natural factors: Dry conditions, rock slides or rock falls, lightning, swaying of bamboo etc.
o Anthropogenic: Intentional (Shifting cultivation, stubble burning, regeneration fire, poaching and
hunting) and unintentional (by tourists, camping, bonfire etc.).
 Overexploitation of resources: Overgrazing, Logging, Shifting Cultivation, Monoculture, Unsustainable

fishing, Unsustainable groundwater extraction.
 Pollution: Water pollution (coral bleaching, algal blooms and hypoxic conditions, best examples are
Gharial and Gangetic Dolphins), Air Pollution (reduces the photosynthetic capacity of plants, smog
impacts the respiratory system, acid rain impacts plants directly and also impacts migration etc.), Land
degradation (Impacts biogeochemical cycle), Thermal Pollution (leads to coral bleaching, hypoxic
conditions etc.), Light Pollution etc.
 Climate Change: Coral bleaching due to global warming, affects bird migration patterns, rising sea
levels etc.
 Poaching and Hunting: Reasons include illegal trade, social status etc. Important animals that have
gone extinct due to poaching and hunting: woolly mammoth, dodo bird, Tasmania tiger, Passenger
Pigeon etc.
 Invasive Species: They hamper the local species and destroy local biodiversity. Native species are the
species which are naturally found in their habitat. Alien species are those species which do not occur
naturally and are introduced intentionally or otherwise through human agency or accidentally from one
region to another. Invasive species are defined by IUCN as alien species which are established in natural
or semi-natural ecosystem or habitat and is an agent of change and threatens native biodiversity.
Characteristics of Invasive species: These are pioneer species in many habitats. They are tolerant of a
wide range of soil and weather conditions. They are generalists in the distribution. They produce large
amounts of seeds with a high dispersal rate and develop an aggressive root system. They have a short
gestation period. Long flowery and fruiting period. They have a broad native range. Examples of Invasive

species include Prosopis Juliflora, Parthenium, Lantana, giant African snail, water hyacinth, clownfish,
papaya mealy bug, common myna etc.
 Man-animal conflict: It is the encounters between human and wildlife that leads to negative results such
as loss of property life or livelihood. It often leads to people killing animals in self-defence which can drive
species to extinction.
Reasons- Habitat destruction, Deforestation, Fragmentation of forest, Infrastructure project-
construction of roads, railways, power plants, Expansion of agriculture area and changing cropping
patterns, Urbanization, increasing tourism activities, Increase in the wildlife population without a
proportional increase in the forest area or prey base.
Solutions for man-animal conflict: Coexistence through proactive measures such as growing crops that
are not eaten by elephants, livestock rearing, and other alternative sources of income. Creating buffer
areas around the agriculture region. Sensitizing the local community regarding wildlife. Eco-tourism-
Tourism that is in sync with ecology. Habitat conservation - increasing prey base. Provide insurance
coverage to the farmers and provide instant relief to the farmers. Providing wildlife passage for railways
and highways. Provide natural barriers like honey bees fencing. Relocation of animals due to increase in
population.
Conservation of biodiversity: Biodiversity hotspots - are recognized by conservation international. To
qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a region must have 1500 vascular plants as endemic. Lost at least 70% of its
natural vegetation. A total of 36 biodiversity hotspots are recognized across the world.
India has four biodiversity hotspots:

 1. Himalayas - J&K, Ladakh, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal
 2. Indo- Burma- North East and Indo-China.
 3. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
 4. Sundaland - Nicobar group of islands and islands of South East Asia.
Conservation Strategies:
 In situ conservation- It is the process of protecting endangered plants and animal species in their
natural habitat ex- National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and Biosphere reserves.

 Ex situ conservation- It involves conservation by removing wildlife from its natural habitat and placing
it under the care of human being’s ex- Botanical gardens, Zoological parks, breeding centers, gene banks,
and cryopreservation.
Comparison:
In situ Ex Situ
No adaptation problems. Adaptation problems for animals.
Higher chance of survival. Less chance of survival.
Lower cost. Higher cost.
Disturbs the livelihood of the local
No such disturbance.
community.
It is slower. It is faster.
Higher chances of mutations, infections, and changes in
No such changes.
natural behaviour.
Higher genetic diversity Higher changes in breeds and lower genetic diversity.
Type of in situ:
 Area-based approach- The entire area will be protected example- a National park, wildlife sanctuary,
and biosphere reserve.
 Species-based approach - Where a particular species is targeted ex- tiger reserve, elephant reserve, etc.
Biosphere reserve: These are the sites established to develop sustainable development based on local
community efforts based on sound science. A biosphere reserve integrates the flowing three functions:
Conservation of biodiversity as well as cultural diversity, Economic development i.e. sustainable and
Providing logistics support and development through research, monitoring, education, and training. A
biosphere reserve is divided into three zones i.e. core, buffer, and transition.
o Core area- It is a strictly protected zone with plant

and animal endemic species. It is kept free from
human interference. It contains protected areas
such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc.
o Buffer area- It surrounds the core area and it is

managed in ways that help in the protection of the
core zone in its natural conditions. It involves
limited tourism activities, limited fishing, and
grazing, education, training, monitoring, etc.
o Transition zone- It is an area where human

activities are in harmony with nature. Socio-
culturally and ecologically sustainable economic
activities are allowed. It includes human
settlements, croplands, and intensive recreation.
UNESCO MAB Program: It is a framework established by UNESCO in 1971 to help the national government
support the planning and implementation of research and training programs. India has declared a total of
18 Biosphere reserves out of which 12 have got a UNESCO tag.
Sacred Groves: These are the tracts of virgin forest that are left untouched by local inhabitants and are
protected by local people due to their culture and religious belief.

ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION
Timeline- it is there and part of Indian history since ancient times- in Vedas, Ramayana, etc.
o 1864- Imperial forest department was established.
o 1865- Indian forest Act.
o 1867- Imperial forest service.
o 1927- Indian Forest Act.
o 1935- Forest was made a provincial subject.
o 1966- Re-established Indian forest service.
o 1972- Wildlife Protection Act.
o 1974- Water Act (prevention and control of pollution).
o 1976- Forestry – concurrent.
o 1980- Forest Conservation Act.
o 1981- Air Act.
o 1986- Environment protection act.
o 1988- National forest policy.
o 2002- Biodiversity Act.
o 2003- Forest Rights Act.
o 2010- National Green Tribunal Act.
o 2016- CAMPA Act.
Constitutional provisions:
o Part 4A- Art 48A- DPSP: The state shall endeavour to protect the environment.
o Part 4A- Art 51A- FDs: The citizen shall protect the environment and improve the natural environment.
Legal Provisions:
o Indian Forest Act, 1927.
o Wildlife Protection Act.
Indian forest act,1865: It prohibits any kind of activity inside the forest like cultivation and grazing in the
forest area. It introduced Reserve forests and protected forests as the type of forest in India. It also provided
for the protection of trees and the prevention of forest fires. It talks about forest produce, its use, etc.
Indian Forest Act, 1927: It defines forest as the area occupied by the government for the conservation and
management of biological and ecological resources.
Types of forests:
1. Public forest:
o Reserve forests: It is the forest which is completely belonging to the government and once declared
the rights inside this forest are extinguished.
o Protected forests: these are the forest not reserved under government but protected by the
government for some period of time. Some of the rights are allowed to people. Most of the rights are
with the government.
o Village forests: These are the forest which state government assigned to any village community the
rights of government over a reserve forest.
2. Private forests: These are the forest which are not occupied by the government but the government
regulates Timber cutting and prohibits the change in nature of these forests.
The government is empowered to regulate the activities inside any forest and also punish any violations.
The state government controls the movement of forest produce through a system of transit permits.
Wildlife protection Act, 1972:

Authorities:
o Director of Wildlife at the national level.
o Assistant Director of Wildlife at the national level.
o Chief Wildlife Warden state level.
o Wildlife warden at the state level.
o National Board of Wildlife.
o State Board of Wildlife.
These are apex bodies headed by the PM and CM respectively and they approve the establishment of protected
areas in India and oversee wildlife protection in India.
Central Zoo Authority- provides recognition to zoos in India and prescribes guidelines for the operation of
zoos.
National Tiger Conservation Authority- It was established for the protection of tigers in India and
implement Project Tiger. It is headed by the union minister of environment, forest & climate change. The act
prohibits hunting of any wild animals in India and the wild species are categorized into 6 schedules:
 Schedule 1 to 4: Wild animals are protected with decreasing levels of protection.
 Schedule 5: Included the animals declared as vermin and there is no punishment for killing these
animals.
 Schedule 6: Prohibited the cultivation of a specified plant species. e.g. Pitcher plant.
 Exemption for punishment - Killing in Self-defence. If the animal is harmful to human life. If the animal
is diseased beyond the recovery stage. The chief wildlife warden in the state can permit hunting in such
cases.
Conservation Reserve: The government may

declare any area adjoining a national park or
sanctuary as a conservation reserve if the land is
owned by the government.
Community reserve: If the land is owned privately
or by the community and is used for the conservation
of wildlife and its habitat. No change in land use
pattern is allowed in conservation and community
reserves.
Wildlife protection amendment Act, 2021:

Rationalization of schedules. The earlier 6 schedules
were merged into 4 schedules. Schedules 1,2,3,4
merged into 3 and 4.
Schedule 3: Protected plant species. The schedule for
vermin is removed. The central government shall
declare any animal as vermin through notification.
Schedule 4 includes species under CITES. Controlling invasive alien species by empowering the central
government to regulate trade. A person processing live specimens of scheduled animals shall obtain a
registration certificate. It allows for the transfer of captive elephants by persons having ownership
certificates as per the conditions prescribed by the central government.
Water (prevention & control of pollution) Act, 1974: It establishes Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) at the national and state level as a statutory body to control water pollution in India. CPCB advises
the government and coordinates the actions. State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) is the body to prevent
and controls pollution and prescribes standards. It can inspect any of their establishment and it can also
impose penalties.
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Expanded the authority of CPCB and SPCB to control
air pollution.

Forest conservation act 1980: It aims to prevent and regulate the diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purposes. Prior approval of the central government is essential for converting forests into non-forest land.
The government may constitute an advisory committee to approve. The project developer shall provide for
compensatory afforestation in non-forest lands equal to the area of forest land being diverted or doubled in
case of degraded land. The project developer shall pay the net present value of the diverted forest for 50 years.
T.N. Godavarman case 1995: Supreme Court defined forest as per dictionary definition of forest irrespective
of ownership. The state government shall constitute an expert committee to identify and demarcate the
forests. All such forests are subjected to Forest Conservation Act. Supreme Court stopped tree felling and non-
forest activity inside the forests across India.
Compensatory afforestation fund Act, 2016: The act provides for the establishment national
compensatory afforestation fund and a State compensatory afforestation fund under public accounts. The
fund received for compensatory afforestation, net present value, and other project-specific transfers. Out of
this 10% goes to national funds and 90% goes to State funds. There is provisions of management and
planning authority both at national and State fund. The funds can be used for afforestation, regeneration,
infrastructure development in forests, wildlife, and wildlife protection. The net present value will be
determined by an expert committee of the central government.
Environment protection Act, 1986: It is an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for
central government, and coordination of activities of various central and State authorities. The environment
is defined to include water, air, and land and the interrelationships among them and human beings and other
living creatures and property. Environmental pollution is the presence of pollutants which is any solid, liquid,
or gas substance present in such a concentration as may be injurious to the environment. It empowers the
Centre to take all such measures as it deems necessary to protect the environment.
Biodiversity Act, 2002: It aims to protect India's rich biodiversity and associated knowledge and check bio-
piracy. It provides for setting up:
o National Biodiversity authority.
o State Biodiversity boards.
o Biodiversity management committee at the local levels.
NBA and SBB are required to consult BMC in decisions with respect to biological resources. All foreign
nationals and MNCs require prior approval from the NBA for obtaining biological resources from India.
Indian citizens and entities have free access to biological resources within the country.
Biodiversity (Amendment) Bill, 2021: The registered AYUSH medical practitioners and other people
practicing indigenous medicines are exempted from giving prior intimation to SBB. The cultivated medicinal
plants can be used without prior permission from SBB. Provision to simplify the patenting process for foreign-
controlled entities. Allowing foreign investment in research in biodiversity through Indian companies.
Forest rights Act (FRA), 2006: It is referred to as scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers
(recognition of forest rights) Act, 2006. It recognizes the forest rights of families who are primarily residing
in forests and depend upon forests for livelihood. The family must be residing in the forest for 75 years. The
act recognizes the following rights - Right to live inside the forest. Right to hold forest land for self-cultivation
up to a maximum of 4 hectares. The title rights of land are recognized only for the land that is actually being
cultivated and no new lands are granted. The title holder has no right to transfer the land. Usage rights over
minor forest produce from the forest. Community rights to protect and conserve forest resources for
sustainable use.
The process of recognition of rights: Gram Sabha will pass a resolution recommending eligible rights
holders. This resolution is reviewed and approved at the sub-division and district level, for this purpose
screening committee is established.

 Critical wildlife habitat (CWH): The FRA defines CWH as areas of national parks and sanctuaries where
it has been established on the basis of scientific criteria where such areas are required to be kept as
inviolate (free from human interference) for the purpose of wildlife conservation. Critical wildlife habitat
inside a tiger reserve is called as a critical tiger habitat.
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: It was established for the effective and expeditious disposal of case
related to environmental protection. NGT has the power to enforce any legal right related to the environment
and provide relief and compensation. The Tribunal is not bound by the procedure under CPC (civil procedure
code) and is guided by principles of natural justice. There is no need for an advocate and one can fight on its
own. The cases filed shall be disposed of within six months. All the legislation except the Indian Forest Act,
wildlife protection Act 1972, and Forest Act 2006.
Objectives of national forest policy, 1988: Conservation of national heritage, biodiversity, and genetic
resources. It sets the target of 33% forest cover in India with 66% target in hilly areas. It envisages a symbiotic
relationship between the forest department and the tribals. It discourages shifting cultivation. It promotes a
massive afforestation program to increase forest cover.
Waste management:
Plastic waste management rule, 2016 - Single-use plastic was banned in India 1st July 2022. The minimum
thickness allowed is 120 microns. Rules are applicable all over India including rural India. The government
has given a comprehensive list of single-use plastic products. The plastic waste which is not covered under
the identified list shall be managed through Extended Producer Responsibility(EPR) mechanism. Extended
producer responsibility (EPR) is a mechanism set up for the products which are out of the comprehensive list
of single-use plastic products Registered Producer responsibility organizations are set up to implement this
EPR mechanism.
E-waste management rules, 2022 - The most important provision i.e. Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) is made compulsory for all e-waste. The targets for EPR were fixed in a phased manner, starting from
10% in 2017 to 70% after 2023. Registered producer responsibility organizations can undertake EPR
activities on behalf of brand owners. A deposit refund scheme has been introduced as an additional economic
instrument where producers can charge additional deposits at the time of sale. EPR applies to manufacturers,
producers, importers, transporter, and recyclers.
Solid waste management, 2016 - It is of multiple types. The major issue is the segregation of solid waste.
Waste segregation at source- It is the responsibility of generators to segregate waste into: Wet
biodegradable waste, Dry waste such as plastic metal, wood, etc and Domestic hazardous waste such as
diapers, napkins, containers of cleaning agents, mosquito repellent, etc.
EPR is applicable for sanitary napkins and packaging waste. The biodegradable waste should be processed
through composting or bio-methanation within the premises as far as possible. Burning of solid waste openly
is prohibited. Solid waste based Refused derived fuel (RDF) plants are encouraged to be set up. Landfill sites
should be located 100 meters away from a river, 200 meters from a pond 500 meters from highways and
human habitats including public parks, and a minimum of 20 kilometers from airports. Generators have to
pay a user fee to waste collectors and spot fines can be imposed for littering.
Biomedical waste management, 2016 - Hospital waste needs to be handled carefully as it is very
hazardous. Four color codes are used for segregation:
o Red- plastic waste, syringes, bottles.
o Yellow- Infectious waste, masks, cotton, bandage.
o Blue- Glass bottles.
o Black- Needles and other metallic items.

The rules apply to hospitals, labs, clinics, vaccination camps, blood donation camps, and other healthcare
facilities. The pre-treatment of biomedical waste is to be done on-site as per WHO guidelines. The
complete treatment is to be done at a common biomedical waste treatment facility. No onsite treatment
within 75 km of the common biomedical waste facility. Establishing a Bar code system for disposal is
compulsory.
Construction and demolition waste- There has to be a waste management plan for demolition for big
projects which is to be certified by local municipalities.
Wetland management rules, 2017: National wetland authority plays an advisory and monitory role. State
wetland authority in every state or Union territory headed by the Minister of Environment is the nodal
authority for wetlands. State wetland authority shall prepare a list of all wetlands to be covered under the
rules. All wetlands irrespective of ownership can be classified as wetlands except river channels, paddy fields,
water bodies for aquaculture, drinking water projects, and the water bodies are located within the ambit of
the Indian forest act, Wildlife protection act, coastal regulation zones, and Forest Conservation Act. The state
wetland authority shall develop a comprehensive list of activities to be permitted and regulated. The
prohibited activities as per the guidelines are setting up new industries, dumping solid waste, and discharging
untreated water.
Groundwater management Rules, 2020: It is mandatory to obtain NOC for groundwater extraction except
for Domestic consumers, Agricultural activities, rural drinking water supply schemes, armed forces
establishments, and small MSMEs. It is compulsory for new and existing industries, group housing societies,
and private water supply tankers. No NOC for over-exploited areas. NOC holders need to pay groundwater
charges based on the quantum of extraction.
Coastal Regulation Zone,2018: The coastal regulation zone extends up to 500 meters from the High tide
line (HTL). There are total of four-zones.
 CRZ 1A- eco-sensitive zone.
 CRZ 1B- Inter-tidal zone.
 CRZ 2- Well developed urban areas near the coast (Urban areas).
 CRZ 3A- Rural areas with higher population density.
 CRZ 3B- Rural areas with lower population density.
 CRZ 4A- Up to 12 nautical miles from the low tide line (LTL).
 CRZ 4B- Tidal-influenced water bodies.
No development zone up to 50 meters from HTL. Tourism infrastructure on beaches is permitted within no
development zone but beyond a 10-meter distance from HTL. CRZ clearance for CRZ I and CRZ IV is provided
by the central government and for CRZ II and CRZ III by the state government. All defence and strategic
purpose projects are exempted from the rules.
International Conservation Efforts:

o Organizations can be of many types:
o Inter-Governmental Organization: E.g. WMO.
o International Organizations: E.g. IUCN.
o NGOs: E.g. WWF
o Program: UNEP.
o Fund: Global Environmental Facility.
o Convention: UNFCC, Ramsar, etc.
o Treaty or Agreement: Paris Agreement.
o Protocol: Kyoto Protocol, etc.
o Timeline of Environmental Conservation summits:

o 1971: Ramsar Convention.

o 1972: Stockholm Conference.
o 1973: CITES, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.
o 1979: CMS (Convention on Migratory Species).
o 1985: Nairobi Conference.
o 1985: Vienna Convention.
o 1987: Brundtland Commission (released a report called Our Common Future).
o 1988: Montreal Protocol adoption, IPCC.
o 1989: Basel Convention.
o 1992: Rio Earth Summit (UNFCCC, UNCBD, UNCCD).
o 1997: Kyoto Protocol.
o 1998: Rotterdam Convention.
o 2000: Millennium Summit, Cartagena Protocol (part of CBD).
o 2001: Stockholm Convention,
o 2002: Rio +10 Summit.
o 2005: Millennium Development Goals.
o 2010: Nagoya Protocol.
o 2012: Rio+20 Summit
o 2013: Minamata Convention
o 2015: Paris Agreement, SDGs.
Ramsar Convention, 1971: It was agreed on 2nd February 1971. 2nd February is International Wetlands
Day. Total 172 members. For conservation and wise use of wetlands.
Three commitments: To work towards the wise use of wetlands, to designate some wetlands for the Ramsar
List and ensure their effective management and to corporate internationally transboundary wetlands.
Partners of Ramsar Convention: International Water Management Institute, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust,
Birdlife International, IUCN, Wetlands International and WW.
Montreux Record: Ramsar Sites are wetlands that have deteriorated ecological health. In India, 2 sites are
put on Montreux Record. Keoladeo National Park-Rajasthan, Loktak Lake - Manipur.
Stockholm Conference, 1972: It is also called as UN Conference on Human Environment. Held on 5th, and
6th June 1972.
Stockholm Declaration: India also signed the declaration, and Environment Protection Act was introduced
in India. It was the first global conference on the environment, and 122 countries participated in it. UNEP
was also established.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1973: The
objective is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of wild species. 184 members.
India is a party to CITES. CITES maintains 3 appendices:
o Appendix I: Highest protection and international commercial trade are prohibited.
o Appendix II: The species which are not threatened but if the trade is unregulated, it may become
extinct. Therefore, trade is allowed but controlled.
o Appendix III: Special list, of the species which are subjected to regulation within one country and
require the cooperation of others.
Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(CMS), 1979: It is also called as Bonn
Convention. It targets terrestrial, aquatic, and avian migratory species. It was signed in 1979 in Bonn,
Germany. There are 131 members including India. There are two appendices that list species protected under
this convention. The last COP (13th COP) of Bonn was held in Gandhinagar, in 2020.

Nairobi Conference: Was convened in 1982. Resulting in a Nairobi Declaration. They brought the necessity
of sustainable development.
Vienna convention: Aims to protect the ozone layer and promote cooperation in protecting the ozone layer.
Agreed in 1985 and came into force in 1988. Universally signed and ratified. 197 countries have signed and
ratified it.
Montreal Protocol: Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer, 1987. Entered into force
in 1989. Legally binding agreements over Ozone depleting substances for both developed and developing
countries. Initially, it targeted reducing CFC production by 50 percent. Later through amendments, it faced
out most of ODS except for critical use. Like in Metered dosage inhalers Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Diseases, and Fire suppression systems in submarines and aircraft. A multilateral fund for the
implementation of the Montreal Protocol was established to assist developing and Least Developed countries
in reducing ODS. CFC was replaced with HCFC which the short-term transitional pursuit and 90 percent was
less effective than CFC. HCFC was replaced with HFC but HFC is a GHG. In 2016, through the Kigali amendment
it was agreed to phase down HFCs by 85 percent. Developed countries must reduce HFC use by 2019. The
second group of developing countries is committed to launching the transition in 2024 and in 2028. HFCs
have to be replaced with HFO- Hydrofluoroolefins - Low toxicity and low GHG potential.
Reasons behind the successful implementation of the Montreal Protocol:

 Acceptance of Common but differentiated Relationships (CBDR).
 Establishment of a multilateral fund for the implementation of the Montreal protocol.
 Implemented by UNEP, UNDP, and World Bank.
 An alternative to HFCs is HFO: Hydrofluoroolefins.
Basel convention, 1989: Basel Convention on the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes,
1989 - The objectives of the convention are to minimize the creation of such wastes and also assist the LDCs
in the environmentally sound management of hazardous waste. It does not cover radioactive waste. It
provides for prior consent and approval procedure to regulate the movement of hazardous wastes.
Rio Earth Summit, 1992:

 2000- Millennium Summit
 2002- Johannesburg Rio+10 Summit.
 2012- Rio+20 Summit in Rio De Janeiro
 Outcomes of Rio Earth Summit: UNFCCC, UNCBD, UNCCD.
Rotterdam convention, 1998: It also called as Convention on the movement of Hazardous Chemicals. It
aims to promotes shared responsibility for the movement of hazardous chemicals in international trade. It
facilitates information exchange through the implementation of prior informed consent. It creates legally
binding obligations.
Stockholm convention, 2001: The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. POP are organic
compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical and biological processes. They
are capable of Bio-accumulation and Bio-magnification in the ecosystem. Example: DDT, Endrin, Aldrin, etc.
The members agreed to eliminate the listed POPs under the convention. The convention first listed 12 POPs
which were called a dirty dozen.
Minamata convention: Agreed In 2013. To protect human health and the environment from the release of
mercury compounds. Aims to reduce mercury pollution from selected human activities.
Efforts to combat climate change:

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on climate change): The IPCC is the United Nations body for assessing the
science related to climate change. The IPCC was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation

(WMO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). It is a research body to provides governments with
scientific information that can be used to develop climate policies. 195 members including India are part of
it. In 2007, IPCC was awarded the Nobel peace prize. RK Pachauri was the chairperson between 2002-15.
It releases various types of reports:
o The First Assessment Report (AR1) was released in 1990.
o AR5 was released in 2015.
o The sixth assessment report (AR6) is the latest one (2021).
o Other reports include Special Reports and Methodology Reports.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC): It was agreed in 1992 and entered
into force in 1994.
Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:
o Annex 1 includes industrialized and developed countries and economies in transition (EIT).
o Annex 2 Countries: These are members of the OECD, which is required to provide financial and technical
support to EIT and developing countries and LDCs.
o Non-Annex 1: These are not listed in Annex 1 and are low-income developing countries.
o LDCs: Least Developed Countries.
COPs TO UNFCCC: COP 1- 1995 in Berlin and COP 3-1997 in Kyoto.
Kyoto Protocol: It was agreed upon in 1997. It aims to reduce global warming through targeted emission
reduction. It targeted to reduce the emission of six greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),
Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Targets were mentioned for Annex 1 countries. The first commitment period for the agreement was from
2008 to 2012. Under CDM, CER units are issued by the UNFCCC. Many countries withdrew from it.
Mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol:

 Joint Implementation - Through this, when any annex 1 country invests in an emission reduction
project in another annex 1 country.
 Clean Development Mechanism - When Annex 1 countries implements emission reduction projects
in non-annex 1 countries and meet their targets.
 Carbon Credit and Emission Trading - It allows the parties to buy Kyoto Units which are carbon
credits from other countries to meet their targets.
Reducing emissions from deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): Uses financial incentives to
reduce the emissions of GHGs from deforestation and forest degradation. Can be used as an offset scheme of
Carbon markets to produce carbon credit by national governments or private sectors or NGOs. Strongly
supported by World Bank and the UN.
REDD-plus: It goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation. Includes the role of conservation, and
sustainable management of the forest and enhancement of forest carbon stock.
COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001: Marrakesh resulted in the formation of the Adaptation Fund.
COP 8 in Delhi in 2002: Delhi Ministerial Declaration called the developed countries to transfer
technologies and minimize the impact of climate change.
COP 15 in Copenhagen in 2009: It resulted in a rift between developed and developing countries and
showed the reluctance of Annex 1 countries to fulfill targets under Kyoto.
COP 16 in Cancun in 2010: It was agreed on a Green fund for climate change to help developing countries
and developed countries. It was agreed that $100 billion per year be mobilized by 2020.

COP 17 in Durban in 2011: Agreed to start the negotiations for a new legally binding treaty after Kyoto. The
fund agreed upon at Cancun was named as Green Climate Fund and a committee was established to oversee
the fund.
COP 18 in Doha in 2012: Kyoto protocol was amended and a second commitment period was agreed upon
between 2012 to 2020.
COP 21 in Paris in 2015: It resulted in Paris Agreement. It commits to limiting global warming to below 1.5
degrees Celsius or to a maximum of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Countries were expected to
commit voluntarily to emission reductions through Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).
It is not a treaty and INDCs are not binding. It is legally binding for the members to participate in Global
Stock take Mechanism. The agreement is guided by the principles of CBDR. It entered into force in 2017.
COP 22 in Marrakesh in 2016: It adopted the Marrakesh Action Proclamation for Climate and Sustainable
Development.
COP 23 in Bonn in 2017 The USA withdrew from Paris Agreement. A gender Action Plan was launched.
Talanoa Dialogue: Inclusive and Participative Dialogue for Climate Change. The transport decarbonization
alliance was announced to facilitate a shift towards sustainable fuels.
COP 24 in Katowice in 2018: The first meeting of parties after the Paris agreement came into force. It was
agreed to record the pledges in the public registry. The future pledges should cover a common time frame
from 2031.
COP 25 Madrid in 2019: No major outcomes.
2021-COP 26: Glasgow, UK: The present Pledges if fulfilled will result in limiting global warming to 2.4
degrees Celsius. The members were asked to pledge further cuts of 1.5 degrees Celsius. More than 140
countries announced net-zero targets. India--Achieve the target of net-zero carbon emission by 2070. The
first-ever decision to phase down coal and phase out inefficient fossil fuels. Glasgow's breakthrough agenda
was announced to exhilarate the development and deployment of clean technology. More than 100 countries
promised to stop deforestation by 2030. More than 100 countries agreed to cut 30 percent of methane
emissions by 2030.
COP 22: Sharm-El-Sheikh.
Biodiversity:
UN Convention on Biological Diversity UNCBD: Year 2000 - Cartagena protocol. 196 members have signed
and ratified this convention. It comes under UNEP. UNEP provides secretariat assistance to all the other
conventions. It has three main objectives- Conservation of biological diversity, Sustainable use of its
components and Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. As part of UNCBD,
Cartagena protocol on biosafety was agreed upon.
The protocol on biosafety - It aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of Living-Modified
Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological
diversity. It establishes the Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA), the procedure for ensuring that countries
are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of
such organisms into their territory. It also establishes a Biosafety clearing house to facilitate the exchange
of information on living modified organisms.
Nagoya protocol (2010)- COP 10: It aims to share the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources in a fair and equitable manner. It was agreed in 2010, in Nagoya (Japan). A strategic plan

consisting of 20 targets for biological diversity to be achieved by 2020, was agreed upon, called as Aichi
Targets.
o COP - 11 - (2012)- Hyderabad.
o COP-14 (2018) - Sharm El-Sheik.
o COP- 15 - (2021 - 2022)- Kunming - Montreal.
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Outcome of 1992 Rio summit. 197 members have
signed this. It is the sole legally binding convention linking development and the environment to sustainable
land management. It aims to protect and restore the land and ensure a safer, just, and more sustainable
future. It provided for the concept of Land Degradation Neutrality, a target to be achieved by 2030.
o COP-14 (2019) - New Delhi: Here, India set a target of restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land
by 2030. It resulted in the Delhi Declaration on a range of issues related to desertification.
o COP-15 (2021-20220) - Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Growth is a quantitative measure of an increase or decrease in output. Development involves the removal of
restrictions to achieve one's full potential. It is an evolutionary process in which human capacity increases.
A development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs is known as sustainable development.
Why sustainable development: Efficient use of resources, to reduce pollution, reducing inequality, to reduce
the loss of biodiversity, to ensure harmonious living, reduction of all the environmental problems, to reduce
environmental hazards, to increase ecological and economic production, to create a better environment for
our living, to reduce ecological footprints and to live within the carrying capacity of the earth.
Ecological footprint: The biological productive land and sea area are needed to provide the resources that
a population consumes and to absorb the waste it generates. It is measured with the unit of Global Hectares
(gha). For example- USA - 8 gha, Japan - 4.5 gha and India- 0.9 gha.
Carrying capacity of ecosystem: It is the size of the population that can be supported by an ecosystem
indefinitely by its supporting systems.
Earth overshoot day- The global footprint network publishes ecological footprint reports also called Earth
Overshoot Reports. In 2022, Earth overshoot day was on the 28th of July.
History of sustainable development:

o Malthus's theory on resource and population, 1798 - Malthus proposed that population grows in
geometric progression whereas resource grows in Arithmetic progression. This created an imbalance
resulting in a collapse of the population.
o Limits to Growth report by Club of Rome, 1972 - It gave certain projections for various different
components. It concludes that if no change in historic growth, or trends is incorporated, limits to growth
on the earth would become evident through a rapid decline in population after 2015.
o Beyond the Limits report, 1992 - It suggested that with the incorporation of sustainability, ecological
and economic stability can be achieved.
o Stockholm Conference, 1972 - Agreed that both development and the environment can be managed in
a mutually beneficial way.
o Brundtland commission, 1987 - This Brundtland report came up with the theme of "Our common
future'. It is the world commission on environmental development, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland
the then Prime minister of Norway. It resulted in a report called 'our common future" which is informally
called as Brundtland report. This report defines sustainable development.
o UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 - Famously called United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED Also known as Rio Earth Summit). It includes - UNCCCD,
UNCBD, and UNCCD.
In addition to this, three more outcomes-
o Rio Declaration - It consists of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable
development. It also includes the rights of people to be involved in the development. For example-
The precautionary principle, polluter pays principle, etc.
o Agenda 21 - It is the action agenda for the UN and other multilateral organizations and
governments. At all levels in the 21st century.
o Forest Principle - It involves recommendations for the conservation and sustainable development
of forestry.
o Millennium summit, 2000: It was held in 2000, in New York. It is one of the largest meetings of
European countries. It sets a total of 8 targets for developing countries to achieve. These targets were
implemented as Millennium Development Goals. It was held in New York to discuss the role of the UN at
the turn of the 21st century. It adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing nations to reduce
extreme poverty and to set a series of timebound and quantified targets to be achieved by 2025 which
were called Millennium Development Goals. There were 8 MDGs.
o In 2002- Rio+10- This was the second earth summit held in Johannesburg South Africa. This was also
called Rio+ 10. It resulted in the Johannesburg declaration, reaffirming commitment towards sustainable
development.
o 2012- Rio+20 - The third Earth Summit also called as Rio Conference on sustainable development. It
had two important themes- Green economy to eradicate poverty and promote sustainability and to
develop an institutional framework for sustainable development. It was decided to launch sustainable
development goals. It resulted in Rio+ 20 declaration on sustainable development and green economy
called "the future we want".
o Finally, in 2015 - SDG announces- SDGs are a set of 17 goals with 169 targets, that are to be achieved
by 2030. MDGs are 8 goals, decided with a narrow consultation. SDGs target mainly economic-related

goals and social-related goals and are for all countries, SDGs are all-inclusive. SDGs are more
comprehensive in terms of goals for growth and development.
Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work. It is required to run the entire economy.
Types of Energy
1. Renewable Energy and Non-Renewable Energy - If at a moderate level of usage, the energy source
gets depleted in the near future it would be renewable energy. For example, Solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, hydropower, etc. If at a moderate level of usage, the energy source doesn't get
depleted in the near future it would be non-renewable energy. For example, all fossil fuels.
2. Conventional and Non-Conventional - The sources of energy which we have been using at a large scale
are called conventional sources of energy. The method of utilization is well-established and easily

available. For example, Coal, petroleum, hydropower, etc. The method of utilization is not well developed
in the non-conventional sources of energy. For example, Solar energy, wind energy, coal bed methane,
etc.
3. Primary and Secondary Sources of Energy - Primary sources are found in nature and can be used
directly for producing energy. For example, Coal, Natural Gas, Wood, etc. Secondary sources are not found
in nature but are produced from primary sources. For example, Syngas (We get it when we burn coal in
a controlled environment), etc.
Energy Production in India: In India private sector produces 50.4% of the electricity, the States produce
25.6%, and the centre produces 24.2% of the electricity. Electricity generation from fossil fuels is 57.5% of
the total energy produced. Out of this, 49.7% of the electricity produced is from coal. Renewable sources of
energy account for 40.7% of the total electricity produced. Out of this, 29.5% of the electricity produced is
from Wind, Solar, and other renewable energy. Hydro accounts for 11.4% of the total energy produced.
(Solar> Hydro> wind). Nuclear Energy accounts for 1.7 % of the total electricity produced.

Sustainable agriculture: It is a method of agriculture involving balanced management of resources
available on the farm without compromising the ability of the future to do so. Sustainable agriculture is used
to protect the environment, public health, human community, and human welfare.
Natural Farming: It is the ecological farming approach established by Japanese farmer and philosopher
Fukuoka. It is also known as do nothing for me. It minimizes human labour and adapts the natural production
methods. It involves the following important principle: No tillage, No fertilizer, No pesticides, No weeding,
and No pruning.
Organic Farming: Agriculture production system which avoids or excludes synthetically manufactured
inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, etc. It relies upon organic methods such as crop rotation, green manure,
biofertilizers, etc.
 Green Manure: It involves growing certain leguminous crops and ploughing them into the soil as it is.
For example, Green gram, Cow pea, etc.
 Biofertilizers: It involve the use of microorganisms as fertilizers. For example, Azotobacter, Rhizobium,
Azospirillum, Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), Mycorrhizal fungi, Azolla fern, etc.
 Weed management: It can be done using allelopathy and various cultural practices including tillage,
mulching, cover crops, drip irrigation, etc. Insect and disease management includes the usage the natural
substances like Neem, Pongamia oil tree, etc.
Limitations of Organic Farming: Production levels are low in the short term. Costly inputs if the farmer
not managing the inputs at his/her farm. Requirement of training. Needs proper management of
marketing. The National Program for organic production involves the accreditation of Certification
Bodies, standards for organic production, etc. It is for domestic and international producers. A
participatory guarantee system is another domestic mechanism.

Zero Budget Natural Farming: It is developed by Subhash Palekar in Maharashtra. It involves four
components:
o Bijamrita (seed treatment)- It involves the seed treatment using microbial seed coating using cow-
dung-based formulation.
o Jeevamrutha (no fertilizers, no pesticides)- enhances soil microbiome, by the addition of cow dung,
cow urine, and other local ingredients.
o Acchadana- It includes mulching.
o Whapasa- It focuses on soil aeration and the continuous build-up of humus.
Vertical Farming: Cultivation and production of crops in the vertically stacked layers, or on vertically
inclined surfaces.
Types of vertical farming
o Aeroponics- It involves growing crops without using a growing medium like soil. The sprayer is used
to spray the nutrients directly onto the roots.
o Hydroponics- It involves growing crops in the water without soil. It uses a mineral nutrient solution.
o Aquaponics- It integrates aquaculture with hydroponics. In this, the plants are dipped in nutrient-
rich water, and the fish are bred. Fish waste is used as nutrients.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT & ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental impact assessment: It is a study to predict the effects of the proposed project on the
environment. It compares various alternatives for the project and seeks to identify one which represents the
best combination of economic and environmental cost and benefit.
Benefits of Environmental impact assessment:

o Minimum damage to the environment.
o Reduces all types of pollution.
o Protection of the interests of the tribes and the local communities.
o Prevention of disasters, and future conflicts.
o optimum resource utilization.
o reduction of the cost of the project.
Principles to be followed in EIA:

o Participation of the local communities.
o Transparency and accountability.
o Integrated assessment.
o Assessment should be scientific.
Environmental impact assessment Process

o Project Proposal - It includes a detailed
report by the project developer.
o Preliminary Assessment - It is done by the
project developer himself, to decide on the
project for further assessment.
o Screening - It is to check if the project needs
the assessment.
o Scoping - It refers to the detailing of terms
of reference for EIA.
o Impact analysis and mitigation - It is by an assessment agency involving identification and prediction
of likely impacts. It also recommends mitigation to reduce and avoid adverse consequences.
o Reporting - It involves the preparation and submission of reports to the decision-making body and other
interested parties.
o Public hearing and review - It involves the people likely to be impacted by the project. They are allowed
to provide suggestions.
o Decision making - It involves decision-making by the decision-making body to approve or reject further
changes.
o Implementation and post-monitoring - It involves the proper monitoring of the project after it is
commissioned.
Environmental impact assessment in India: In 1976, the Planning Commission asked the DST to
examine the river valley projects from environmental angles. Till 1994, environmental clearance from
the central government was an administrative decision. In 1994, the government brought EIA
notification under the Environment Protection Act, of 1986. Under it, EIA was mandatory for a list of
activities in India, and a clear procedure was prescribed.
In 2006, EIA notification: It classified developmental projects into Category A and Category B. Category
A were projects which required national-level appraisal. compulsory EIA for such projects. Category B
were projects which required state-level appraisal. Impact Assessment Agency and Environmental
Appraisal Committee at the national level were set up. State Impact Assessment Agencies and State
Environmental Appraisal Committees at the state level were set up. Category B projects were divided into
B1 and B2. B1 requires mandatory EIA. B2 requires screening. Mining, Thermal power plants, River valley
projects, Infrastructure projects, and industries were required to have mandatory EIA.
Draft EIA Notification, 2020: It reduced the time for a public hearing from 30 days to 20 days. It
recategorized projects with many exemptions. Off-shore and on-shore oil and gas exploration was
exempted. Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW, small and medium cement plants, MSME in bulk drugs,
synthetic rubbers, and paint units, inland waterway projects, etc. were exempted. Annual submission of
compliance reports instead of every month. No public reporting for non-compliance. Post-facto clearance.
Environmental ethics: These are the various basic principles that are involved in environmental
conservation. Some of these principles are:
o Anthropocentrism: It suggests that human beings are the most important living creature, and other
living beings assist in their survival.
o Non-Anthropocentrism: It gives value to all living beings.
o Psychocentricism: It holds that human beings have more value in the environment because of the better
developed mental capacity.
o Biocentrism: It gives value to all human beings.
o Holism: The environmental systems are considered to be whole rather than individual parts of
something.
o Shallow Ecology: Environment preservation for the human interest alone.
o Deep Ecology: It believes humans must change their relationship with nature from one that values
nature solely for its usefulness to one that recognizes that nature has an inherent value.
State of the forest report: It is a biennial report by the forest survey of India. It measures:
o Forest Cover: It refers to the area where the canopy density is more than 10 percent.
o Tree Cover: outside recorded forest area exclusive of forest cover and less than the minimum mappable
area of one hectare.
o Recorded Forest Area: Recorded as the forest in the government records.
o Carbon Stock: Overall carbon stored in the entire forest.
Classification scheme for the purpose of Forest Cover assessment is described as follows:
Class Description
Very Dense Forest All lands with tree canopy density of 70% and above.
Moderately Dense Forest All lands with tree canopy density of 40% and more but less than 70%.
Open Forest All lands with tree canopy density of 10% and more but less than 40%.
Scrub Degraded forest lands with canopy density less than 10%.
Non-forest Lands not included in any of the above classes.
Forest Cover by Area (Top States): Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh> Chhattisgarh> Odisha>
Maharashtra. Forest Cover by percentage (Top States): Mizoram> Arunachal Pradesh> Meghalaya>
Manipur> Nagaland. Loss in Forest Cover (Top states): Arunachal Pradesh> Manipur> Meghalaya.
ENVIRONMENT WILDLIFE
Wildlife:
 Biosphere Reserve: It is the biggest of all conservation forests and does not target any particular
species.
 National Park: It is a zero-human interference zone.
 Wildlife sanctuary: Few human activities are allowed like grazing.
 Tiger Reserve: It is either a national park or wildlife sanctuary having a sufficient number of tigers.
 Important Bird Area: It is designated by Birdlife International.
 Ramsar Sites: They are wetland areas recognized by the national government and accepted by
Ramsar Convention.
Tiger: IUCN status is endangered. There are seven sub-species of tiger existent in the wild.
 Royal Bengal tigers (80% of all tiger population) are found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh,
and some parts of Myanmar.
 Indo-Chinese tigers are found in Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam
 Malayan tigers in Malaysia.
 Sumatran tigers and Javan tigers are found in Indonesia.
 South China tiger in China.
 Siberian or Amur tiger in Russia.
 Tigers are found in 13 countries
 The Bali tiger and Tasmanian tiger are now extinct.
 There are seven big cat species globally i.e. tiger, lion, cheetah, leopard, snow leopard, jaguar (in
Amazon), and puma (in Andes mountain).
 Except for the jaguars and puma all other big cat species are found in India.
Birds: There are two types of birds in a particular region:

1. Migratory birds: They perform regular seasonal movement over a long distance.
2. Resident birds: Birds that are non-migratory in nature.
Few important resident birds of India are parakeets, house sparrows (Delhi's state bird), Shikra, black drongo
or jungle kotwal (smaller than a crow and has a lengthy tail), bulbul, cormorants, snake birds or Indian
darter, herons, Indian roller, jungle babbler (remain in a group), Osprey, painted stork, purple sunbird, robin,
spot-billed duck, etc. India does not have parrots (residents of the rainforest), but only parakeets.

Lion: Among all the big cats, the lion has the loudest roar. Asiatic lion-endangered, African lion- vulnerable.
It is a grassland species. Shows sexual dimorphism. Can be identified as male and female through its mane
(Found in males). Lions usually live in large groups. A group of lions is called a pride. Pride will have only one
male lion. Man-eaters lions were found in -Tsao national park, Kenya. Two species of lion-Asiatic and African
lion. Asiatic Lion is smaller in size in comparison to the African lion and has a slightly smaller mane. The ears
of the Asiatic male lion are always visible. Asiatic lion has a belly fold, not present in African lions. Asiatic
lions are found only in Gir national park.
Leopard: Vulnerable. Most widespread among all big cats. Most adaptive. Also found in the urban
landscape(Mumbai). Capable of climbing trees, usually other big cats don’t climb trees. Leopard is commonly
called the panther.
Saya black panther –found in the Kabini forest of western ghats of Karnataka. Black Panther is very rare.
Cheetah- It is the oldest big cat species. It is the fastest of all. It is a tropical grassland species. Great Indian
Bustard is keystone species of the grassland ecosystem. There are two sub-species - African and Asiatic
Cheetahs (only found in Iran). Asiatic Cheetahs are slightly slim, faster, and stronger, pale white in color.
Reason for extinct- man-animal conflict, degradation of grassland habitat, competition from other
grassland predators.
Snow leopard:
o It is in Schedule-I of the Wildlife Protection Act.
o Status: Vulnerable
o It lives above an altitude of 3,000 meters.
o These are called ghosts of mountains.
o They are present in Jammu Kashmir, Ladakh, etc.
o It is universally present in 12 countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyz Republic, Kazakhstan, Russia, etc.
Programs and measures are taken by the government regarding wildlife:

Project Tiger: It is a centrally sponsored scheme that was started in 1973. (Shared funding between the
center and the states and implemented by the states).
National Tiger Conservation Authority:
 NTCA was established.
 NTCA is now a statutory body.
 Tiger reserves were created where there was a good number of tigers.
Objectives of Project Tiger: To reduce the factors that lead to the depletion of tigers and to ensure a viable
tiger population.
o Core Areas: People are not allowed.
o Buffer Areas: Tribals can live.
Chairperson of NTCA: Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Every state has to prepare a
Tiger Conservation Plan. Compulsory for every state.
All India Tiger Estimate: Conducted since 2006 in a synchronized manner. Conducted by NTCA along with
the Wildlife Institute of India. Tigers, Tiger-prey, and co-predators of tigers are also counted. Global Tiger
Forum was the first initiative at the international level. It is an inter-governmental body. Established in 1993,
in New Delhi. Global Tiger Initiative launched in 2008. To save tigers from extinction. inter
Saint Petersburg Tiger Summit: In Russia, 2010.All 13 countries participated in this Summit. To protect
tigers from extinction and to increase the number of tigers by twice by the year 2022. But only India achieved
the target. 2022 is the Chinese Year of the Tiger.

Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CATS): Issues certificates for tiger reserves, describing the
maintenance standards. The number of Tiger Reserves: 54 tiger reserves in India.
 51st Tiger Reserve: Srivilliputhur, Megamalai, in Tamil Nadu.
 52nd Tiger Reserve: Ramgarh Vishdhari, Rajasthan.
Project Snow Leopard: It was started in 2009. Snow Leopards are found in 12 Countries.
Bishkek Declaration: To conserve snow leopards and their habitats. Also called the Ghost of Mountains. Its
status is vulnerable.
Save Our Snow Leopard: Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Program: In implementation since 2013, and
India is a party to this.
Elephant: Elephants are called engineers of ecosystems. Controls the vegetation growth, and also controls
the flow of water. They create paths and change local topography. Elephants are totally herbivorous. They
are sensitive and intelligent. The longest gestation period among mammals is 22 months. Elephants follow
matriarchy. Karnataka has the highest, then Assam and Kerala. The elephant is a national heritage animal.
African Savanna elephant. IUCN Status is endangered. The Forest Elephant of Africa is critically
endangered.
Asiatic Elephant: Endangered (IUCN Status). Tallest at the back. Humped back.
Project Elephant: Started in the year 1992. To ensure a viable population of elephants in their natural
habitat. To decrease elephant conflicts. To protect elephants from illegal ivory trade and poaching. Total of
32 elephant reserves, and 10 elephant landscapes.
Hathi Mere Sathi: To spread awareness among the common people regarding the conservation of
elephants. Monitoring illegal killing of elephants, monitored by CITES.
Rhinoceros: Indian Rhino is also called as Great One Horned Rhino. It is the largest of all the Rhinos. Horn
is made up of Keratin. Around 80% of Rhinos are in the Kaziranga National Park. IUCN status is
vulnerable. It is a grazing animal. It is quite aquatic in nature. Marshy areas, wetlands, etc.
States: Assam, Bengal, Bihar, and UP.
Indian Rhino Vision, 2020: By Assam Forest Department, WWF, and International Rhino Foundation.
Great Indian Bustard (GIB): Heaviest flying bird. There are three important Bustard birds: GIB, Bengal
Bustard/Florican, and Lesser Florican. GIB is endemic to Indian Subcontinent. All three are critically
endangered.
Conservation Efforts: Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats. Conservation Project. HPC by Supreme
Court. GIB Protection zone.
Clouded Leopard: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Not a big cat species. It is closely related to Snow Leopard,
genetically. However, clouded is smaller than snow leopard. Both are shy animals, they are elusive. Clouded
Leopards are found around tree canopies (e.g. In Meghalaya).
Fishing Cat: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. The main food is fish. The size is bigger than the cat's. Also found in
wetlands. Near to river steams, etc. West Bengal and Odisha, foothills of the Himalayas, and some parts of
Western Ghats. It is the state animal of West Bengal. It swims and hunts. It is a nocturnal animal.
Pygmy hog: The pygmy hog (Porcula salvania) is the rarest species of pig in the world today and is the
only species in the genus Porcula. It is also the smallest species of pig in the world, with its piglets being small

enough to fit in one's pocket. Endemic to India, the pygmy hog is a suid native of the alluvial grasslands in the
foothills of the Himalayas, at elevations of up to 300 m (980 ft). Populations of pygmy hogs were once
widespread in the tall, dense, wet grasslands in a narrow belt of the southern Himalayan foothills from north-
western Uttar Pradesh to Assam, through southern Nepal and North Bengal, and possibly extending into
contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan.
Brow-Antlered deer (Rucervus eldii): Eld's deer, also known as the thamin or brow-antlered deer, is an
endangered species of deer endemic to South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Kashmiri Stag: Critically Endangered. The Kashmir stag, also called hangul, is a subspecies of Central Asian
red deer endemic to Kashmir and surrounding areas. It is found in dense riverine forests in the high valleys
and mountains of Jammu and Kashmir and northern Himachal Pradesh.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Keywords asked in the UPSC exam related to Disaster management:

 Hazards.
 Vulnerability.
 Risk.
 Disaster.
 Disaster management - Pre-& Post.
 Mitigation.
 Preparedness.
 National measures- administration, guidelines & strategy.
 International measures.
Source for reading - National disaster management plan 2019.
Meaning of key terms:

 Hazard- A hazard is any situation handled improperly, hence hazard is not about the thing but
the handling. For the purpose of management, there are natural & man-made hazards. The
different natural hazard includes - Volcano, Tsunami, flood, drought, heat wave, cold wave, etc.
 Vulnerability- Vulnerability is characteristic of the affected to be susceptible to the damaging
effects of the hazard.
Types of vulnerability:
 Physical vulnerability- Physically Not fit to handle it may be individual or infrastructure.
 Material or economic vulnerability- Not having enough wealth to handle, material
vulnerability is the challenge of remote and inaccessible terrain.
 Social vulnerability- The lack of cohesiveness or integration in social institutions or among
individuals.
 Ecological vulnerability- It is the degradation of the environment by adversely affecting its
ability to protect us.
 Organizational vulnerability- When an organization is not able to perform its work perfectly.
The organization is not well designed and not equipped to perform during disasters. The
institutional mechanism is not in place to act.
 Educational vulnerability- lack of education to act during a hazard.
 Political vulnerability- Being less represented, does not have them what is needed as they are
not properly represented (like tribals).
 Cultural vulnerability- Blindly holding to any faith or customs.
What is Risk: Risk is directly proportional to hazard and vulnerability and inversely proportional
to capacity.
Disaster- The term disaster literary means a bad start. It is defined by the United Nations Office of
DRR (disaster risk reduction) as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society at
any scale due to hazardous events interacting with vulnerability and capacity (risk). Leading to one
or more of the following: Human, material, economic or environmental loss, and adverse effects.
Disaster management- As per the UN Office of

DRR is the organization, planning, and application
of measures preparing for responding to and
recovering from disaster. Hence by definition, it is a
proactive approach definition.
Cause of more frequent and intense disasters:

o Increase in population.
o Environmental degradation.
o Increased industrialization and urbanization.
o More cities are near disaster-prone areas.
o Not have proper safeguards in urban centers.
o Large urban poor people.
o Gender inequalities especially in rural areas.
o War and internal security challenges.
o Neglect of developmental issues.
Approach to disaster management: There are two major approaches:

1. Reactive approach- Traditional approach- In the reactive approach.
2. Proactive approach- progressive approach.
How Globally approach to DM shifted from reactive to proactive: Before 1990 there was no
major international cooperation on DM. But post-1990 various measures were taken:
o 1990-2000 the decade was declared as an international decade for natural disaster
reduction (IDNDR). The goal of IDNDR was risk assessment, mitigation planning, and easy
access to early warning systems.
o In 1994, at the Yoko Hama conference, the Yoko Hama strategy was declared focusing on
risk reduction by disaster prevention by integrating with developmental policy. Increase
capacity, early warning system (EWS), prevention, vulnerability reduction, and
environmental protection.
o ISDRR (International strategy disaster risk reduction)- It was to be achieved risk
management, hazard mitigation, and sustainable development.
o Hyogo framework- for a safer world (2005-2015)- This focussed on DRR with
institutional strengthening, identifying and assessing DR, and enhancing EWS. Build a
culture of safety. Reduce underline risks such as poverty and environmental degradation as
they increase vulnerability.
o Sendai frameworks for DRR (2015-2030): It has four action priorities namely-
1. Understanding DR.
2. Strengthening DR governance.

3. Investing in DRR.
4. Focusing on building back better.
There is a total of seven goals of the Sendai framework namely:

o To Reduce – Mortality, Affected people, Economic loss and Damage to critical infrastructure,
and destruction of basic service
o To Increase- Countries with DRR strategy, International; cooperation and Availability, and
access to multi-hazard EWS.
Disaster management in India: The terms DM and even crisis management do not appear in the
constitution, though there have been many recommendations to include DR, such as National
commission to review the working of the constitution by: 2nd ARC and JC pant high powered
committee (HPC).
After the declaration of IDNDR, the GOI created a DM cell in the ministry of agriculture.
After the super cyclone of 1999, the HPC was created under JC Pant which gave its recommendations
by 2002 and the DM division was shifted this year from MOA to MHA which is still the nodal agency
for DM. Based on the recommendation the NDM act of 2005 was notified by the government which
began the official proactive disaster management approach in India.
Structure of Disaster Management in India: Before 2005, (pre-NDMA, 2005) disaster

management in India was organized at two levels natural disasters and man-made disasters. In this
phase depending on the disaster two different committees were made. Natural Disaster
management headed by the Prime minister (PM)- the national crisis management committee
headed by the cabinet secretary. Man-made headed by PM - Cabinet committee on security headed
by the cabinet secretary. After NDMA Act- the NDMA authority was set up and chaired by the PM.
NDMA consists of the national institute of DM and the National disaster management force.

Implementation of NDM Act: First of all, the Act, has the provision for creating a national disaster
plan. NDM plan and NDM policy for different disasters, the policy was released in 2009 after 4 years.
The plan came in 2016 and was revised in 2019. This was despite different advisory bodies, as well
as the CAG, 2013, repeatedly asking to create an NDM plan. The first guideline came in in 2007, and
by now we have more than 30 guidelines on DM. The NDMA, SDMA, and DDMA were created but
digest criticism by the PK Mishra committee that these bodies have a meeting seldom. Meetings are
proposed to take place regularly for taking pre-disaster management actions for an effective
proactive approach otherwise if they meet only after the disaster then it will be a reactive approach.
There in total 16 NDRF Battalion in country. Every battalion has 1148 personnel.
Financing provisions as per NDMA act- The NDM Act 2005 has clearly mandated creating
separate funds for pre-disaster activities, disaster mitigation funds, and post-disaster activities.
Both at the national level and state levels, NDMF, NDRF, and SDMF, SDRF. The funds are to be
financed as per the recommendations of the finance commission. The Union has only created a
National disaster response fund till now and a mitigation fund is still not created. Some state has
created SDRF and mitigation fund has not been created by any state. Hence most of the mitigation
activities in the state are not institutionalized but they are mostly leadership driven. Hence there is
no institutional framework for practically executing mitigation activities.
Other aspects of Disaster Management (DM):

Technical aspects of DM- Coordination networks- The DM coordination networks are technical
networks created for the purpose of coordinating various resources as and when such a need arises.
The following networks are in place:
o IDRN (India disaster resource network) which is a nationwide electronic inventory of
resources that enlists equipment and human resource. The data was collected from different
district, state, and national level departments.
o IDKN- India disaster knowledge network- This is a web portal-based network that offers a
range of resources and services such as knowledge collaboration, networking, maps, emergency
contacts, and several other valuable information related to disasters.
o Corporate disaster resource network- This is a network that is supplied by chain-based
management that helps, relief and response agencies and other local government bodies to
access and feed real-time information products and services required at the time of any
hazardous situation.
o Early warning system (EWS)- As per the UN an efficient early warning system should have 4
following components - Sensing the Hazard, Transmit the data, Process and create a relevant
warning and Effective spread. For different types of disaster situations, different EWS have been
put into practice as discussed.
o Cyclone early warning systems, weather balloons, S-band radars, radio sounding systems,
etc. In case of flood warnings, there are flow meters that measure the flow in the river and
height censures (measure the level of water). For Earthquakes, there are no effective seismic
warning systems except for some traditional signs of abnormal animal and bird behaviour.
o Tsunami early warning system for this we have shore-based tidal gauges, pressure sensors
on ocean bottoms, deep ocean assessment, and reporting of Tsunami. This is an enhanced
system and some T-waves systems. In India, the INCOIS Hyderabad is the coordinating body
for the Tsunami warning. For landslides, there are landslides censors put in the sensitive
center which sense any unexpected movement of the soil.

Apart from these, there are other systems of help such as automatic position reporting
systems, community radio systems, geographical information systems, and local ham radio
systems.
Role of District Magistrate in Disaster management: Engagement and coordination with state
and central level institution. Proper understanding of DM policies and plans. Proper understanding
of SOPs. Sensitization of stakeholders. At the district level ensuring the creation of rescue shelters,
effective public awareness messages, and community engagement through mobilization and
preparedness. Effective early warning systems. Communication systems. Response mechanism. Mock
drill exercises.


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ENVIRONMENT

Lavkush Pandey – dm.lavkush@gmail.com 2

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Energy flow in the ecosystem: 6CO2+6H2O + Sunlight = C6 H12 O6 + 6O2.

Types of the food chain: There are two types-

3. Ecological Pyramids- A pyramid is the representation of life in an ecosystem. The graphical

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 Crocodile and Bird association - Here the bird

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Different types of species in an ecosystem:

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Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem

Abundance of oxygen Limited oxygen

Abundance of sunlight Limited sunlight

Abundant soil-based nutrients Soil-based nutrients are scarce

Higher temperature range Lower temperature range

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Types of water pollution:

Source of water pollution:

Impact of water pollution:

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4. Eutrophication: [Trophic status-amount of nutrients dissolved in water] - The enrichment of water

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Important water pollutants:

Measures to control water pollution:

Sources of Air pollution:

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Important primary pollutants

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Management of fly ash:

Impact of acid rain: Impact on buildings and

Smog: Smog is a secondary pollutant form in the

Solutions or Alternative of Stubble burning-

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Types of land degradation:

Natural reasons for land degradation:

Anthropogenic reasons for land degradation:

Region and reasons for soil erosion:

Impact of land degradation:

Restoration Practices of Degraded Land Are of Two Types:

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o Sustainable Agriculture: The methods are as follows:

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Important Greenhouse Gases:

Greenhouse Gases Atmospheric lifetime (years) Global Warming Potential

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 50 to 200 1

Atmospheric Lifetime: It is the period up to which a gas stays in the atmosphere.

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Methane: It is a short-lived greenhouse gas that impacts more

Impacts of climate change:

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Ozone Depletion: Ozone-depleting Agents are as follows:

These ozone-depleting agents are used in industries due

The chemical reactions involved in ozone depletion

Ozone Hole over Antarctica: The stratospheric clouds

Timeline of Ozone Hole:

Effects of Ozone Depletion:

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Measurement of Biodiversity is done as follows:

Environment & Ecology

Environment & Ecology