Submitted By: Naila Bibi

Registration No: 0000320839

Semester: 1st, autumn 2022

Submitted To: Muhammad Nasir

Subject: General Methods of

Teaching (8601) Assignment # 01

Date: 20th February 2023

Question no 1
A teacher’s learning traits are important to create and maintain a
classroom learning environment. why?
Answer

Characteristics of a Good Teacher

❖ Qualities of a good teacher include skills in communication, listening, collaboration,

adaptability, empathy and patience. Other characteristics of effective teaching include
an engaging classroom presence, value in real-world learning, exchange of best
practices and a lifelong love of learning.
❖ A good teacher can make a world of difference in a student's life, impacting everything
from their classroom learning to their long-term success. Research from the Economic
Policy Institute shows that good teachers are the single most important factor that
contributes to student achievement in the classroom, more important than facilities,
school resources and even school leadership.
❖ A teacher's learning traits are crucial to creating and maintaining a positive and effective
classroom learning environment. Here are some reasons why:

Role modeling
• Teachers who exhibit positive learning traits such as curiosity, critical thinking, and a
growth mindset, inspire their students to adopt the same traits.
• By modeling these traits, teachers create an environment that fosters a love of learning
and a desire to learn.

Engagement
• Teachers who possess strong learning traits are better equipped to engage students in
the learning process.
• This includes creating lessons that are relevant and interesting to students, encouraging
student participation, and providing feedback that fosters learning.

Adapting to student needs

• Teachers who possess strong learning traits are more adaptable to the needs of their
students.
• They are better able to identify and address individual learning needs and can adjust
their teaching strategies to meet the needs of diverse learners.
Continuous improvement
• Teachers who possess strong learning traits are committed to continuous improvement
in their teaching practice.
• They are more likely to seek out professional development opportunities and to reflect
on their teaching practice in order to improve their effectiveness in the classroom.

Creating a positive learning environment

• Teachers who possess strong learning traits are better equipped to create a positive
learning environment that fosters student success.
• They understand that learning is a dynamic process and are committed to creating a
classroom culture that supports student learning and growth.

Good Teachers as Strong Communicators

• When it comes to effective teaching, strong communication skills are a must, said Dr.
Daniel Tanguy, senior associate dean of faculty and education programs.
• Tanguy got his start as a high school math teacher and said that many students came to
his class feeling afraid of math, discouraged by their prior experiences and too
overwhelmed to approach the subject positively.
• By communicating with students at the beginning of the year about how math applies to
their favorite hobbies, sports and future careers, Tanguy said his students were able to
approach the subject in a more enjoyable way that better supported their learning.
• “I’m a firm believer in communication in all forms,” he said. “As a leader,
communication is a tool for overcoming fear.”

• Great communication doesn't stop when the teacher is done talking. Listening well is
one of the most important skills needed to be a teacher.
• “Teachers that are skilled in listening and observing often pick up on what isn’t being
said, such as any anxieties a student may have, and can then help the student build their
 skills and confidence levels," said student Kristine Ducote, who is earning her bachelor's
in criminal justice.
• Student Latricia Maddox, who is studying for a bachelor's in business, said that effective
listening skills also help a teacher better understand their students and tailor lessons to
reach them how they learn best.
• “If an educator can truly hear a student, they can learn how to reach them where they
are,” she said. “This will open the door for them to receive and learn the lesson that is
being taught.”

Good Teachers Focus on Collaboration:

• Working in education means you’re never truly working alone. From paraprofessionals
and teaching assistants to other classroom teachers and school leaders, working as a
teacher often means working effectively in a group. It's also important to keep an open
mind and learn from other educators.
• The key to success in this kind of environment, Tanguy said, is the ability to collaborate.
"You really need to be able to fill various roles in order to collaborate effectively," he
said. "If you already have someone on your team who is going to be the one to critique
all of the suggestions made, then you don't need to join in on that. Instead, maybe you
need to be the person who is going to come up with creative ideas. You need to have
that flexibility."
Good Teachers Are Adaptable:
• Effective teachers need to be able to work in a constantly evolving environment and
adjust their teaching methods based on the age of their students, the resources
available and changing curriculum, practices and requirements.
• As a teacher since the 1980s, SNHU education professor and on campus undergraduate
program chairman Dr. Audrey Rogers said she’s seen tremendous changes in the
education field throughout her career, particularly with the rise in access to the
internet, computers and other technology. What is teaching going to look like in another
30 years? The only thing certain, Rogers said, is change.
• “Change is a constant,” she said. “Learning how to adapt and adjust, that’s been one of
the skills that’s been most helpful in my career. It’s about keeping my finger on the
pulse of who my students are over time and all the trends, standards and new research,
and being able to continually improve.”
• Adaptability is also one of the key skills needed to be a teacher who may be educating
students of varying grade levels or different learning styles, Tanguy said. “You have to
be able to adapt based upon your audience,” he said.
Good Teachers Are Engaging:
• Being able to engage students with humor, creative lessons and a strong classroom
presence is an important part of what makes someone a good teacher, Tanguy said.
• “If you were to envision that teacher that you would want in your life, even now, you’re
going to want someone who is very engaging in front of the classroom,” he said. “A
good teacher will perform for their students to keep them going... It’s not about sitting
back and just lecturing, it’s about engaging in the work.”
• What an engaging teacher looks like will vary depending on grade level and subject
matter, Tanguy said.
• In kindergarten, an engaging teacher might be one who gets down on the floor to do
activities with their students on their level.
• In high school, an engaging teacher may be one who thinks outside the box, adds humor
to their lessons and finds creative ways to bring learning into the real world.

Good Teachers Show Empathy:

• Another key to engaging students and improving their learning is to treat each student
as an individual, by being empathetic and understanding to what may be going on in
their lives, Tanguy said.
• “We need to take a moment to think back and think about what could be going on in
this student’s life,” he said. “It’s so important to be observant, attentive, empathetic
and always have a positive attitude.”
• Rhonda Garrison, a student in SNHU's psychology program, said empathy and
understanding from a teacher can not only help that teacher make a connection with a
student, it can directly impact a student's learning in the classroom.
 • “Something that may be easy for one student may not be so easy for someone else,”
she said. “Everyone learns differently, whether it be faster or slower than normal, learns
better by writing, reading or hands-on. Teachers need to always keep this in mind and
always pay close attention to ensure each student is on the track they need to be.”

Good Teachers Have Patience:

• No matter what grade level you're teaching, your patience will be tested while working
as an educator.
• Whether you’re managing classroom behavior, working with colleagues with different
views, or communicating student issues or progress with parents, patience is one of the
most important skills to practice as a teacher.
• “More often than not you actually have to have more patience with the parents than
you do with the students,” Tanguy said. “Parents are coming in with their perceptions of
what happened to them when they were students or previous experiences that may
have been detrimental to their child... You have to be patient and understanding of
them.”

Good Teachers Value Real-World Learning:

• Teachers who bring their students’ learning into the real world are often some of the
most engaging. But it’s important for teachers to bring their own learning into the real
world, too.
• One of the best preparations for effective teaching is to ensure that education students
get plenty of classroom experience early on in their degree programs, Rogers said.
• For education majors in SNHU's on campus program, this preparation includes
embedded coursework that begins in a student's freshmen year. They spend time at a
local school once a week to collaborate with teacher partners and apply their learning to
the classroom. A year-long student teaching experience is also a powerful way to ensure
soon-to-be teachers have the time to hone their teaching skills, Rogers said.
• "Our students have that benefit of seeing the practical application (of) what they're
learning in the moment they're learning it," she said.

Good Teachers Share Best Practices:

• A willingness to share knowledge and experiences with others is one of the most
important qualities of a good teacher, Rogers said.
• Education is a hands-on field and often requires experimentation within the classroom
to discover which methods of communicating with students work best. Part of being an
effective teacher is sharing your findings and best practices with others in the field,
Rogers said.
• “I always challenge my students to think, ‘What is your contribution?’” she said. “Are
you brave enough to post on Twitter about your ideas on technology integration in the
classroom? Your willingness to share your practice, to keep an open door, to be
transparent and to be observed are an important part of your teaching.”
Good Teachers Are Lifelong Learners:
• One of the key skills needed to be a good teacher is a dedication to continued
education and a love of learning.
• Whether you’re learning more about your subject area, learning new methods of
communication or even exploring how to bring more technology into your classroom,
continuing to expand your own knowledge is key to expanding that of your students.
• “Those dedicated to their subjects with a passion for learning make the best teachers,"
said student Jennifer Gardner, who is earning a bachelor's in mathematics. “They also
need to have a desire to pass on that knowledge.”
• Ducote said it’s important for teachers to never feel as though they’ve learned it all, and
to remain open to new experiences.
• “No matter your education level, you can learn something from everyone you
encounter, including fellow educators as well as students,” she said. “Being willing to
continually add tools to your toolbox – even unconventional ones at times – will keep
things new and exciting, as well as giving you excellent skills.”

Characteristics of effective teaching:

• No matter where your career path takes you – whether to an elementary school,
secondary school or even to the university level – your teaching can have a profound
impact on the lives of students, and your education is the foundation for that work.
• “Teachers make such a huge impact on their students’ lives,” said student Donna
Weisman, who is earning her bachelor's in communication. “I believe that being a
teacher is a very special gift, and those that have that gift make a positive, lasting
impression on the lives of their students that can totally change the trajectory of their
lives.”

The importance of engaged learning environment:

• Research has shown that an engaged learning environment increases students’
attention and focus, promotes meaningful learning experiences, encourages higher
levels of student performance, and motivates students to practice higher-level critical
thinking skills.
• At The School in Rose Valley, we use a student-centered approach to teaching that helps
create an engaged learning environment through active learning (having students
participate in class rather than just sitting and listening quietly) and using class time for
inquiry, application and assessment in order to best meet the needs of individual
learners.
What are the Benefits of an Engaged Learning Environment?
An engaged learning environment:
• Increases student interaction with peers and teachers
• Provides students with frequent feedback
• Requires increased time, effort, and investment for tasks
 • Offers students the opportunity to apply their learning in other situations
• Gives the opportunity to experience diversity
What Makes an Engaged Learning Environment?
• The two main components of engaged learning are student motivation and active
learning.
• Motivation is dependent on a student’s value for learning and their expectations of
being successful in learning. If a student is confident, they can succeed and value gaining
information, they will be highly motivated. Students who are interested in seeking
information and gaining understanding will naturally engage if they have positive
learning experiences and influence over the learning environment.
• In an engaged learning environment, classrooms become communities wherein learning
happens.
• sense of community allows students to feel connected to one another and their
teachers and to engage in collaborative, active learning. Students don’t just learn
through logical thinking, but get to explore learning in a way that engages their relevant
feelings and interests.
• It also allows for more individualized learning, with each student being working at a
developmentally appropriate pace.
Active learning:
Active learning does not refer to physical movement, but rather to a student’s mind being
actively engaged in the learning process. Students are dynamic participants in their learning and
are provided opportunities to connect prior learning to new discoveries, resulting in deeper
connections that make it more likely they will understand and retain the knowledge. Modern
teaching methods – which rely heavily on lectures and PowerPoint presentations – often turn
students into passive receivers of knowledge rather than active participants in learning.
Personality traits for teachers:

To aid a little persuasion, e-Careers has done some research and found the top five personality
traits successful teachers share:
❖ Passionate about Education
➢ Successful teachers are passionate about education.
➢ They’re passionate about learning, and about engaging students in learning - and more
to the point, many teachers are passionate about one subject; and love nothing more
than sharing their specialist subject knowledge with their pupils.
➢ As Aristotle once said, “Educating the mind without educating the heart, is no education
at all.”
❖ Dedication
➢ Google Teaching, and many articles will tell you that it’s one of the in the World.
➢ Despite the fact it isn’t easy, teaching is also one of the most rewarding occupations,
where those who succeed are those most dedicated to their careers.
➢ Teachers who are hardworking, and put in extra time to develop excellent lessons plans,
or to provide additional support to students who need a helping hand are those who are
more likely to shine, succeed and most importantly, enjoy their careers.
❖ Discipline
➢ The common denominator here, is that the teacher had no discipline, felled by a lack of
respect.
➢ The capability to control a class with excellent management skills and good discipline
are key traits of every successful teacher.
➢ This confirmed with a recent article written by award-winning educator, Professor Joe
Martin, who explains how the modern day teacher has to earn respect, by teaching with
passion and genuine personality, in order to build credibility.
❖ Engaging personality
➢ Having an engaging personality is key for teaching success.
➢ Aside from gauging student interest, it enables teachers to connect with their pupils,
and think of innovative ways in which to explain different subject matters, and ensure
students really understand what is being taught.
➢ With a bright personality comes enthusiasm and creativity, which are both key for
captivating student interest and respect.
 ❖ Good listener
➢ A great teacher is not only good at speaking and presenting, but also excels in listening –
representing an approachable and empathetic figure, that students can speak to or
confide in with any concerns they may have.
➢ What’s more, active listening skills are vital in ensuring Students understand lesson
material and controlling any class conflicts.
Conclusion
A teacher's learning traits are essential to creating and maintaining a positive and effective
classroom learning environment. By modeling positive learning traits, engaging students,
adapting to student needs, committing to continuous improvement, and creating a positive
learning environment, teachers can inspire and support their students to achieve their full
potential.
Question no 2
Describe the process of course design and planning?
Answer
Course design
Definition
Course design is the process and methodology of creating quality learning environments and
experiences for students.
Through deliberate and structured expose to instructional materials, learning activities, and
interaction, students are able to access information, obtain skills, and practice higher levels of
thinking.

Course designing process

• The design process generally starts with analyzing and identifying desired, measurable
learning outcomes that support program objectives. The deliberate design of learning
experiences along with assessment will help to shape the optimal learning environment.
• Course design is the process of developing effective learning materials and
environments that encourage students to develop their skills and knowledge.
• Quality educational courses typically combine learning material with environments that
engage students and provide them with practical or theoretical learning experiences.
• Exploring how to create an academic course can help you engage students and improve
their learning experiences. In this article, we answer the question, 'What is course
 design?', detail its common principles, share some tips on creating an educational
course and list some benefits of an effective course.

What is the course design?

• A process for creating an educational course with quality learning material and engaging
environments.
• This process typically incorporates several principles that help educational professionals
design, implement and evaluate the effectiveness of learning materials and
environments.
• Educational institutes typically adopt varying course designs for different subjects and
students because each course typically involves unique elements. For example, a
practical learning environment may suit a design and technology course, while a
theoretical environment may better suit an economics course.

Course designing principles

Analysis
• This is usually the initial stage of course design and involves identifying the audience,
learning outcome, learning content and environment for a course.
• For example, a design and technology course audience may be year ten students.
 • The learning outcome is for students to operate wood cutting tools, the learning
content includes practical activities for operating tools and the learning environment is a
workshop.
• This analysis essentially creates the framework for the course, allowing educational
designers to begin developing specific learning materials.

Design
• The design phase typically refers to setting goals, targets and strategies for students and
teachers to achieve learning outcomes.
• This phase essentially defines the learning outcome, learning content and learning
environment in more detail than the analysis phase.
• The analysis phase outlines the framework for the course and the design phase
implements a blueprint.
• This blueprint defines performance outcomes, evaluation strategies and
delivery Methods.

Development
• The development stage of designing courses typically involves creating learning and
teaching material. This can include tests, examinations, learning modules, learning
resources, teacher handbooks, performance criteria and online learning content.
• The learning and teaching material allow students and teachers to follow the blueprint
of the course and achieve the learning outcomes.

Implementations
• This stage is where educational designers may implement the course. During this
implementation phase, they may test the accessibility to ensure an efficient learning
experience.
• For example, educational designers may implement online modules and then test the
accessibility of the modules to ensure students experience minimal issues when
accessing the material, submitting content and reviewing feedback.
• This stage can help educational designers identify issues and resolve them before
delivering the course to students.

Evaluation
• The evaluation phase of the ADDIE design model isn't necessarily linear, meaning
educational designers conduct this stage throughout the design process.
• The evaluation phase is where designers review each phase of the design process to
identify inefficiencies and potential improvements.
 • For example, after conducting the analysis phase, they may review the learning
outcomes to ensure they're reasonable for students to achieve.
• Educational designers may also review the development stage to ensure learning
material can help students achieve the learning outcomes.

Creating an educational course

Include new content
• Courses include new material and not copied material from previous courses.
• This can help you develop a new course with more defined learning outcomes.
• Some reasons for course design are to improve learning material, student engagement
and learning outcomes, so if you use old course material, you might not achieve these
improvements.
• You might also struggle to engage students if you use existing course material. For
example, some students in a university lecture environment may recognize the material
from a previous course, typically resulting in decreased engagement and attention.

Balance online and offline interactions

• There are many benefits to online and offline learning environments, it's helpful to
ensure the course includes a balanced combination of these two environments.
• If you have too much online content, it might disengage the students and become
repetitive.
• If the course is entirely offline, students might not benefit from the flexibility and
accessibility of online learning content.
• A balance of offline and online learning can provide students with a good blend of
practical and theoretical learning with the accessibility of online modules.

Provide measurable learning outcomes

• Throughout the course, allow students to review their progress and achievements. If
you implement measurable learning outcomes, students can identify their skills and
subject knowledge that may require improvement.
• A measurable learning outcome is usually specific and understandable for students. For
example, a learning outcome for an economics module might be understanding the
relationship between supply and demand. Students can assess whether they understand
this concept, allowing them to clearly identify their progression and performance.

Include practical activities

• To combining offline and online interactions, you may include practical activities
alongside theoretical activities.
 • Practical activities may help engage students, maintain their attention and offer
practical experience. Depending on the course subject, practical activities might be
essential.
• For example, a design and technology course in learning outcomes for operating
machinery safely typically requires practical activities. Students may learn about
operation and safety procedures through theoretical studies, but actually operating the
machinery can help them develop their skills and knowledge effectively.

Implement efficient communication channels

• An effective educational course is usually one that has efficient communication channels
between students and teachers. This can improve student engagement and also
increase the amount and accessibility of feedback.
• Feedback often helps students develop their skills and knowledge. If a student has
efficient access to feedback, they can identify their weaknesses and subject knowledge
that may require improvement.
• Communication channels can also be an excellent tool for increasing peer-to-peer
communication. Students can discuss course content with other students, which may
increase their engagement and enthusiasm in completing coursework.

Benefits of well-designed educational course

The common benefits of creating an effective and balanced educational course:

❖ Improved learning outcomes:

Effective course design can improve learning outcomes. Through effective course design,
educational designers can develop learning material and environments that enhance student
learning experiences. When course content engages students and involves a comfortable
learning environment, it can motivate them to be proactive in their studies. Design course
principles also help educational designers optimize a course, which can improve learning
outcomes. For example, designers continuously evaluate the effectiveness of the course, which
can help them identify potential issues, such as unreasonable or unattainable learning
outcomes.

❖ More efficient resource allocation:

During the course design process, educational designers conduct extensive planning, such as
developing the frameworks and blueprints for courses. This extensive planning and continuous
evaluation can help designers determine the required resources for students and teachers to
achieve learning outcomes. For example, after developing the framework and blueprint,
designers can effectively identify the learning material, teaching material and evaluation
strategies required. This can help educational designers commit an optimized number of
resources to course modules rather than over-committing resources.
 ❖ Increase student engagement:
A well-designed educational course may involve an excellent balance of online, offline, practical
and theoretical learning content. This balance of learning styles may engage students and help
maintain their attention during classes. If educational courses only include one learning style, it
might become repetitive for students, resulting in a loss of focus or motivation to learn and
develop. A well-designed educational course may also have easily accessible communication
channels, which can help students discuss course content with other students and efficiently
review feedback from teachers. This increase in communication can often improve student
engagement with the course.

❖ Enhance course delivery:

A part of the course design process is to develop a course delivery method and evaluate its
effectiveness. Some courses may have an abundance of different modules that involve varying
environments. Having a delivery method for these unique modules may ensure students can
access course material efficiently, improving their overall learning experience.

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic
organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a
way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will
be done, who will do it, and what schedule to follow.

s
 ❖ Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The ultimate goal
is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum design as well.
For example, designing a curriculum for middle school students with both elementary and high
school curricula in mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned and complement
each other from one stage to the next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking
prior knowledge from elementary school or future learning in high school into account it can
create real problems for the students.

❖ Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

• Subject-centered design
• Learner-centered design
• Problem-centered design

❖ Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline.

For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of
curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most
common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United
States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should be
studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design that can be standardized
across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula, teachers are
provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to teach their students, along with
specific examples of how these things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered
designs in large college classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered.

In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into account the
specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with student engagement and
motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.

❖ Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs, interests, and
goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and
adjust to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower
learners and allow them to shape their education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students the

opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate
students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor-intensive. Developing

differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find
materials that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers may not have the time
or may lack the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design
also requires that teachers balance student wants and interests with student needs and
required outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.

❖ Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a form of

student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to look at
a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life
issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.

Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and allows
students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this form of
curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into consideration.

❖ Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the curriculum
design process.

1. Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design
process. This can be done through needs analysis, which involves the collection and
analysis of data related to the learner. This data might include what learners already
know and what they need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may
also include information about learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
2. Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the
intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve
the desired results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in
the course. Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that
students should have achieved in the course.
3. Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example, time is a
common constraint that must be considered. There are only so many hours, days, weeks
or months in the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has
been planned, it will impact learning outcomes.
 4. Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so that you can
properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum
mapping provides visual diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual
representation of the curriculum is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential
gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum
maps can be created on paper or with software programs or online services designed
specifically for this purpose.
5. Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider
how they will work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not
conducive to the curriculum, the instructional design or the curriculum design will need
to be altered accordingly.
6. Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the school year
to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if
the curriculum design is working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be
evaluated include the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement
rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and
summative.
7. Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement
is a necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined
based on assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design partway
through the course to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will
be achieved at the end of the course.

Course planning
Introduction
Being able to plan well is one of the key skills that a teacher needs to have. It involves being
able to imagine what is going to happen in the classroom, and to make choices based on this
imagined experience. Planning also involves the ability to zoom out, to see the bigger picture
and know how a 2-hour lesson fits into a 100-hour course, but it also involves the ability to
zoom in, and work out the mechanics of how a 15-minute activity will work best.

Definition
Course planning is the developing of an educational plan for a specific course of study
comprising of several short subject courses and each course with many interrelated units
leading to an award of a diploma or a degree after its successful completion.
Course design and planning is the process of creating a structured plan for a course that
includes the learning outcomes, content, assessments, and activities. Here is a step-by-step
process for course design and planning:

Define learning outcomes:

Identify what you want your students to be able to do by the end of the course. Learning
outcomes should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Determine content:
Decide what content is necessary to meet the learning outcomes. This includes identifying what
topics, themes, and concepts need to be covered, and what resources are available to support
the content.

Choose assessment methods:

Determine how you will evaluate whether students have met the learning outcomes. This
includes selecting appropriate assessment methods, such as tests, quizzes, projects, or essays.

Develop instructional materials:

Create instructional materials such as lesson plans, handouts, presentations, or videos that
support the content and the learning outcomes.

Plan activities and assignments:

Determine what activities and assignments will be used to reinforce the learning outcomes.
This includes identifying how to engage students in the learning process, such as through group
work, class discussions, or case studies.

Determine the course structure:

Decide on the course structure, including the schedule of topics, assignments, and assessments.
This includes determining the pacing of the course, how much time will be devoted to each
topic, and when assessments will be administered.

Review and revise:

Review the course design and plan regularly to ensure it aligns with the learning outcomes and
supports student learning. Revise the plan as necessary based on student feedback and
assessment results.

What is Curriculum Planning in Education?

Educators are often required to follow a curriculum approved by their state or supervisor. The
curriculum is the subjects that make up a course of study in a school setting. Curriculum
planning is the process of identifying and organizing the instructional material that the course
will follow. A curriculum designer makes decisions about what the students will be learning and
how to deliver that material to the students. After analyzing curriculum options, one is selected
that is representative of the school's mission. Next, content is selected and the curriculum is
built.
Importance of Curriculum Planning
Curriculum planning is important because it helps make sure daily teaching has a larger
purpose. It provides a guide by supplying learning outcomes along with activities designed to
help achieve those outcomes. It serves as a framework of reference for the classroom teacher
and ensures the teacher delivers the appropriate content effectively to the students. The
curriculum plan helps ensure daily teaching has a larger purpose by breaking down a broad
concept into smaller, more manageable steps. At the end of a unit, the previous material that
has been learned fits together to help students realize the bigger goal or purpose. Curriculum
planning ensures a structured method of delivering content and that students will be taught in
a manner that aligns with the goals of the school mission.

Making curriculum plan:

Teachers make a curriculum plan by first determining what is most important for students to
learn. The teacher considers both short-term and long-term goals. The teacher then decides the
best method to deliver the content. The teacher also needs to include a plan to assess what the
students have learned. To get a better idea of how curriculum planning works, an example is
discussed below in which a history teacher has prepared a curriculum for their U.S. History class
that has begun a unit on the American Revolution:

• What is most important for the students to learn? Why and how did America gain its
independence from Great Britain?
• Short-term goal: Learn about the acts and taxes the British placed upon the colonists
and how the colonists responded to those acts and taxes, along with other important
events.
• Long-term goal: Develop an understanding of the series of causes and effects that led to
the American Revolution.

Elements of Curriculum Planning

Different elements are required in curriculum planning. The teacher needs to decide what the
big questions are and incorporate a strategy to provide students with the skill set to be able to
answer those big questions. Learning and development must also be considered. The teacher
must design and implement strategies that are engaging, educational, and allow for further
development. The strategies need to include activities that will build the confidence of the
learner as they progress. Even with the most well-designed curriculum planning, teachers must
be flexible. There can be many things that interfere with the curriculum and the teacher must
be able to quickly adapt.

Course plan:
A good way to keep course planning from becoming overwhelming is to break the process into
steps. If you decide to go with a backward design, you can use the three questions from the
overview to structure the planning process. For example:
Step 1 - Identifying End Goals. You can ask some key questions while approaching this step to
help you answer the first question in the overview. Some ideas may include, "What are the
main ideas, skills, or knowledge my students should retain?" and "What complex information
should my students become familiar with?"

By asking these questions in the first step, it becomes easier to prioritize material and its
relevance. There isn't a way for students to learn everything about a field in one class, so an
important first step is figuring out how your course will establish or expand upon a foundation
of knowledge.

Step 2 - Providing and Evaluating Evidence. After you figure out exactly what your students
should be learning throughout your course, you can start to consider what evidence you want
to present to them, and what evidence you will observe to assess their retention.

Consider using expansive means of assessment to ensure students retain desired information,
allowing you to adjust the provided materials where gaps may arise.

Step 3 - Visualizing Your Course. How do you want your course to look in application? Are
there any key learning strategies or activities that will be helpful to student retention?

This step is a good time to consider yourself as an instructor. By asking these questions after
figuring out your assessment strategies and building a foundation of materials, you can begin to
fine-tune how these concepts will appear in application. Here, you can finalize primary
materials and organize any materials you may want to include in case an adjustment needs to
be made during the course.

Be sure during this process to consider how you will be creating a learning environment that
will work for students from various backgrounds. Some ways to think about inclusion is by
understanding demographics outside of your own and allowing for different learning
opportunities so students can showcase their knowledge and comprehension of the material.

Importance of course design and planning

The focus of course design is to put together the optimal learning experiences for students in
an environment that is supportive and appreciative of learning and intellectual development.
The backdrop behind effective course design is that the courses themselves constitute the
foundation of teaching and learning.

Conclusion
course design and planning are a critical process that requires careful consideration of learning
outcomes, content, assessments, instructional materials, activities, and course structure. By
following a structured process and reviewing and revising regularly, instructors can create a
well-designed and effective course that supports student learning and success.
Question no 3
What strategies a teacher can use in the classroom to motivate students?

Answer

Motivating students is a key component of effective teaching. Here are some strategies that
teachers can use in the classroom to motivate their students:

Set clear expectations:

Clearly communicate the learning objectives and expectations for the course or lesson, and
provide feedback on progress towards those goals.

Use positive reinforcement:

Praise students for their effort and accomplishments, and provide positive feedback that
reinforces their success.

Provide choice:
Allow students to make choices about what they learn and how they learn it, which can help
them feel more invested in the learning process.

Incorporate student interests:

Incorporate student interests into lesson plans, which can help students feel more engaged and
motivated to learn.

Use technology:
Use technology to create interactive and engaging lessons, such as videos, online games, and
simulations.

Use cooperative learning:

Encourage students to work in groups, which can help build a sense of community and
collaboration, and can also foster peer-to-peer motivation.

Use real-world applications:

Show students how the concepts they are learning can be applied in real-world contexts, which
can help them see the relevance of what they are learning.

Celebrate success:
Celebrate student successes, both big and small, which can help build motivation and a sense of
accomplishment.

Encourage self-reflection:
Encourage students to reflect on their progress, and to set goals for future learning.

Introduction to motivating students:

Fostering student motivation is a difficult but necessary aspect of teaching that instructors must
consider. Many may have led classes where students are engaged, motivated, and excited to
learn, but have also led classes where students are distracted, disinterested, and reluctant to
engage—and, probably, have led classes that are a mix. What factors influence students’
motivation? How can instructors promote students’ engagement and motivation to learn?
While there are nuances that change from student to student, there are also models of
motivation that serve as tools for thinking through and enhancing motivation in our classrooms.
This guide will look at three frameworks: the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation, the
ARCS model of instructional design, and self-determination theory. These three models
highlight some of the major factors that influence student motivation, often drawing from and
demonstrating overlap among their frameworks. The aim of this guide is to explore some of the
literature on motivation and offer practical solutions for understanding and enhancing student
motivation.
Motivated students are more excited to learn and participate. Simply put: Teaching a class full
of motivated students is enjoyable for teachers and students alike. Some students are self-
motivated, with a natural love of learning. But even with the students who do not have this
natural drive, a great teacher can make learning fun and inspire them to reach their full
potential.
One of the most difficult aspects of becoming a teacher is learning how to motivate your
students. It is also one of the most important. Students who are not motivated will not learn
effectively. They won’t retain information; they won’t participate and some of them may even
become disruptive. A student may be unmotivated for a variety of reasons: They may feel that
they have no interest in the subject, find the teacher’s methods un-engaging or be distracted by
external forces. It may even come to light that a student who appeared unmotivated actually
has difficulty learning and is in need of special attention.
Teachers spend years of hard work and thousands of dollars to become experts in their content
areas, with degrees and teaching certification to prove it. We develop curriculum maps and
teaching calendars to be sure to cover the appropriate standards. We endure hours of
professional development so that we are well versed in all the current educational pedagogy.
We collaborate with colleagues so that we are all using best practices in the classroom. We
develop assessments for students so that we can track their progress. When all this doesn’t
work, we have intentional interventions aimed at getting students back on track.
And students are still failing.
The problem is that many students are not motivated to learn. Even with the perfect lesson
plan in place, an unmotivated student will not learn. Some teachers claim that motivating
students is not their job. It is a teacher’s job to know the content and to teach it well; the
student must take responsibility for his or her learning and find his or her own motivation. This
old-fashioned idea is what limits many teachers to being average. A great teacher recognizes
that student motivation is necessary for success in learning and that teachers are in the perfect
position to improve student motivation. Here are some strategies that can be used in the
classroom to help motivate students:

1. Promote growth mindset over fixed mindset.

In her book, Mindset, Carol Dweck argues that students have an underlying belief about
learning: either a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. A fixed mindset belief suggests that
people are born with or without certain abilities and talents, and that abilities cannot be
changed. Fixed mindset learners try to prove themselves and will often shy away from
challenges because they do not want to appear to be struggling. A growth mindset learner, on
the other hand, believes that abilities and talents can be cultivated and improved through
hard work. Growth mindset students enjoy a challenge and see struggles and failures as
necessary parts of growth. Learners with a growth mindset are certainly more motivated to
work hard.

How do we foster a growth mindset in the classroom?

One of the most powerful elements of feedback for our learners is to praise them for their
efforts and hard work. “I can tell that you have been practicing your reading,” or “The
practice is paying off on your times tables,” tells learners that they have the power to
improve their academic success. That said, we must stop praising ability: “Wow, you are such
a smart math student,” or “You are such an incredible reader.” Praise for abilities over efforts
reinforces the fixed mindset that students have the ability or they don’t and no amount of
hard work on the learner’s part can change the outcome. We are all learners, and should be
encouraged as such.

Throughout a learning cycle, teachers assess student progress by incorporating formative and
summative assessments. The purpose of formative assessment is to pinpoint the learning
needed for ultimate success on a later summative assessment. Formative assessment informs
teachers and students about student and classroom needs for improvement so both can act
accordingly to improve performance on the final assessment. Some formative assessments
are: a thumbs up/thumbs down check for understanding, a quiz in small groups, or an exit slip
at the end of a lesson. What is important is that students get timely and descriptive feedback
from the assessment so that they can move forward in their learning. This cycle of learning
will improve results on a later summative assessment.

As teachers, we can model the growth mindset. Have courage! Ask students for feedback
about your teaching and be willing to make necessary changes. Be dedicated! Work hard for
students and share how hard work and dedication translates to success and growth. This
feedback shows that we, too, are learners. It also invites our students to continue on the
learning journey alongside us. Students are always willing to work hard for a teacher that is
reciprocating that hard work.

2. Develop meaningful and respectful relationships with your students.

If we are going to truly inspire and motivate all of our students, we should know each of them
on a personal level. We need to know their interests and hobbies, who they hang out with,
their family situations, and what gets them excited. Each student is going to require different
motivational strategies, and we have to know them to be able to predict what strategies
might work.

In order to begin that “knowing,” try allowing for five minutes where students may share
“Good News.” For example, student A shares, “I am a new uncle! My sister had a new baby
boy this weekend!” This is an opportunity for us to learn about our students as people and to
let them know that we care about them individually. This also provides an avenue for
teachers to share some details about their lives outside of school. When teachers are willing
to share personally and become vulnerable, students are more likely to do the same. When
learners see one another as whole people, they are more willing to take risks, and ask the
questions they need to ask in order to obtain success.

We all learn differently. In each classroom several types of learners exist: visual, tactile, verbal
and more reserved. We can see it as our responsibility to discover this by knowing them and
endeavor to teach them accordingly. This work results in our ability to know our students
which leads to a more cohesive, open learning community.

3. Grow a community of learners in your classroom.

Students need a classroom environment that is safe, where they are willing to take risks and
struggle. To achieve this goal, the students and teacher must work together towards common
collective goals. Students must be willing to work with and assist other students in class.
Struggle should be acceptable and encouraged as a part of the learning process.

Traditional teaching consists of teachers lecturing and learners taking notes, followed by the
learners doing independent work to check for understanding. Transforming this outdated
model to include more time where students are talking to students brings about true
community. Collaborative group work should be the activity between the teacher lecture and
the independent work. This is the time when students can digest information and ask
questions collectively. Learners participate in what could be considered the “problem solving”
phase of their development with new ideas, and together they come to new learnings. This
gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student encourages deeper understanding of
lesson rather than rote memorization; thus the students are participants in their own
learning, rather than witnesses to the instructor’s knowledge.

Student work should be proudly displayed throughout the classroom. This sends a message to
students that they are active participants in creating the knowledge in the classroom. The
teacher is not the sole holder of knowledge. Additionally, teachers can use language that
promotes the community of learners – including the teacher – rather than a room full of
individual learners. Using the words “we” and “our” rather than “I” and “you” has a
significant impact on classroom culture, and how students function as interdependent
learners.
4. Establish high expectations and establish clear goals.

Setting high expectations and supporting students as they struggle allows learners to rise to
meet those expectations. When expectations are transparent, students know where their
learning is headed and are motivated to get there because it seems possible: the path is
visible. Working towards daily, weekly, and yearly goals give students a purpose and a
meaning for the hard work that they do.

Maintaining high expectations for academics is tantamount to learning, but high standards for
behavior, academic language, group work, and even the length and format of individual work
is also necessary for deep learning. We cannot assume that students know these
expectations. They must be clearly outlined. If we expect students to interact in a certain way
together, we need to teach them how, and hold them accountable. If we want an assignment
displayed in a certain format, we need to model it and expect it. Once the routines to support
expectations are established and clear to the learning community, learning becomes the most
important action in the classroom.

5. Be inspirational.

Most adults can recall a specific teacher from their childhood who had a lasting impact. These
are the teachers that have inspired, challenged, and motivated students enough to be
memorable years later.

What makes these teachers inspirational?

Inspirational teachers represent success to their students. Teacher success might be:
completing a 10K race, owning a small business, or receiving a teaching award. We each have
successes to share. Through our triumphs, students can learn what success looks like and go
after it. Once our students decide that they want success, they pay close attention to the
behaviors and choices and even sacrifices that led us to our success. These behaviors include
hard work, willingness to struggle, and ability to learn from our mistakes. Students internalize
our behaviors and strategies as a way to accomplish their own goals. We give them an
opportunity to do so in our everyday routines, assignments and encounters with them.

6. Give students autonomy and responsibility

Motivation is impaired when students feel they have no control over a situation. Giving
students choices and empowering student initiative enhances motivation, effort, interest,
positive emotions and perceptions of personal control and competence, as well as
achievement. Most students perform better on self-adapted tests in which they can select test
items from various options. Providing choices can also increase risk taking and help students
develop interest for particular activities. However, for students from some cultural groups,
motivation might be highest when authority figures or peers make choices for them.

It is important to carefully plan how to make choices available to students, basing them on your
students’ ability to understand and make choices. Some students may need scaffolding to help
them make appropriate choices. Choices must be appropriate for students’ abilities and needs,
and be a good match with student interests (although be wary of trying to align all learning
activities with students’ current interests at the risk of compromising the quality of the learning
or missing the opportunity to create interest and build knowledge in a new subject area). It
might be that students get to choose from a list of topic-related activities provided by the
teacher, or that they select their own tasks to work on. They might also be involved in setting
due dates, choosing student working groups, and the order of task completion. Being able to
choose how to apportion their time, as well as among several different versions of a task, might
be most motivational for students with skills in self-regulation. However, it is important that all
students, not just the highest-performing students, get to choose activities and resources.

Some choices are more effective than others. The best type of choices:

• allow students to reflect their personal interests, values and goals

• are unrestricted choices, with no indication of which option to choose, rather than
controlled choices
• offer choice between 2–4 options: more than 5 options increases thinking effort and
therefore decreases motivation, and less than 2 options undermines the perception
of choice
 • allow students to repeatedly return to a list of options to make another choice rather
than making single or multiple choices at one time only.

7. Develop students’ self-efficacy

Students have important needs in relation to feeling competent. Motivation is strongly

influenced by students’ perceived expectations of success or failure, which are in turn
influenced by teacher expectations. Motivation, self-efficacy and achievement are positively
affected when outcomes are represented as the result of student effort and action. Optimal
learning experiences occur when the student perceives the challenge of the task as equal to his
or her skills to achieve it. When challenge and skills are unbalanced, learning activities are not
rewarding and perhaps even evoke anxiety. The highest levels of motivation occur when there
is both high challenge and high feelings of self-efficacy.

One way to inspire increased motivation is to increase student’s expectations of success and
their sense of self-efficacy. Tell students you believe in them and that they will learn a
particular content or strategy if they study hard and are motivated.

8. Set appropriate goals and provide regular feedback for learning

Goals can motivate students by providing a purpose for using different learning strategies
and encourage students’ persistence and effort over time, especially when goals are related to
mastery of content and strategies rather than to specific performance. What is more, when
students perceive praise or feedback as intended to facilitate their task mastery, they tend to
feel their autonomy has been supported and are consequently motivated by the feedback.
However, when students feel that the teacher is trying to control their learning and behavior,
there is a negative impact on motivation.

Goals direct attention and action, and they also mobilize effort and motivation. For example,
research has found that when students were given goals for reading focused on conceptual
themes and knowledge content, they applied reading comprehension strategies with greater
interest, effort and attention. Harder goals (that are acceptable to, and achievable by, the
student) lead to higher levels of motivation and performance. Difficulty can be interpreted as a
need to increase attention and therefore heightens motivation. Perceiving a task as too easy
makes it seem not worth any effort, and motivation is consequently reduced. Likewise,
perceiving a task as impossible halts motivation and effort abruptly. Between these extremes,
increased difficulty enhances motivation.

9. Provide opportunities for co-operative learning

Meeting students’ need for connection with others can enhance motivation for the related
learning activity. Students show increased motivation when teachers provide frequent
opportunities for them to share their questions and what they have learned with their
peers. Students also often demonstrate increased work effort when there is a sense
of collective responsibility for learning. In addition, research shows students given collaborative
learning opportunities engage in deeper-level processing of information.

Plan for student-to-student dialogue within a lesson, and identify activities that can be
undertaken in pairs or groups. Develop group tasks in which tasks are divided between
students. Ensure each student has a clear responsibility and accountability in relation to a group
goal.
10. Explicitly teach the concept of motivation and talk about how motivation supports
learning

Supporting students’ understanding of motivation can aid their ability to self-regulate their
levels of motivation and help them to identify strategies and behaviors that increase or lower
their motivation. Although motivational support strategies should be embedded into
instruction, it can also be worthwhile to explicitly discuss motivation with students. This helps
students to understand the importance of effort in learning and how finding ways to get
motivated can help them put in the necessary effort.

Emphasize the importance of motivation for success in learning. Talk regularly about how
students must work hard and how effort helps them to get smarter by linking effort to
outcomes. Ensure that you and your students have the same perception of effort: discuss what
it means to try. Help students differentiate between productive and non-productive effort by
explaining that effort is more than the time spent on a task but also means using effective
strategies, practicing and seeking help. Take the mystery out of learning something new by
demonstrating that it is all about strategy and motivation.

Strategies to Enhance Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction

Attention strategies

Incongruity, Conflict

• Introduce a fact that seems to contradict the learner’s past experience.

• Present an example that does not seem to exemplify a given concept.
• Introduce two equally plausible facts or principles, only one of which can be true.
• Play devil’s advocate.

Concreteness

• Show visual representations of any important object or set of ideas or relationships.

• Give examples of every instructionally important concept or principle.
• Use content-related anecdotes, case studies, biographies, etc.

Variability
 • In stand-up delivery, vary the tone of your voice, and use body movement, pauses, and
props.
• Vary the format of instruction (information presentation, practice, testing, etc.)
according to the attention span of the audience.
• Vary the medium of instruction (platform delivery, film, video, print, etc.).
• Break up print materials by use of white space, visuals, tables, different typefaces, etc.
• Change the style of presentation (humorous-serious, fast-slow, loud-soft, active-passive,
etc.).
• Shift between student-instructor interaction and student-student interaction.

Humor

• Where appropriate, use plays on words during redundant information presentation.

• Use humorous introductions.
• Use humorous analogies to explain and summarize.

Inquiry

• Use creativity techniques to have learners create unusual analogies and associations to
the content.
• Build in problem solving activities at regular interval.
• Give learners the opportunity to select topics, projects and assignments that appeal to
their curiosity and need to explore.

Participation

• Use games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation.

Relevance strategies

Experience

• State explicitly how the instruction builds on the learner’s existing skills.
• Use analogies familiar to the learner from past experience.
 • Find out what the learners’ interests are and relate them to the instruction.

Present Worth

• State explicitly the present intrinsic value of learning the content, as distinct from its
value as a link to future goals.

Future Usefulness

• State explicitly how the instruction relates to future activities of the learner.
• Ask learners to relate the instruction to their own future goals (future wheel).

Need Matching

• To enhance achievement striving behavior, provide opportunities to achieve standards

of excellence under conditions of moderate risk.
• To make instruction responsive to the power motive, provide opportunities for
responsibility, authority, and interpersonal influence.
• To satisfy the need for affiliation, establish trust and provide opportunities for no-risk,
cooperative interaction.

Modeling

• Bring in alumni of the course as enthusiastic guest lecturers.

• In a self-paced course, use those who finish first as deputy tutors.
• Model enthusiasm for the subject taught.

Choice

• Provide meaningful alternative methods for accomplishing a goal.

• Provide personal choices for organizing one’s work.

Confidence strategies

Learning Requirements
 • Incorporate clearly stated, appealing learning goals into instructional materials.
• Provide self-evaluation tools which are based on clearly stated goals.
• Explain the criteria for evaluation of performance.

Difficulty

• Organize materials on an increasing level of difficulty; that is, structure the learning
material to provide a “conquerable” challenge.

Expectations

• Include statements about the likelihood of success with given amounts of effort and
ability.
• Teach students how to develop a plan of work that will result in goal accomplishment.
• Help students set realistic goals.

Attributions

• Attribute student success to effort rather than luck or ease of task when appropriate
(i.e., when you know it’s true!).
• Encourage student efforts to verbalize appropriate attributions for both successes and
failures.

Self-Confidence

• Allow students opportunity to become increasingly independent in learning and

practicing a skill.
• Have students learn new skills under low-risk conditions, but practice performance of
well-learned tasks under realistic conditions.
• Help students understand that the pursuit of excellence does not mean that anything
short of perfection is failure; learn to feel good about genuine accomplishment.

Satisfaction strategies
Natural Consequences

• Allow a student to use a newly acquired skill in a realistic setting as soon as possible.
• Verbally reinforce a student’s intrinsic pride in accomplishing a difficult task.
• Allow a student who masters a task to help others who have not yet done so.

Unexpected Rewards

• Reward intrinsically interesting task performance with unexpected, non-contingent

rewards.
• Reward boring tasks with extrinsic, anticipated rewards.

Positive Outcomes

• Give verbal praise for successful progress or accomplishment.

• Give personal attention to students.
• Provide informative, helpful feedback when it is immediately useful.
• Provide motivating feedback (praise) immediately following task performance.

Negative Influences

• Avoid the use of threats as a means of obtaining task performance.

• Avoid surveillance (as opposed to positive attention).
• Avoid external performance evaluations whenever it is possible to help the student
evaluate his or her own work.

Scheduling

• Provide frequent reinforcements when a student is learning a new task.

• Provide intermittent reinforcement as a student becomes more competent at a task.
• Vary the schedule of reinforcements in terms of both interval and quantity.

Importance of motivating students:

Conclusion
By using these strategies, teachers can create a classroom environment that promotes
motivation, engagement, and success.
Question no 4

What is meant by inductive reasoning? Provide examples regarding application

of this method in classroom setting?

Answer

Inductive Reasoning

Definition

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the
general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you go from general
information to specific conclusions.

OR

Inductive reasoning is a reasoning method that recognizes patterns and evidence from specific
occurrences to reach a general conclusion. The general unproven conclusion we reach using
inductive reasoning is called a conjecture or hypothesis.

What Is Inductive Reasoning?

Inductive reasoning, or inductive logic, is a type of reasoning that involves drawing a general
conclusion from a set of specific observations. Some people think of inductive reasoning as
“bottom-up” logic, because it involves widening specific premises out into broader
generalizations.
 • Inductive reasoning is a reasoning method that recognizes patterns and evidence to

reach a general conclusion.

• The general unproven conclusion we reach using inductive reasoning is called a

conjecture or hypothesis.

• A hypothesis is formed by observing the given sample and finding the pattern between

observations.

• A conjecture is said to be true if it is true for all the cases and observations.

• The case which shows the conjecture is false is called a counterexample for that

conjecture.

• Inductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning where general conclusions are drawn
from specific observations. In other words, inductive reasoning involves making broad
generalizations based on a limited set of observations. This method of reasoning is often
used in scientific investigations, as well as in everyday life.

What Is an Example of Inductive Reasoning?

Here are some examples of how inductive reasoning can be applied in a classroom setting:

Science experiments:
• Students can use inductive reasoning to draw conclusions about scientific phenomena.
For example, students could observe the behavior of a plant growing under different
lighting conditions and then use their observations to draw conclusions about the effect
of light on plant growth.

Literature analysis:
• Students can use inductive reasoning to analyze literature. For example, students could
read several short stories by the same author and then use their observations to draw
conclusions about the author's writing style and themes.

Problem-solving:
• Students can use inductive reasoning to solve problems. For example, students could be
presented with a series of math problems and asked to identify the pattern or rule that
governs the problems.
Language learning:
• Students can use inductive reasoning to learn new vocabulary and grammar rules. For
example, students could be presented with a series of sentences that contain a specific
grammar rule and then use their observations to draw conclusions about how the
grammar rule works.

Example

Stage Example 1 Example 2

Specific Nala is an orange cat and Baby Jack said his first word at the age of 12
observation she purrs loudly. months.

Pattern Every orange cat I’ve met All observed babies say their first word at
recognition purrs loudly. the age of 12 months.

General All orange cats purr loudly. All babies say their first word at the age of
conclusion 12 months.

Example 3
Find the next number in the sequence 1,2,4,7,11 by inductive reasoning.
Solution:
Observe: We see the sequence is increasing.
Pattern:

Sequence Pattern, Mouli Java - Study Smarter Originals

Here the number increases by 1,2,3,4 respectively.
Conjecture: The next number will be 16, because
11+5=16
Example 4
Here is a basic form of inductive reasoning, with a premise based on concrete data and a
generalized conclusion:

1. 1. All the swans I have seen are white. (Premise)

2. 2. Therefore all swans are white. (Conclusion)
In this example, the conclusion is actually wrong—there are also black swans. This is what’s
called a “weak” argument. However, it’s easy to make the conclusion stronger, by making it
more probable:

1. 1. All the swans I have seen are white. (Premise)

2. 2. Therefore most swans are probably white. (Conclusion)

Ways Inductive Reasoning Is Used

Inductive reasoning is used in a number of different ways, each serving a different purpose:

We use inductive reasoning in everyday life to build our understanding of the world.

Inductive reasoning also underpins the scientific method, scientists gather data through
observation and experiment, make hypotheses based on that data, and then test those theories
further. That middle step—making hypotheses—is an inductive inference, and they wouldn’t
get very far without it.

Finally, despite the potential for weak conclusions, an inductive argument is also the main type
of reasoning in academic life.

Inductive reasoning in research

In inductive research, you start by making observations or gathering data. Then, you take a
broad view of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general conclusions that you
might incorporate into theories.

Example: Inductive reasoning in research You conduct exploratory research on whether pet
behaviors have changed due to work-from-home measures for their owners.
You distribute a survey to pet owners. You ask about the type of animal they have and any
behavioral changes they’ve noticed in their pets since they started working from home. These
data make up your observations.

To analyze your data, you create a procedure to categorize the survey responses so you can
pick up on repeated themes. You notice a pattern most pets became more needy and clingy or
agitated and aggressive.

Based on your findings, you conclude that almost all pets went through some behavioral
changes due to changes in their owners’ work locations. This is a generalization that you can
build on to test further research questions.
Inductive reasoning is commonly linked to qualitative research, but both quantitative and
qualitative research use a mix of different types of reasoning.

Types of inductive reasoning

There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or informally, so
we’ll cover just a few in this article:

• Inductive generalization
• Statistical generalization
• Causal reasoning
• Sign reasoning
• Analogical reasoning

Inductive reasoning generalizations can vary from weak to strong, depending on the number
and quality of observations and arguments used.

Inductive generalization
Inductive generalizations use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the
population it came from.

Inductive generalizations are also called induction by enumeration.

Example: Inductive generalization

1. The flamingos here are all pink.

2. All flamingos I’ve ever seen are pink.
3. All flamingos must be pink.
Inductive generalizations are evaluated using several criteria:

• Large sample: Your sample should be large for a solid set of observations.
• Random sampling: Probability sampling methods let you generalize your findings.
• Variety: Your observations should be externally valid.
• Counterevidence: Any observations that refute yours falsify your generalization.

Statistical generalization
Statistical generalizations use specific numbers to make statements about populations, while
non-statistical generalizations aren’t as specific.

These generalizations are a subtype of inductive generalizations, and they’re also called
statistical syllogisms.

Here’s an example of a statistical generalization contrasted with a non-statistical generalization.

Example: Statistical vs. non-statistical generalization

Specific observation
Inductive generalization
Statistical
73% of students from a
sample in a local university
prefer hybrid learning
environments.
73% of all students in the
university prefer hybrid
learning environments.
Non-Statistical
Most students from a sample
in a local university prefer
hybrid learning
environments.
Most students in the
university prefer hybrid
learning environments.

Causal reasoning
Causal reasoning means making cause-and-effect links between different things.

A causal reasoning statement often follows a standard setup:

1. You start with a premise about a correlation (two events that co-occur).
2. You put forward the specific direction of causality or refute any other direction.
3. You conclude with a causal statement about the relationship between two things.

Example: Causal reasoning

1. All of my white clothes turn pink when I put a red cloth in the washing machine with
them.
2. My white clothes don’t turn pink when I wash them on their own.
 3. Putting colorful clothes with light colors causes the colors to run and stain the light-
colored clothes.

Good causal inferences meet a couple of criteria:

• Direction: The direction of causality should be clear and unambiguous based on your
observations.
• Strength: There’s ideally a strong relationship between the cause and the effect.

Sign reasoning
Sign reasoning involves making correlational connections between different things.

Using inductive reasoning, you infer a purely correlational relationship where nothing causes
the other thing to occur. Instead, one event may act as a “sign” that another event will occur or
is currently occurring.

Example: Sign reasoning

1. Every time Punxsutawney Phil casts a shadow on Groundhog Day, winter lasts six more
weeks.
2. Punxsutawney Phil doesn’t cause winter to be extended six more weeks.
3. His shadow is a sign that we’ll have six more weeks of wintery weather.

It’s best to be careful when making correlational links between variables. Build your argument
on strong evidence, and eliminate any confounding variables, or you may be on shaky ground.

Analogical reasoning
Analogical reasoning means drawing conclusions about something based on its similarities to
another thing. You first link two things together and then conclude that some attribute of one
thing must also hold true for the other thing.

Analogical reasoning can be literal (closely similar) or figurative (abstract), but you’ll have a
much stronger case when you use a literal comparison.

Analogical reasoning is also called comparison reasoning.

Example: Analogical reasoning

1. Humans and laboratory rats are extremely similar biologically, sharing over 90% of their
DNA.
2. Lab rats show promising results when treated with a new drug for managing Parkinson’s
disease.
 3. Therefore, humans will also show promising results when treated with the drug.

Inductive reasoning approach

You begin by using qualitative methods to explore the research topic, taking an inductive
reasoning approach. You collect observations by interviewing workers on the subject and
analyze the data to spot any patterns. Then, you develop a theory to test in a follow-up study.

Types of inductive reasoning

The different types of inductive reasonings are categorized as follows:

• Generalization

This is the simple example given above, with the white swans. It uses premises about a sample
set to draw conclusions about a whole population.

This form of reasoning gives the conclusion of a broader population from a small sample.

Example: All doves I have seen are white. So, most of the doves are probably white.

• Statistical Induction

This form uses statistics based on a large and random sample set, and its quantifiable nature
makes the conclusions stronger. For example: “95% of the swans I’ve seen on my global travels
are white, therefore 95% of the world’s swans are white.”

Here, the conclusion is drawn based on a statistical representation of the sample set.

Example: 7 doves out of 10 I have seen are white. So, about 70% of doves are white.
• Bayesian Induction
This is a method of adapting statistical reasoning to take into account new or additional data. For
instance, location data might allow a more precise estimate of the percentage of white swans
This is similar to statistical induction, but additional information is added with the intention of
making the hypothesis more accurate.

Example: 7 doves out of 10 in the U.S. are white. So about 70% of doves in the U.S. are white.

• Causal Inference
This type of reasoning includes a causal link between the premise and the conclusion. For
instance: “There have always been swans on the lake in summer, therefore the start of summer
will bring swans onto the lake.”

This type of reasoning forms a causal connection between evidence and hypothesis.

Example: I have always seen doves during winter; so, I will probably see doves this winter.

• Analogical Induction

This form notes that on the basis of shared properties between two groups, they are also likely
to share some further property. For example: “Swans look like geese and geese lay eggs,
therefore swans also lay eggs.”

This inductive method draws conjecture from similar qualities or features of two events.
Example: I have seen white doves in the park. I also have seen white geese there. So, doves and
geese are both of the same species.

• Predictive Induction

This type of reasoning draws a conclusion about the future based on a past sample. For
instance: “There have always been swans on the lake in past summers, therefore there will be
swans this summer.”

This inductive reasoning predicts a future outcome based on past occurrence(s).

Example: There are always white doves in the park. So, the next dove which comes will also be
white.

Methods of inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning consists of the following steps:

1. Observe the sample set and identify the patterns.

2. Make a conjecture based on the pattern.
3. Verify the conjecture.
Advantages and limitations of inductive reasoning

Advantages

• Inductive reasoning allows the prediction of future outcomes.

• This reasoning gives a chance to explore the hypothesis in a wider field.
• This also has the advantage of working with various options to make a conjecture true.

Limitations

• Inductive reasoning is considered to be predictive rather than certain.

• This reasoning has limited scope and, at times, provides inaccurate inferences.

Application of inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning has different uses in different aspects of life. Some of the uses are mentioned
below:

• Inductive reasoning is the main type of reasoning in academic studies.

• This reasoning is also used in scientific research by proving or contradicting a hypothesis.
• For building our understanding of the world, inductive reasoning is used in day-to-day life.
Application of inductive reasoning in classroom setting:

In a student-centered approach, the inductive style of teaching is predicated on the notion that
students seem to be more inclined to learn when they are actively engaging in the process of
learning.
Students are tasked with developing their own opinions or conceptions using this method by
carefully analyzing all the available data and seeing trends to find answers.

It is frequently used by educators to encourage children’s natural curiosity, creativity, and

cooperative group problem-solving.

Either of the following two methods can be used with the inductive method:

• Experimentation: The process of testing a theory through experimentation.

• Statistical: Grounded in data.

In contrast to deductive teaching, when teachers offer students explicit instructions on what
they want them to learn, inductive teaching relies on no rigid lesson plans, prerequisite
knowledge, or rules. This makes it special.
Inductive method of teaching

Encourages critical thought

Students are encouraged to develop rules depending on the information they have by not being
given the solutions upfront. This is a cognitive and metacognitive skill that keeps them steady
when making adult decisions and resolving problems.

Invites participation from the students

In surroundings where we are continuously receiving information, it is difficult to focus. The
concentration flags and the mind drifts. Group work is frequently encouraged in inductive
method instances, and students are required to present their work and findings. Additionally, it
makes them think independently.

Learning is a long-term process

The inductive method of teaching through examples can aid students in remembering
information by actually engaging the brain. After considering facts, figures, and other types of
data, students have a stronger connection to the subject they are studying. Making mistakes
might really help facts stick in your memory.

Conclusion

Inductive reasoning is a useful tool for drawing conclusions from specific observations. By using
this method in the classroom, students can develop critical thinking skills and apply their
knowledge to a wide range of academic disciplines.
Question no 5

Summarize the main points bearing on the role of research project?

Answer

Definition

“Research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information)

designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge”

The main points regarding the role of a research project are:

To generate new knowledge:

Research projects aim to create new knowledge that can be used to address a research
question or problem.

To solve problems:
Research projects can help to solve problems or answer questions in a particular field or
industry.

To inform decision-making:
Research projects can provide valuable information that can be used to make informed
decisions, both in academic and practical settings.

To test hypotheses:
Research projects involve the testing of hypotheses or theories through systematic data
collection and analysis.

To develop skills:
Research projects can help students and researchers develop a wide range of skills, including
critical thinking, problem-solving, data analysis, and communication skills.
To contribute to the academic community: Research projects can contribute to the academic
community by adding to the body of knowledge in a particular field, and by providing
opportunities for collaboration and discussion among researchers.
Research projects may include:

• Case series

• Case control study

• Cohort study

• Randomized, controlled trial

• Survey

Secondary data analysis such as decision analysis, cost effectiveness analysis or meta-analysis.
Each resident must work under the guidance of a faculty mentor. Depending on your area of
research interest or your research topic, you may be able to identify a mentor on your own, or
if needed, you will be assigned one. You are also provided with a step-by-step guide to simplify
the process and a suggested Timeline for research project completion to ensure that you meet
your requirement in a timely manner.

What is Research?

Simply put, research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either
the development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories,
leading to a new understanding that was not previously known.
Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

• Empirical – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and
experiments.

• Logical – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.

• Cyclic – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e. research should
lead to a new line of questioning.

• Controlled – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except
those under investigation.

• Hypothesis-based – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the
research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research
study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.

• Analytical – data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to

ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential errors and anomalies.

• Objective – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research
findings are valid.

• Statistical treatment – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into
something more meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

• Who is responsible for the research project?

• The trainee will lead the research project in collaboration with the University and the
training officer. However, the University will need to approve the project and will
support the trainee to conduct the research. The workplace will also need to provide
support to the trainee.
Who can help with the project in the workplace?
• Ethical approval may be required and it is the responsibility of the department hosting
the trainee. It is important that the trainee is supported in seeking approval and that
time is allowed to achieve this.
•
• The training officer, research and development department/team and department leads
can also help with the project.

Trainee Academic supervisor Training officer

Finding and
selecting an idea for research
Developing the idea into proposal:
Trainee
Responsible for developing
and writing the proposal
Supports trainee to identify
any idea and gaps in
knowledge.
May propose a topical
research area if trainee or
workplace does not have an
idea.
Will advise on suitability for
Masters level study.
Academic supervisor
Support trainee to turn the
idea into a research question
and select appropriate
methodology.
Provides early input on any
feasibility or ethical issues
and approvals relating to the
research idea.
Formative feedback on a
draft version of the proposal
on feasibility and suitability
of the project as well as the
research methods
May be involved to a greater
or lesser extent.
May support the
Trainee identify a topical
research question and where
relevant an individual within
the department for the
trainee to work with.
Work with trainee and
academic supervisor to
ensure the proposed project
is feasible and suitable for
Masters level study.
Training officer
Provides input as to local
feasibility and clinical support
required.
Provide local knowledge of or
contacts for relevant local
processes

Trainee
Responsible for leading and
completing applications, as
necessary.
Uses NHS Integrated
Research Application System
(IRAS) and Health Research
Authority (HRA) on-line
guidance to ensure all
documentation completed as
required within timescale.
Trainee
Responsible for leading and
carrying out of the data
collection.
Trainee
Approves the protocol
Academic supervisor
Available for support for the
completion of IRAS forms.
Where necessary, being
present at ethics review or
ensuring the Trainee can
represent the project.
Academic supervisor
Available to support with
trainee enquiries during the
delivery phase.
Academic supervisor
Training officer
Supports the trainee to
obtain the information
needed to satisfy local and
national procedures.
Ensuring appropriate work-
based support through the
approval process.
Where necessary, supports
the trainee in presenting at
the ethics review or ensuring
that the trainee can
represent the project.
Training officer
Supports the trainee through
work-based arrangements
for the delivery phase.
Training officer
 Responsible for carrying out Can advise and support the Can advise and support the
the analysis and deriving analysis of results and the analysis of results and the
conclusions. drawing of conclusions. drawing of conclusions.

Responsible for writing-up Review drafts. Review drafts.

and submitting the project.

Roles and responsibilities of training officers:

❖ Support the trainee with the chosen research project, with the focus on contribution to
service development.
❖ Ask the trainee for the university’s requirements.
❖ Assist with obtaining ethical approval, if necessary.
❖ Ensure the trainee does not start the study until all permissions have been received.
❖ Ensure the trainee conducts the research according to Good Clinical Practice (GCP),
research frameworks and local policies.
❖ Monitor the trainee’s progress and meet with the trainee on a regular basis.
Roles and responsibility of the university/higher education institution regarding research
project:
They will support the trainee to complete the research project by providing:
❖ Advice where there is a difficulty in identifying a project
❖ Advice on appropriate level for MSc
❖ Methodological advice
❖ Experience in supporting MSc projects
❖ Help with write-up
The purpose of the research proposal: The research proposal is your chance to explain the
significance of your project to organizations who might wish to fund or otherwise support it.
Ideally, it will demonstrate the quality and importance of your project as well as your ability to
conduct the proposed research. The proposal also gives you the opportunity to think through
your research project, to refine your focus, and to predict any challenges that may arise. It may
be helpful to consult your proposal at various stages in your research process to remind
yourself of your focus and to chart how your project has progressed.
Components of a Research Proposal Title page: Give your project a working title, which may
or may not change. Statement of Purpose: Explain what you hope your research will find or
show. State your research question or a series of research questions that you hope to answer.
Bibliography:
Make a list of texts you plan to consult. You may modify this list as you conduct your research.

A research proposal is a document that proposes a particular research project, usually in

academia or sciences, intending to get funding from an institution. A typical research proposal
addresses a range of points:

• A research question(s) that the proposed research seeks to answer

• The data & methods that will be used to answer the questions
• The time and financial costs for the research
• The prior research in the field
• Potential benefits for the sponsoring institution
Research proposals are usually required when one plans to write a thesis, dissertation, or
research paper. The format is similar to that of a research paper, with an introduction, a
literature review, a methods section, and a conclusion.

Purpose and Importance

The primary goal of any research proposal is to convince a sponsoring institution that a
particular research project is worthwhile. The document usually aims to cover the aspects
below.

What is the purpose of research proposals?

The research proposal is the document that finally establishes that there is a niche for your
chosen area of study and that the research design is feasible.
Conclusion:

The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the

development of scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through
forming hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing results, forming conclusions, implementing
findings into real-life applications and forming new research questions.

Overall, research projects are important for advancing knowledge, solving problems, informing
decision-making, and developing valuable skills.