The Effect of Belongingness On Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in The Use of Online Social Networks

Journal of Management Information Systems
ISSN: 0742-1222 (Print) 1557-928X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/mmis20
The Effect of Belongingness on Obsessive-

Compulsive Disorder in the Use of Online Social
Networks
Tabitha L. James, Paul Benjamin Lowry, Linda Wallace & Merrill Warkentin
To cite this article: Tabitha L. James, Paul Benjamin Lowry, Linda Wallace & Merrill Warkentin
(2017) The Effect of Belongingness on Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in the Use of
Online Social Networks, Journal of Management Information Systems, 34:2, 560-596, DOI:
10.1080/07421222.2017.1334496
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The Effect of Belongingness on
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in the Use
of Online Social Networks
TABITHA L. JAMES, PAUL BENJAMIN LOWRY, LINDA
WALLACE, AND MERRILL WARKENTIN
TABITHA L. JAMES (tajames@vt.edu; corresponding author) is an associate professor

in the Department of Business Information Technology at Virginia Tech. She
received a Ph.D. in management information systems (IS) from the University of
Mississippi. Her current research interests focus on security and privacy in IS, social
influences on technology adoption and use, combinatorial optimization, heuristics,
and social networks. Her work has appeared in IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary
Computation, Networks, European Journal of Operational Research, European
Journal of Information Systems, and other journals. She serves on the board of
editors of Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence.
PAUL BENJAMIN LOWRY (Paul.Lowry.PhD@gmail.com) is a full professor of information

systems at the Faculty of Business and Economics, at The University of Hong Kong. He
received his Ph.D. in management information systems from the University of Arizona.
His research interests include organizational and behavioral security/privacy issues; HCI
and decision sciences; e-commerce and supply chains; and scientometrics. He has pub-
lished numerous studies in Information System Research, Journal of Management
Information Systems, MIS Quarterly, and others. He is the coeditor in chief of AIS-
Transactions on Human–Computer Interaction and serves as a senior editor and associate
editor of several journals
LINDA WALLACE (wallacel@vt.edu) is an associate professor and the John & Angela
Emery Junior Faculty Fellow in the Department of Accounting and Information
Systems at Virginia Tech. She received her Ph.D. in computer information systems
from Georgia State University. Her research interests include online communities,
software project risk, information security, crowdfunding, and fitness technologies.
Her work has been accepted for publication in Decision Sciences, Communications
of the ACM, Information and Management, IEEE Security and Privacy, and others.
She is an associate editor of Information Systems Journal and Decision Sciences.
MERRILL WARKENTIN (m.warkentin@msstate.edu) is the James J. Rouse Professor of

Information Systems in the College of Business at Mississippi State University. His
work, primarily on the impacts of organizational, contextual, and dispositional influ-
ences on individual behaviors in the context of information security and privacy, has
appeared in MIS Quarterly, Decision Sciences, Journal of the AIS, European Journal of
Information Systems, and others. He is also the author or editor of seven books. He has
served as associate or senior editor for several journals. His work has been funded by
NATO, NSF, NSA, DoD, Homeland Security, IBM, and others.
Journal of Management Information Systems / 2017, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 560–596.
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN 0742–1222 (print) / ISSN 1557–928X (online)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2017.1334496
EFFECT OF BELONGINGNESS ON OCD IN ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKS 561
ABSTRACT: Online social networks (OSNs) continue to have a transformative influ-

ence on how people socialize, partially because they help facilitate social contact that
is crucial to fulfilling an innate need to belong. However, there is increasing
evidence that some users suffer from OSN addiction, expressed as OSN obsessive-
compulsive disorder (OCD). Using the need-to-belong theory as our foundation, we
seek a deeper understanding of the relationship between OSN belongingness and
OSN OCD by examining the effects that OSN-specific uses and gratifications
(U&Gs) and negative emotions have on it. We find that OSN belongingness is
positively associated with use of the OSN to gratify needs for purposive value, self-
discovery, maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, social enhancement, and
entertainment value. However, gratification of only the purposive value and social
enhancement needs increases the likelihood of OSN OCD. Furthermore, we find that
while OSN belongingness decreases the likelihood of OSN envy and anxiety, it
slightly increases the likelihood of OSN fear of missing out; notably, all three of
these negative emotions drive OSN OCD. Our findings indicate that healthy socia-
lization use by well-adjusted individuals decreases OSN OCD risks, but those
experiencing unstable emotional responses or unhealthy socialization on the OSN
should avoid use.
KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: Facebook, need-to-belong theory, obsessive-compulsive

disorder, online addiction, online belongingness, online social networks, social net-
work sites, uses and gratifications theory.
Online social networks (OSNs) (aka “social networking sites”) enable individuals to
maintain social connections, make new connections, and interact with others who
may have similar interests [19, 83, 143]. OSNs are relatively new, but within a short
time, they have revolutionized socialization by opening a new world of commu-
nication possibilities across a wide array of technologies. Facebook is the most
popular OSN worldwide. As of December 2016, Facebook reported 1.23 billion
daily active users and 1.86 billion monthly active users [33]. Given its popularity, it
is not surprising that researchers have found Facebook has the potential to influence
the socialization processes of its users considerably, including changing the way they
communicate and associate with one another [9, 25, 32, 103, 108, 125, 131].
Social psychology research indicates that all humans have a desire for a minimum
number of healthy relationships with others [6], a phenomenon referred to as the need to
belong. One means of maintaining healthy relationships with others is frequent social
contact [6], which OSNs facilitate. In the current study, we use the term OSN belong-
ingness to refer to feelings of connectedness or togetherness derived from individuals’
friends on an OSN [42]. Research shows that people have a strong desire for social
contact reflective of the need to belong [48], and studies indicate that the “need to
interact with others” is a primary reason for younger people’s social media use [1, p.
248]. OSN use “grants people enjoyable feelings of affiliation, belonging, and social
support; similar to face-to-face contexts, they engage in social interactions and develop
interpersonal relationships by sharing personal information” [143, p. 240]. Thus, feel-
ings of belongingness are desired and bring pleasure to individuals; however, such
562 JAMES, LOWRY, WALLACE, AND WARKENTIN
desires taken too far can become maladaptive, resulting in addictive disorders such as
OSN obsessive-compulsive disorder (OSN OCD). In fact, one study found that indivi-
duals had difficulty resisting the desire to use media (e.g., OSN, e-mail, Web surfing,
television), even suggesting that “media-consumption behaviors might . . . turn into
strong habits or forms of pathological media abuse” and stating that “whether under-
regulation of media use causes serious problems for modern Westerners is an intriguing
issue” [48, p. 587].
For these reasons, our study grounds its theoretical model on the relationship
between OSN belongingness and OSN OCD, a manifestation of addiction.
Indications of OSN addiction and OCD have been reported in previous research.
In one study where subjects were asked to “unplug” from all media for one day, a
subject wrote [88, p. 1]: “I think that was one hour and I wanted to turn on my
computer and see what’s going on in Facebook and Twitter. Between 4 and 6 pm it
was horrible. I couldn’t focus on my study. Even in my dreams I see myself chatting,
using Skype, Twitter and adding people on Facebook.” Previous research indicates
that “reducing and jeopardizing academic, social, and recreational activities are
considered as criteria for substance dependence and may thus be considered as
valid criteria for behavioral addictions, such as SNS [social networking site] addic-
tion” [62, p. 3538]. Subjects participating in the “unplug” study also used the words
“obsessed” and “addicted” and suggested they felt socially disconnected. For exam-
ple, one wrote “I’m so obsessed with checking my cell phone and my Facebook and
the New York Times Web site that I lose track of the people who are physically with
me sometimes” [88, p. 1]. Another wrote “From my lack of social networking I had
no idea what people were up to, no idea what was happening and generally didn’t
know what to do with myself. I even found myself thinking of status’s I could put if
I was to go on” [88, p. 1].
Behavioral online addictions—such as online gambling, Internet addiction, Internet
gaming addiction—are starting to be recognized, along with their similarities to
substance abuse disorders [49, 126]. However, only gambling is currently included
in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) [2, 8].
The DSM-5 also suggests that Internet gaming disorder is a condition that should be
further studied for possible future inclusion [2, 8]. Internet addiction has been written
about rather extensively [7, 8, 15, 24, 43, 63, 140], but recently researchers have
suggested that it may not be “simply the use of the Internet that is potentially
addictive, but rather involvement in specific online activities” [49, p. 2080]. In fact,
many researchers have focused their investigations on OSN addiction (sometimes
referred to as social media or Facebook addiction) [4, 44, 45, 49, 55, 62, 66, 107, 111,
126, 127]. What is commonly noted is that these behavioral addictions “share defining
features of substance dependence, including excessive use, tolerance, withdrawal and
negative repercussions from use” [49, p. 2079].
OSN addiction has been defined as “a failure to regulate usage, which leads to
negative personal outcomes” [107, p. 133]. In the information systems (IS) literature,
technology addiction has been defined as “a user’s maladaptive psychological state of
dependency on IT [information technology] use which is manifested through an
obsessive pattern of IT-seeking and IT-use behaviors that take place at the expense of
other important activities” [127, p. 514].1 Technology addiction, of which OSN addic-
tion is a subtype, is important to study because such maladaptive use results in
individuals experiencing negative personal repercussions, such as decreased happiness
and vitality, obesity, death, social isolation, social inhibition, alterations in mood, and
decreased performance at work or school [15, 17, 52, 66, 127, 130, 141, 142].
In our study, we examine OCD on Facebook as a manifestation of OSN addiction.
Specifically, we use an obsessive-compulsive scale originally developed to examine
pathological gambling [93] that was adapted to measure obsessive-compulsive use
of SNSs [111]. We examine the possibility that certain benign OSN uses and
gratifications (U&Gs) (i.e., use of the OSN to gratify needs for social enhancement
or entertainment value) can fan the desire for social contact, causing users to think
about and “check in” pathologically with the OSN (i.e., OSN OCD). Similarly,
certain context-specific negative emotions—such as OSN envy, OSN fear of missing
out (FOMO), and OSN anxiety—can also reinforce the tendency to stay in constant
contact with the OSN, leading to OSN OCD. We leverage the need-to-belong theory
(NTBT) to propose that individuals’ OSN U&Gs and OSN negative emotions are an
outgrowth of their sense of belongingness on the OSN—leading to OSN OCD. This
is an important link because OSNs provide an environment in which neuroses can
fester and a host of desires can be gratified. We test our model with 798 experienced
Facebook users and find strong support for the line of reasoning above. Our study
supplements the literature on OSN addiction by providing a rich model of how
users’ sense of belongingness on the OSN filters through OSN U&Gs and OSN
negative emotions, increasing the likelihood of OSN OCD.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Prior IS research has studied technology addiction through the measurement of OCD,
stating, “behavioral addictions can be captured with measures of obsessive-compulsive
disorder, a closely related concept” [128, p. 1050]. DSM-5 states that OCD is
characterized by the “presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both” [2, p. 237].
Obsessions are “recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images” [2, p. 237] that
are unwanted and that the individual attempts to suppress. Compulsions are “repetitive
behaviors” that “the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession”
and are “aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some
dreaded event or situation” [2, p. 237]. OCD results in negative personal outcomes for
the individual that are not attributable to other physical or mental health conditions [2].
The Yale–Brown obsessive compulsive scale (YBOCS) was developed in the late 1980s
to measure OCD symptoms [41]. The YBOCS was adapted for pathological gambling,
referred to as PG-YBOCS [93]. Turel et al. [128] introduced the PG-YBOCS into the IS
literature by adapting it to examine online auction addiction. This scale was later adapted
by Serenko and Turel [111] for OSNs. We use the latter scale to explore OSN addiction, as
expressed and measured using OSN OCD, as the dependent variable in our model.
Theoretical Foundation, Model, and Hypotheses

Before describing our use of OSN belongingness to explain OSN OCD, Figure 1
provides an overview of our proposed model. The basic premise is that the more
users feel connected to their OSN social group, the more prone they will be to
OSN OCD. We expect this direct relationship to be partially mediated by OSN
U&Gs—such as the use of the OSN to gratify purposive value; self-discovery;
maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity; social enhancement; and entertain-
ment value desires—and OSN negative emotions that increase OSN OCD—such
as OSN envy, OSN FOMO, and OSN anxiety. We also test for possible modera-
tion by the OSN negative emotions (i.e., OSN envy, OSN FOMO, and OSN
anxiety) of the relationships between the OSN U&Gs (i.e., OSN purposive value,
OSN self-discovery, OSN maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, OSN social
enhancement, and OSN entertainment value) and OSN OCD because such
neuroses may enhance or diminish the association between use to gratify a
particular desire and OSN OCD. We also test for possible moderation by users’
personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness, openness) of the relationships between
the OSN negative emotions (i.e., OSN envy, OSN FOMO, and OSN anxiety) and
OSN OCD.
OSN uses & gratifications

(U&Gs)
OSN
purposive value
OSN
self discovery
OSN
maintaining
‘Big 5’ covariates:
interpersonal
H2a (+)
interconnectivity H2b (+) Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism
H3a (+) OSN H3b (+) Extraversion
social Openness
enhancement
H4a (+) H4b (+)
Moderation tests:
H5a (+) OSN H5b (+)
entertainment OSN uses & gratifications (U&Gs) ->
value OCD by OSN negative emotions
H6a (+) H6b (+)
OSN obsessive- OSN negative emotions -> OCD by
OSN
H1 (+) compulsive personality
belongingness
disorder (OCD)
OSN negative emotions
H7a (-) H7b (+)
Control variables:
OSN envy Gender
H8a (+) H8b (+)
Age
Computer proficiency
H9a (-) H9b (+) FB frequency
No. FB friends
OSN fear-of- FB session time
missing-out FB proficiency
OSN anxiety
Figure 1. Operational Model of Hypotheses, Covariates, and Controls

Need-to-Belong Theory
Need-to-belong theory (NTBT) arose from the idea that “fear of being rejected and
abandoned by others” was a predominant cause of anxiety. In proposing NTBT,
Baumeister and Leary state, “the belongingness hypothesis is that human beings
have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting,
positive, and significant interpersonal relationships” [6, p. 497]. They also suggest
that “satisfying this drive involves two criteria: First, there is a need for frequent,
affectively pleasant interactions with a few other people, and second, these interac-
tions must take place in the context of a temporally stable and enduring framework
of affective concern for each other’s welfare” [6, p. 497]. Notably, belongingness is
not a new concept [6]. In fact, it is represented in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as
half of the “love and belongingness need” [80]. They also state it is possible that the
need to belong “is part of the human biological inheritance” [6, p. 518]; thus, this
need is not just socialized but is genetically inherited and difficult to countermand.
For positive fulfillment of the need to belong, people need to have social bonds,
maintained through frequent nonnegative interaction with a small number of others.
Notably, it may be possible to satiate the need to belong with a relatively small
number of close relationships. In addition, the influence of new relationships
diminishes as more are added [6]. Relationships may also be substituted; for
example, if a person ends a friendship, another may take its place and satisfy the
need to belong. Such socialization may be facilitated by an OSN. To feel a sense of
belongingness on an OSN, users must have a social bond with at least some of their
OSN friends. Moreover, the interaction with these important others needs to be
healthy (i.e., nonnegative) to fulfill the need to belong. Thus, if users feel a strong
sense of OSN belongingness, they are most likely experiencing social bonds with at
least some of the other users on the OSN, and interactions with those users are
generally positive.
Not fulfilling the need to belong has many negative physical and psychological
consequences [6]. Research suggests that psychological well-being may be influ-
enced by the connectedness one feels to the OSN social group and that there is a link
between belongingness and OSN addiction and between belongingness and Internet
addiction [87, 122]. It also suggests that OSNs can provide an outlet for healthy
socialization that could have positive outcomes for general well-being, which may
explain their popularity. However, it also alludes to severe negative physical and
psychological consequences if socialization becomes maladjusted [4, 82, 95].
Because the need to belong is innate and its fulfillment is satisfying, then like
other pleasurable activities, the drive to satiate this need could become addictive
under certain conditions.
In our model, we propose a key explanatory factor of OSN belongingness, which
is feelings of social connectedness to others on an OSN. Thus, as the user’s
belongingness with his or her social network increases (i.e., the user feels ever
more strongly connected to his or her social network), the user’s desire to maintain
the pleasant feelings resulting from belonging can ultimately lead to OSN OCD. The
OSN environment is especially conducive to this phenomenon because OSNs

provide different ways to overstimulate users socially—such as building a large
network of “friends” (many of whom might not be legitimate friends), conversing
with these friends anytime and anywhere, and browsing friends’ activities with or
without interaction. NTBT suggests that people form social attachments with ease
and are highly motivated to do so. In fact, frequent social contact is the only reliable
factor needed to form social attachments, and a relationship without frequent inter-
action does not fully satisfy the need to belong [6]. The OSN provides the means to
accomplish both frequent social contact and to form social attachments.
Additionally, “not only do relationships emerge quite naturally, but people invest a
great deal of time and effort in fostering supportive relationships with others” [6, p.
502]. Positive feelings of belongingness reinforced by the unlimited social stimula-
tion provided by the OSN may lead to OSN OCD. Importantly, there are few
controls on the attainment of social stimulation on an OSN, in which people can
spend as much time and effort fostering their relationships as desired. Many users
have access to these networks of friends on a mobile phone to which they have
continuous access, thus preventing normal limits on such social stimulation (e.g.,
face-to-face socialization may end at the conclusion of a physical social event,
whereas the OSN is available at all times). Some OSN uses can be undertaken in
ways that may go unnoticed, thus preventing normal social constraints that stifle
such behavior offline (e.g., being perceived as overly needy or as a stalker).
We propose that the form the social stimulation takes can be a factor mediating the
relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN OCD. Research suggests
Facebook-specific motives as mediators of the relationship between relatedness
(i.e., belongingness) and OSN addiction [82]. Similarly, we suggest that as users
feel a greater sense of belongingness to their social group on the OSN, the desire to
socialize on the OSN may influence how they employ it (i.e., which needs users turn
to the OSN to satisfy), and some forms of use may indicate those more prone to
OSN OCD. To examine how OSN belongingness is associated with needs gratifica-
tion, we draw from work on U&G theory (UGT) to explore U&Gs on OSNs. Such
an examination of context-specific OSN U&Gs may help determine what types of
OSN U&Gs characterize individuals more prone to OSN OCD.
Baumeister and Leary [6] also point to facets of the need to belong that have
obvious negative implications. They suggest that people will make extraordinary
efforts to avoid the dissolution of relationships, even unhealthy ones, and state that
“people interpret situations and events with regard to their implications for rela-
tionships, and they think more thoroughly about relationship (and interaction)
partners than about other people” [6, p. 505]. OSNs provide a tremendous amount
of social content that can provide fodder for such contemplation. For example,
some OSNs allow people to view some of their friends’ experiences and observe
interactions between people in their social group; such content can easily be
overanalyzed or misinterpreted, leading to feelings of envy, anxiousness, or exclu-
sion. Such OSN negative emotions could drive users to think obsessively about
what is happening on the OSN and drive them to use it ever more frequently to
assuage their negative feelings. In our study, we suggest that such OSN negative
emotions drive OSN OCD and that they may moderate the relationships between
the OSN U&Gs and OSN OCD.
Positive and negative emotional responses to a given situation are driven by the
existence (or nonexistence) of social connections, and social bonds can intensify
emotions [6]. In fact, “actual or possible changes in belongingness status constitute
an important cause of emotions” [6, p. 508]. Moreover, being “unfriended,”
excluded, or misinterpreting social cues on an OSN may mimic belongingness status
changes and could lead to negative emotional responses [10]. Importantly, social
bonds with other users on the OSN may foster emotional responses to content
created by or interaction with valued others. Because research suggests that “anxiety
and general distress seem to be a natural consequence of being separated from
important others” [6, p. 506], healthy OSN socialization may provide a method of
avoiding these feelings—or alternatively, the OSN may become a breeding ground
for maladaptive emotional responses. In our model, we propose that feelings of OSN
belongingness may both mitigate and enhance different OSN-specific negative
emotional responses. Thus, our overarching model, using NTBT as a foundation,
explores the interplay of feelings of belongingness on the OSN with OSN U&Gs and
OSN negative emotions and how this interplay may ultimately lead to OSN OCD.
Belongingness and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Given the assumptions of NTBT juxtaposed with the unique social interaction facilitated
by the OSN environment, it becomes clear how a strong sense of OSN belongingness
could drive OSN OCD. Again, belonging is a core biological need that can adversely
influence the physical and psychological health of individuals if not obtained [5]. An
individual has a need for “regular social contact with those to whom one feels con-
nected” [6, p. 501]. This suggests that as belongingness with an online social group
increases, the need for regular social interaction with that group increases. Regardless of
quantity, social interaction without a social bond (i.e., connectedness) does not satisfy
the need to belong [5]. Thus, in the presence of a social bond, OSN interaction with these
important others is strongly desired because it increases pleasurable social contact. An
unchecked drive to feel the pleasure resulting from belonging can become addictive.
Additionally, OSNs do not have many traditional social (e.g., nonverbal cues one is
being too pushy) or regulatory checks on their use, which may make it harder to catch or
correct maladaptive behaviors.
We thus argue that OSNs can be the breeding ground for addictive behaviors, and
the need to belong is a driver. The OSN environment provides users with unprece-
dented access to the lives of the people in their online social group. Individuals can
access the OSN anytime they desire and can be connected to the OSN continuously.
The OSN provides an extraordinary amount of social information. Prior research
indicates that users’ desire for social connectedness (i.e., belongingness) influences
the ways they use OSNs. Individuals who identify with an online social group,
which includes drawing emotional significance and self-worth from belonging to the
group, have a greater desire to participate in virtual communities and a greater joint
intention to participate in OSN-facilitated team collaboration [112]. The need to
belong has been demonstrated to exert a positive effect on attitudes toward SNSs
[37]. Notably, a study of university students found that users with a great need to
belong were more likely to have addictive tendencies regarding OSN use [95].
Research found OSN belongingness to be distinct from offline belongingness and
discovered that feelings of social connectedness could lead to positive outcomes,
such as reduced depression and anxiety and increased satisfaction with life [42].
These findings suggest that feelings of social acceptance, belongingness, or con-
nectedness on an OSN are possible and can be positive.
We argue that traditional obstacles to constant socialization present in the offline
context are less likely to obstruct the pursuit of pleasurable feelings from social
acceptance, belongingness, or connectedness in an online context (i.e., OSN). For
example, an OSN is available at all times and users can access some features of
certain OSNs without notice and as frequently as desired; whereas in the offline
environment, social events have fixed times and locations, and people disperse at the
end of the event until the next gathering. Although OSN belongingness may result in
positive outcomes, we suggest that the drive to obtain the pleasurable feelings
generated from such connectedness to one’s online social group may become
maladaptive in some people, resulting in OSN OCD. Belongingness thus leads to
a desire for regular social contact and inspires happiness, which can lead to OSN
OCD to perpetuate the positive feelings. OSNs also provide an environment con-
ducive to addictive behaviors, and the general need to belong has been found to be
associated with addictive OSN tendencies. Thus,
Hypothesis 1: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with OSN

OCD.
UGT and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Here, we further ground our NTBT-based model in UGT to explain how people with
a high level of OSN belongingness are motivated to use the OSN to gratify certain
pleasurable desires. Research shows that people are motivated to use OSNs for many
reasons (e.g., to maintain relationships, to seek information, or to relax) [21, 54,
107]. Katz et al. [56] indicate that UGT research on media is concerned with “(1) the
social and psychological origins of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4)
the mass media or other sources, which lead to (5) differential patterns of media
exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in (6) need gratifications and
(7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones” [56, p. 510]. Following
their framework, we isolate OSN belongingness as our psychological origin of
needs, which influences OSN U&Gs (i.e., OSN purposive value, OSN self-discov-
ery, OSN maintaining interpersonal connectivity, OSN social enhancement, OSN
entertainment value) and OSN negative emotions (i.e., OSN FOMO, OSN envy, and
OSN anxiety) that we suggest lead to increased OSN OCD.
Researchers have examined OSNs and addiction through motivations for OSN
use, negative consequences of OSN use, emotions, OSN use patterns, and person-
alities of OSN users [62]. Whereas we focus on the first three, we include the last
two as controls to test our model robustly. In our study, we adopt the five OSN
U&Gs specified by Cheung et al. [22] and defined in Table 1 —OSN purposive
value, OSN self-discovery, OSN maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, OSN
social enhancement, and OSN entertainment value. We suggest that they drive OSN
OCD because they are extremely motivating reasons for use, likely resulting from
strong feelings of belongingness to the OSN that may encourage users to return
more and more frequently to the OSN.
Predicting Relationships with OSN U&Gs

Previous research categorizes OSN U&Gs commonly found in the literature as
entertainment, information-seeking, self-presentation, escapism, socializing, and
meeting new people [20, 57, 82, 94, 118]. We use a preexisting scale [22] that
measures five OSN U&Gs that encompass most of these motives (see Table 1).
Previous research links belongingness, U&Gs, and OSN addiction. Importantly, a
study found support for the mediation of the relationship between belongingness and
OSN addiction by some U&Gs [82]. This suggests that belongingness may influence
OSN U&Gs and that these OSN U&Gs may in turn affect OSN OCD. The same
study found that the use motives of self-presentation and meeting new people were
associated with increases in OSN addiction. The authors tested only the “self-
presentation” and “meeting new people” motives in a mediated model and found a
lack of belongingness increased these two use motivations, which is logical given
the focus of these two use motivations on recruiting new friends. Previous research
associates belongingness or the need to belong with use of, participation on, and
Table 1. Source of Items
OSN U&Gs Definitions from Cheung et al. [22, p. 1338]

OSN purposive value “Value derived from accomplishing some pre-determined
informational and instrumental purpose”
OSN self-discovery “Understanding and deepening salient aspects of one’s
self through social interactions”
OSN maintaining interpersonal “Social benefits derived from establishing and maintaining
interconnectivity contact with other people such as social support,
friendship, and intimacy”
OSN social enhancement “Value that a participant derives from gaining acceptance
and approval of other members, and the enhancement
of one’s social status within the community on account
of one’s contribution to it”
OSN entertainment value “Fun and relaxation through playing or otherwise
interacting with others”
continuance on OSNs [58, 65, 67, 69, 91] but not directly with increases in
particular motives or uses. Our set of OSN U&Gs is more comprehensive and less
focused on making new friends. Thus, we posit that positive socialization with
friends (i.e., feelings of belongingness with the social group) while using the OSN
will increase the likelihood of any use, especially when the social aspect could make
the activity more rewarding. We argue that the social aspect could make any of the
five OSN U&Gs we are testing more rewarding and therefore we expect to find a
positive relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN purposive value, OSN
self-discovery, OSN maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, OSN social
enhancement, and OSN entertainment value. Thus,
Hypotheses 2a–6a: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with

OSN use (H2a) to satisfy purposive value, (H3a) self-discovery, (H4a) main-
taining interpersonal relationships, (H5a) social enhancement, and (H6a)
entertainment value needs.
Research on the influence of U&Gs on OSN use links several different U&Gs to
intention to use OSNs, frequency of OSN use, and OSN addiction (sometimes
referred to as problematic OSN use). Researchers found the OSN U&Gs of
maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, social enhancement, and entertainment
value increase individuals’ joint intention to use the OSN [22]. Using UGT,
researchers discovered a link between socialization, relationship building, and
addiction on a Chinese SNS called Xiaonei.com [134]. Researchers also discov-
ered links between relationship building, self-presentation, diversion, and “proble-
matic SNS use,” which they described as “users’ compulsive behaviors and
excessive form of use on SNSs” [20, p. 806]. Narcissism has greatly increased
among younger generations of “digital natives,” and prior research shows a strong
relationship between using Facebook for social impression management and com-
pulsive disorders [105]. Other research links entertainment gratifications and
addiction [51]. The desire to relax, play, pass time, and so on is prevalent in
most work on systems-use motivations [26, 50, 73, 101, 138, 139].
Satisfying social connection gratifications and the desire to surveil one’s peers
have also been demonstrated to increase OSN frequency of use [54]. Another study
showed that excessive time commitment (time on Facebook ranging from 10
minutes to 70 hours and 15 minutes per week with an average of 7 hours per
week) and social motivation to use Facebook lead to OSN addiction [59]. Research
has linked virtual community, monetary compensation, diversion, and personal
status gratifications to Internet addiction tendencies [119]. Entertainment, escape,
caring for others, and seeking excitement are also shown to be associated with
Internet addiction [57]. Thus, interconnectivity or relationship building, social
enhancement or self-presentation, and entertainment or diversion have all been
linked to OSN use or addiction. We have no compelling reason to suggest that
any of the OSN U&Gs will not predict OSN OCD, and thus we hypothesize a
positive relationship between all the OSN U&Gs and OSN OCD:
Hypotheses 2b–6b: A user’s OSN use (H2b) to satisfy purposive value, (H3b)
self-discovery, (H4b) maintaining interpersonal relationships, (H5b) social
enhancement, and (H6b) entertainment value needs is positively associated
with OSN OCD.
Negative Emotions and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

OSN addiction has been examined using motivations for OSN use, negative con-
sequences of OSN use, OSN use patterns, personalities of OSN users, and emotions
[62]. Going forward, we will examine three negative emotions from the literature
that have been used in technology contexts and could be influenced by a strong
sense of belongingness to the OSN: OSN envy, OSN FOMO, and OSN anxiety. We
also suggest that these OSN negative emotions can lead to increased OSN OCD.
Negative emotions discussed in association with OSN use in prior literature include
mood swings [123], low self-esteem [132], jealousy [98], anxiety [36], envy [60,
61], FOMO [60, 102], loneliness, and depression [64]. NTBT also specifically links
belongingness and emotions:
Many of the strongest emotions people experience, both positive and negative,
are linked to belongingness. Evidence suggests a general conclusion that being
accepted, included, or welcomed leads to a variety of positive emotions (e.g.,
happiness, elation, contentment, and calm), whereas being rejected, excluded
or ignored leads to potent negative feelings (e.g., anxiety, depression, grief,
jealousy, and loneliness). [6, p. 508]
Moreover, a core function of emotional change is “to regulate behavior so as to form

and maintain social bonds” [6, p. 508]. Thus, social satisfaction and feelings of OSN
belongingness may reduce negative emotional responses driven by dissatisfaction
with social relationships, while increasing emotional responses driven by fears of
losing social contact.
Predicting Relationships with OSN Envy
Envy can be defined as “the feelings aroused when one person desires another’s
advantage” [117, p. 1008]. Jealousy is a related concept but involves a third person
as a rival to whom an individual could lose a (usually romantic) partner. Envy
involves only two people—one who covets what another has (possessions or
experiences). In our context, we define OSN envy as a negative emotion resulting
from OSN use in which a user covets the possessions or life experiences of another
person who belongs to the same social network [61, 117], regardless of whether the
user knows him or her personally.
Envy has been linked to upward social comparisons (i.e., comparisons to those
perceived as one’s betters), to the relevance of the condition or object being envied,
and to the similarity of the two individuals [61, 109, 116]. It has been suggested that
OSNs provide an environment of similar others rich in information for social
comparison where others often invoke positive self-presentation management (i.e.,

showcase their best faces), which would encourage OSN envy [61]. However, it is
argued that envy is an emotional response associated with “unsatisfactory relational
states” [34, p. 172]. A high sense of OSN belongingness should signal satisfactory
relationships, and therefore may reduce the likelihood of OSN envy. However, a
lower sense of OSN belongingness is likely suggestive of less rewarding socializa-
tion, possibly even feelings of not fitting in or social rejection that may lead to an
environment more conducive to upward social comparisons and OSN envy.
For those individuals who feel less accepted on the OSN, OSNs provide a wealth
of information to use for social comparison. Prior research finds that those prone to
OSN envy consume large amounts of social information to fuel such social compar-
isons, which would indicate a need to use the OSN frequently to obtain this
information. Research also shows that users who “lurk” (i.e., spent a lot of time
browsing social information, which provides information for social comparison,
rather than posting information themselves) are more likely to feel envy, which in
turn decreases their life satisfaction [60].
In addition, OSNs provide a platform for users to manage their self-presentation in a
way that flatters them the most, if desired. Thus, many people project an idealized
version of themselves on an OSN [39]. Indeed, research shows that OSNs are an ideal
medium for attention-seeking narcissists because they are able to exaggerate their self-
importance, overstate their accomplishments and enjoyment of life, blatantly show off,
and even selectively show or alter photographs to make themselves look better [12].
Such narcissists tend to be the heaviest users of and contributors to OSN sites [12,
135]. If the individual’s goal is to “maintain appearances” to be in line with desired
group norms and therefore he or she uses a plethora of possibly overoptimistic social
information on OSNs for social comparison, OSN OCD may result.
We propose that those who feel a strong sense of belongingness to the OSN,
indicative of healthy socialization, will be less prone to OSN envy. Individuals
experiencing OSN envy are more likely to use the OSN to fuel the negative emotion
by attaining social information to make social comparisons and may be more likely
to exhibit OSN OCD. Therefore,
Hypothesis 7a: A user’s OSN belongingness is negatively associated with OSN
envy.
Hypothesis 7b: A user’s OSN envy is positively associated with OSN OCD.
Predicting Relationships with OSN Fear-of-Missing-Out

FOMO can be defined as the “pervasive apprehension that others might be having
rewarding experiences from which one is absent” [102, p. 1841]. In our context, we
define OSN FOMO as a negative consequence of OSN use, in which users feel the
disruptive apprehension that they will miss either social announcements or social
events unless they frequently monitor their OSNs.
FOMO is not a minor problem. Research suggests that FOMO, combined with the
wide array of readily available communication technologies, may distract individuals
from real extemporaneous social experiences in the physical world [129]. FOMO can
even lead to automobile accidents because individuals may feel they must check their
digital device while driving to ensure they do not miss out on anything [129]. FOMO is
also associated with perceived low social rank, which can lead to feelings of inferiority
and general unhappiness [102, 137]. Research suggests that FOMO can negatively
impact an individual’s psychological health and even lead to depression [102].
OSNs can be an especially problematic source of FOMO because they provide an
efficient means for establishing a constant connection with current activities and a
greater number of social connections online, which exacerbates the problem [102].
Ironically, FOMO may be responsible for much of the success of OSNs because
users rely on the technology to keep up with events [47].
OSN FOMO can be viewed as separation from the OSN manifesting as a fear of
being excluded—purposefully or not. Thus, as OSN belongingness increases, users
will be more likely to experience FOMO on social interactions that could arouse
pleasant feelings. Furthermore, because the primary way to try to relieve OSN
FOMO is to check in on an OSN, OSN FOMO is a highly likely predictor of
OSN OCD. Thus,
Hypothesis 8a: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with OSN

FOMO.
Hypothesis 8b: A user’s OSN FOMO is positively associated with OSN OCD.
Predicting Relationships with OSN Anxiety

Anxiety generally refers to an unpleasant state of mind that involves feelings of
worry, stress, uneasiness, and dread concerning a perceived future threat [110].
Anxiety should not be conflated with fear, which is more situation-specific invol-
ving negative cognitive, affective, and physical responses to a real or imagined
danger to oneself [11]. Social anxiety is stress or anxiety created by social pressures
[16]. We thus define OSN anxiety as feelings of worry and stress related to the social
pressures of OSN use.2
Although we are investigating OSN anxiety, the original proposition of the need to
belong was that the leading cause of general anxiety was concerns related to social
exclusion [5]. Thus, stable social relationships should minimize anxiety. Lowered
trait anxiety for women who experienced higher levels of belongingness was found
[68]. More recently, a study reported that a strong sense of social belongingness or
connectedness on an OSN was associated with less anxiety and depression and
greater satisfaction with life [42]. Therefore, we would expect a strong sense of OSN
belongingness to decrease OSN anxiety.
Conversely, OCD is associated with anxiety because obsessive behaviors are often
an attempt to assuage anxiety. Compulsions are defined as “repetitive behaviors” that
“the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession” and are “aimed
at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or

situation” [2, p. 237]. For example, anxious individuals may be relying on the OSN
to boost self-esteem through social approval, such as posts being “liked” on
Facebook. Research shows that online feedback can contribute to self-esteem;
however, users can become dependent on such feedback, leading to addiction [32,
62, 132]. Studies on Facebook users have also related both general and technology-
related anxiety with compulsive use [59, 64, 105]. For this reason, we posit that as
OSN anxiety increases, OSN OCD will also increase. Therefore,
Hypothesis 9a: A user’s OSN belongingness is negatively associated with OSN

anxiety.
Hypothesis 9b: A user’s OSN anxiety is positively associated with OSN OCD.
Considering the Negative Emotions as Moderators

There are some obvious links between the OSN U&Gs and the OSN negative
emotions. For example, we argue that OSN envy will lead to increased OSN OCD
because those who envy will more frequently check the OSN to update social
comparison information, and we suggest that narcissists who are likely motivated
to use the OSN for social enhancement are prime candidates for such behavior. Thus,
one might expect high levels of OSN envy to amplify the relationship between OSN
social enhancement use and OSN OCD.
Although we can logically describe how the OSN negative emotions might
moderate the relationships between the OSN U&Gs and OSN OCD, we do not
have the literature support to form separate hypotheses for the moderation of the
relationships between every OSN U&G and OSN OCD by each of our OSN
negative emotions. In general, we would expect OSN negative emotions to amplify
the relationships between the OSN U&Gs and OSN OCD, following such logic as
given in the example above. Thus, to robustly explore these links, we test all
possible interactions between the OSN U&Gs that are found to have a significant
relationship with OSN OCD and all the OSN negative emotions in our model.
Considering the Big-5 Personality Model Traits as Covariates and

Moderators
Although the focus of the current study is on the relationship between OSN
belongingness and OSN OCD, exploratory research suggests that personality may
play a role in OSN addiction [62]. To provide a robust model, we therefore
considered the most frequently used personality traits in psychology research and
used them as covariates. We used the five-factor model of personality, which is also
known as the Big-5 personality model [29, 30, 40].
Research has investigated the relationship between people’s personality traits and
their OSN use (e.g., [3, 28, 89, 106, 108, 136]). However, this research centers on
use characteristics (e.g., frequency of use, size of social network) rather than on
actual OSN OCD. For example, a person can have high frequency of use but not
experience OSN OCD, so these should not be conflated. We thus introduce each of
the five major personality traits and briefly explain how they might be related to
OSN OCD. We incorporate these traits as covariates or counterarguments, and we
take no definite stand regarding their predicted direction because we have no
theoretical reason to believe they are more compelling than NTBT, which we believe
is better suited to our context.
The five dimensions of the five-factor model represent a person’s extroversion,
agreeableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experience [29, 85].
Extroversion relates to whether a person typically exhibits factors such as being
“sociable, fun-loving, affectionate, friendly, and talkative” [84, p. 87]. One of the
core components of extroversion is “sociability—the enjoyment of others’ com-
pany” [84, p. 87], and it has been suggested that extroverts like others but that does
not necessarily mean they are likable [84]. Agreeableness measures characteristics
such as altruism, caring, and emotional support. Neuroticism reflects the tendency of
an individual to experience nervous tension, depression, frustration, guilt, and self-
consciousness. Conscientiousness measures the extent to which an individual is
thorough, neat, well organized, diligent, and achievement-oriented. Finally, openness
to experience represents the scope of an individual’s creativity, intellectual interests,
and his or her aesthetic sensitivity [85].
Methodology
Scale Development and Pilot Testing
For our survey instrument, we adapted items from existing social science or IS
literature for all our latent constructs. We used an existing OSN envy scale [61] and
an existing OSN belongingness scale [42], with minor grammatical changes sug-
gested by an expert panel familiar with survey methods consisting of approximately
five faculty and graduate students. The Big-5 inventory is a widely recognized scale
in the social sciences and has been extensively adopted in previous IS literature to
measure the five-factor (i.e., “Big-5”) model of personality [53]; it was used without
modification in our study. The scales for the five OSN U&Gs [22] were also used in
our study without modification. We employed an OCD scale [93] modified by
Serenko and Turel [111] but replaced “this social networking website” with
“Facebook.” The scales for OSN FOMO and OSN anxiety were adapted from
previous scales [102, 124] in a previous data collection. In doing so, we followed
accepted procedural methods [27, 78]. The first step was to employ a panel of 11
content experts (moderate to heavy Facebook users) to evaluate the items to ensure
that they reflected the intent of the study. We provided the panel with the items, and
the participants were asked to comment on both the phrasing and the appropriateness
of the items for the purpose intended. Their comments were then compiled and
evaluated. This process led to refinement of the items, including rephrasing and
dropping a few items. The advice of the experts provided multiple perspectives on
the instrument, which also helps diminish common method bias in later instrument
application [99, 120].
A pilot test of the complete instrument was conducted using Mechanical Turk (mTurk)
during June 2016. We collected 100 responses, and the statistical analysis of the pilot
data revealed an acceptable factor structure. We proceeded with the full data collection,
which included the first 100 responses collected during the pilot, without further
modification of the instrument. Online Appendix A provides the full details of the items.
Final Data Collection

The survey was created using Qualtrics™ online survey software, and the respon-
dents were provided with a link to gain access to it. To reduce common method bias,
the items were randomized [99]. Another approach to reducing common method
variance is to grant anonymity to the respondents so they do not feel it necessary to
gauge the expectations of the survey administrators (e.g., social desirability bias) and
answer accordingly [99]. The final survey was administered on mTurk. The respon-
dents were informed that their participation was voluntary and anonymity was
guaranteed. Behavioral researchers assessing the use of mTurk for data collection
suggest that it is a reliable source for data and may provide more demographic
diversity than traditional methods employing student respondents [13, 81].
Participant Profile
A total of 909 responses were collected, but 10 were dropped because the respon-
dents did not complete the survey. The remaining 899 responses were subjected to
further data filtering. First, it was necessary that our respondents were regular
Facebook users. We used a filter question at the beginning of the survey to determine
if the respondent was a regular Facebook user (at least 2–3 times a week), and if not,
the respondent was redirected to the end of the survey. We filtered out 12 respon-
dents who were not frequent Facebook users.
Second, we used “attention trap” questions to discard responses that were not carefully
considered. This has been established as an effective approach to enhancing data quality
in social psychology [92] and IS studies [71, 74]. Each “attention trap” question required
the respondents to select the correct answer from among several options specified in the
text of the question; the questions are provided in Online Appendix A. We excluded
responses with an incorrect answer from the final data set. The “attention trap” questions
resulted in the exclusion of 89 responses from the sample. Failure of the instructional
manipulation checks in the experiments by Oppenheimer et al. [92], a concept similar to
attention traps, ranged from 14 percent to 46 percent of the participants. Thus, our failure
rate of approximately 10 percent is comparatively low. The final data set included 798
valid responses.
Table 2. Sample Demographic Information (n = 798)
Age distribution Employment Education

18–21 yrs. 51 Employed full time 482 Grade school (K–8 grade) 1
22–24 yrs. 76 Employed part time 143 High school or equivalent (e.g., GED) 84
25–27 yrs. 113 Not employed 173 Some college credit, no degree 182
28–30 yrs. 102 Trade/technical/vocational training 35
31–35 yrs. 137 Associate degree 85
36–40 yrs. 98 Bachelor’s degree 268
41–50 yrs. 125 Master’s degree 120
51–60 yrs. 71 Professional degree 12
61 + yrs. 25 Doctorate degree 11
The gender distribution of the sample was 259 males (32 percent) and 539 females
(68 percent). Age, employment, and education details for the sample are reported in
Table 2. All respondents were based in the United States; this was specified as a
criterion in mTurk.
We also collected data on the respondents’ technical and Facebook proficiency. We
asked the respondents to state how many hours a day they spend on Facebook, how
often they go on Facebook per day, and their approximate number of Facebook
friends. These data confirm that the participants were technically comfortable using
the platform in question. We also used these variables as controls in our model. As
expected, the majority of the respondents reported their computer and Facebook
proficiency levels as intermediate or advanced. Furthermore, the majority of respon-
dents reported spending four hours a day or less on Facebook, using Facebook
multiple times a day, and having more than 100 Facebook friends. The Table 3
statistics indicate that the sample met our target criteria.
Analysis and Results

All model analyses were conducted via partial least squares (PLS) regression using
SmartPLS version 2.0 [104]. PLS is more suitable than covariance-based structural
equation modeling (SEM) for preliminary model building of unestablished models
(such as ours) and is more robust for analysis with less normalized data [23, 35, 72,
96]. Thus, it has been used in a large number of recent, leading IS research studies,
including those involving maladaptive social behaviors online [77].
Preanalysis and Factorial Validity

We carefully followed the latest guidelines on applying PLS to behavioral research [23,
38, 72]. First, we conducted extensive preanalysis and data validation according to the
latest standards for four purposes: (1) to establish the factorial validity of the measures
through convergent and discriminant validity; (2) to establish that multicollinearity was
578
Table 3. Technical Exposure of Sample (n = 798)
Computer proficiency Facebook proficiency Hours on Facebook Frequency on Facebook No. of friends on Facebook
Novice 24 Novice 26 < 1 hour 262 Less than once a week 14 1–30 42
Intermediate 301 Intermediate 225 1–2 hours 353 Less than once a day 70 31–100 124
Advanced 371 Advanced 391 3–4 hours 131 Once a day 142 101–300 309
JAMES, LOWRY, WALLACE, AND WARKENTIN
Expert 102 Expert 156 5–6 hours 29 2–5 times a day 365 301–500 154
7–8 hours 8 6–10 times a day 139 501–1,000 120
8–9 hours 5 More than 10 times a day 68 1,001+ 49
≥ 10 hours 10
not a problem with any of the measures; (3) to check for common method bias; and (4)
to establish strong reliabilities. Our preanalyses, provided in Online Appendix B,
confirm acceptable convergent and discriminant validity through the application of
four established techniques, which establishes the factorial validity of our final instru-
mentation. Three checks, in addition to steps undertaken in the research design, suggest
that common method bias is unlikely in our model. We also examine the variance
inflation factors to find that our model does not suffer from multicollinearity issues.
Finally, we provide three reliability scores for each of our constructs that show that our
scales exhibit strong reliabilities. In summary, the results of our validation procedures
show that our model data meet or exceed the rigorous validation standards expected in
PLS-based analysis [18, 31, 72, 96, 97].
Results of Analyses
We used SmartPLS to analyze our model. The path coefficients, t-statistics, and
p-values are summarized in Table 4. Figure 2 shows the R2 value for OSN OCD and
the path coefficients (and *** = p < 0.001; ** = p < 0.010, * = p < 0.050, n/s = not
significant associated p-values) for all significant relationships. To further assess the
quality and robustness of our results, we checked to ensure that the effect sizes were
strong,3 and had predictive relevance.4 We then checked for mediation and modera-
tion relationships.
Checking for Mediation

The first intriguing finding was that the predicted direct relationship between OSN
belongingness and OSN OCD did not hold in the full model; yet all the predicted
relationships between OSN belongingness and the other social constructs did. This
outcome informed us that the relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN
OCD was not partially mediated by the OSN U&Gs and the OSN negative emotions
as we had expected. Therefore, two possibilities remained: (1) OSN belongingness
has no relationship with OSN OCD, or (2) OSN belongingness has a fully mediated
relationship with OSN OCD.
To determine which of the two possibilities occurred, we applied the Baron and
Kenny mediation check as adopted for staged testing for PLS [72, 75]. Accordingly,
to establish full mediation, a PLS model must adhere to four conditions. First, the
proposed independent variable (IV) must covary with the dependent variable (DV).
Second, the IV must covary with the mediators. Third, the proposed mediators must
covary with the DV. Fourth, when all paths are run in the same model, the previous
significant relationship between the proposed mediated construct (IV) and the DV is
no longer significant. Online Appendix B depicts these outcomes. Based on this, we
conclude that OSN belongingness has a fully mediated relationship (not partially
mediated) with OSN OCD.
Table 4. Detailed Results of Tested Hypotheses, Covariates, and Control Variables
Tested hypothesis/path β t-statistic Support?

Hypotheses
H1. OSN belongingness → OSN OCD (–0.025) 0.649 (n/s) No
H2a. OSN belongingness → OSN purposive value 0.467 15.520*** Yes
H2b. OSN purposive value → OSN OCD 0.161 3.457** Yes
H3a. OSN belongingness → OSN self-discovery 0.404 12.510*** Yes
H3b. OSN self-discovery → OSN OCD 0.009 0.227 (n/s) No
H4a. OSN belongingness → OSN m. interpersonal 0.535 18.584*** Yes
interconnectivity
H4b. OSN m. interpersonal interconnectivity → OSN (–0.028) 0.848 (n/s) No
OCD
H5a. OSN belongingness → OSN social enhancement 0.213 6.065*** Yes
H5b. OSN social enhancement → OSN OCD 0.116 2.891** Yes
H6a. OSN belongingness → OSN entertainment value 0.425 13.544*** Yes
H6b. OSN entertainment value → OSN OCD 0.040 1.197 (n/s) No
H7a. OSN belongingness → OSN envy (–0.236) 6.101*** Yes
H7b. OSN envy → OSN OCD 0.075 2.057* Yes
H8a. OSN belongingness → OSN FOMO 0.089 2.506* Yes
H8b. OSN FOMO → OSN OCD 0.141 3.718*** Yes
H9a. OSN belongingness → OSN anxiety (–0.282) 8.267*** Yes
H9b. OSN anxiety → OSN OCD 0.232 5.891*** Yes
Covariates and controls
Agreeableness → OSN OCD –0.026 0.809 (n/s) No
Conscientiousness → OSN OCD –0.043 1.424 (n/s) No
Neuroticism → OSN OCD –0.033 1.038 (n/s) No
Openness → OSN OCD –0.136 5.412*** Yes
Gender → OSN OCD –0.007 0.256 (n/s) No
Age → OSN OCD –0.018 0.555 (n/s) No
Computer proficiency → OSN OCD –0.057 2.018* Yes
Frequency on FB → OSN OCD 0.110 3.378** Yes
No. of FB friends → OSN OCD 0.029 0.942 (n/s) No
FB time → OSN OCD 0.213 6.185*** Yes
FB proficiency → OSN OCD 0.022 0.726 (n/s) No
Notes: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001, and n/s = not significant.
Exploring the Second-Order Factor Model
Our results shown in Figure 2 and Table 4 indicate that both OSN U&Gs and OSN
negative emotions drive OSN OCD. This finding leads to the question: which of
these categories (i.e., OSN U&Gs and OSN negative emotions) is more salient? We
explore this question by constructing a second-order factor model in SmartPLS using
the repeated indicator approach described in Lowry and Gaskin [72].5 The illustra-
tions of the second-order factor models are provided in Online Appendix B, and
show that the OSN negative emotions are more salient.
EFFECT OF BELONGINGNESS ON OCD IN ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKS
581
Figure 2. Summary of Significant Results of Operational Model Testing

Checking for Moderation

We also tested for moderation for two groups: (1) moderation of the significant
relationships between the OSN U&Gs (OSN purposive value and OSN social
enhancement) and OSN OCD by the OSN negative emotions (OSN envy, OSN
FOMO, OSN anxiety) and (2) moderation of the relationships between the OSN
negative emotions and OSN OCD by the remaining Big-5 personality traits (agree-
ableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness). We tested for moderation
using the bootstrapping method [46, 115, 133].6 The bounds and the indicated
significance due to the presence of zero between them are detailed in Online
Appendix B for each interaction examined in our model, and show that (1) all
three OSN negative emotions amplify the paths between OSN purposive value, OSN
social enhancement, and OSN OCD and (2) openness moderates the relationships
between the OSN negative emotions and OSN OCD.
Discussion
Behavioral addictions, of which OSN addiction is frequently suggested as a subtype, result
in disruptions to the addicted individual’s life and often inhibit their normal functioning.
OSN addiction, as manifested by OSN OCD, has two important features: unwanted
obsessive thoughts about OSN use and compulsive use that attempts to assuage the
obsession. Individuals with behavioral addictions often suffer from many negative perso-
nal outcomes, such as decreased psychological well-being, depression, and impaired
function at work or school. As more people throughout the world continue to rely on
OSNs for at least part of their socialization experience, factors influencing maladaptive use
are important to determine and study. Our aim was to gain a deeper understanding of some
of the root causes and constructs underlying OSN OCD. By better understanding these
phenomena, it is more likely that OSN OCD can be prevented or treated.
OSNs by definition are digital platforms for socialization that provide the means and
opportunity for frequent social contact, and frequent social contact is the way healthy and
meaningful social relationships that fulfill the need to belong are maintained. Because
fulfilling the need to belong through at least a small number of positive, satisfying social
connections is an innate desire; we suggest that in some cases this desire can become
maladaptive, leading to OSN OCD. That is, the positive feelings obtained from the sense
of connectedness from the OSN social group may result in some individuals obsessively
thinking about their OSN (recall our example in the introduction where the individuals
forced to go without the OSN stated they dreamed of it and spent time thinking about
what statuses they would post if they could) and compulsive behavior (e.g., spending so
much time on the OSN that it prevents completion of normal activities).
The foundation of our theoretical model is the NTBT, supplemented with UGT. We
isolated OSN belongingness as our psychological origin of needs, which influences OSN
U&Gs (i.e., OSN purposive value, OSN self-discovery, OSN maintaining interpersonal
interconnectivity, OSN social enhancement, and OSN entertainment value) and OSN
negative emotions (i.e., OSN envy, OSN FOMO, and OSN anxiety) that we suggest lead
to increased OSN OCD. In addition, we explored a second-order factor model to

determine which of the categories (i.e., OSN U&Gs or OSN negative emotions) was
more prominent in the model. Our granular analysis also explored moderation in our
model. Specifically, we tested for (1) moderation of the relationships between the OSN
U&Gs and OSN OCD by the OSN negative emotions, and (2) moderation of the
relationships between the OSN negative emotions and OSN OCD by the Big-5 person-
ality traits. To examine our model’s robustness, we not only included control variables but
also examined the Big-5 personality traits as possible covariates. We tested our model
using data collected from a cross-sectional survey of 798 experienced Facebook users.
Summary of Results
Most hypotheses were supported. We found strong (i.e., large coefficients, p < 0.001),
positive relationships between OSN belongingness and OSN purposive value (H2a),
OSN self-discovery (H3a), OSN maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity (H4a),
OSN social enhancement (H5a), and OSN entertainment value (H6a). These findings
suggest that a sense of connectedness with one’s Facebook friends drives every OSN
U&G we examined. We found strong, negative relationships between OSN belong-
ingness and OSN envy (H7a) and OSN anxiety (H9a) and a weaker (p < 0.050) but
significant positive relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN FOMO (H8a).
These findings suggest that feelings of belongingness with one’s Facebook friends can
reduce feelings of envy and anxiety, which indicates that healthy fulfillment of the
need to belong on an OSN may decrease negative, socially driven emotions.
Moreover, the more connected individuals feel to their Facebook friends, the more
they fear missing out on activities.
Interestingly, we found no direct relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN
OCD (H1 rejected), but we discovered that OSN belongingness is fully mediated in
the model. Thus, it has an important, indirect relationship with OSN OCD. Most of the
mediators in the model were supported. We found strong (i.e., large coefficients, p <
0.010 or p < 0.001), positive relationships between the following mediators and OSN
OCD: OSN purposive value (H2b), OSN social enhancement (H5b), OSN FOMO
(H5b), and OSN anxiety (H6b). OSN envy had a weak but significant relationship
with OSN OCD when the full model was analyzed (H7b). OSN self-discovery, OSN
maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, and OSN entertainment value did not have
supported relationships with OSN OCD (H2b, H3b, and H5b rejected). The results of
the post hoc second-order factor models illustrate that the OSN negative emotions
have a greater overall effect on OSN OCD. Specifically, the betas for the OSN
negative emotions second-order construct are higher than the OSN U&Gs second-
order construct in both the full second-order model and the base second-order model
with only the two second-order factors predicting OSN OCD.
Regarding the Big-5 personality traits, we were surprised to find that only open-
ness exhibited a significant relationship with OSN OCD (we were not able to test
extroversion because of weak reliabilities in the items). Openness was also found to
moderate the relationships between the OSN negative emotions and OSN OCD. The
OSN negative emotions were found to moderate the significant relationships
between OSN purposive value, OSN social enhancement, and OSN OCD. In addi-
tion, two control variables showed positive relationships with OSN OCD: frequency
on Facebook and Facebook time. These findings add robustness to our analyses, and
show that OSN U&Gs and OSN negative emotions are more important in influen-
cing OSN OCD than personality traits.
Contributions to Research and Theory

Our primary contribution is showing that NTBT, supplemented with UGT, is a
strong foundation for explaining and predicting OSN OCD. We provide theoretical
and empirical evidence that OSN belongingness drives the OSN U&Gs and OSN
negative emotions that lead to OSN OCD. This study is also one of the first to
examine OSN U&Gs and OSN negative emotions as mediators of OSN OCD. Our
second-order factor model reveals that OSN negative emotions are more prominent
in explaining OSN OCD than OSN U&Gs. We also explored moderation in our
model, which illustrates that the OSN negative emotions amplify the paths between
the OSN purposive value and OSN social enhancement U&Gs and OSN OCD.
Together these findings indicate that the OSN negative emotions play an important
role in OSN OCD.
Another important contribution is the discovery that OSN belongingness is not a
partial mediator in our model; instead, it is mediated fully by OSN U&Gs and OSN
negative emotions. This result is particularly notable because full mediation is
seldom found, especially in cross-sectional surveys, and such mediation has pro-
found theoretical implications. As the IS discipline has matured, it has increasingly
made use of mediation models to better understand potential causal mechanisms in
theoretical models (e.g., [14, 75, 133]).
Mediation models are a central focus in the social sciences because they enable
researchers to formulate improved explanations of associations by breaking them
down into a chain of causal components, thus fostering causal theoretical model
development [114]. Mediation models have the potential to “identify fundamental
processes underlying human behavior that are relevant across behaviors and con-
texts” [79, p. 16]. Furthermore, once mediating variables are identified, it is possible
to design interventions that efficiently target the variables in the mediated causal
process [114]. Thus, our mediation results will not only facilitate theoretical model
development but also enable researchers to better target the causes and mediators of
OSN OCD through focused interventions.
Implications for Society and Practice

Our findings have interesting implications for society and practice. We discovered
that the relationship between OSN belongingness and OSN OCD is fully mediated
by other factors. That is, a strong sense of OSN belongingness does not necessarily
lead to OSN OCD without the presence of other factors (e.g., maladaptive emotional
responses or certain motivations for use). This indicates it is possible for socializa-
tion on an OSN to be healthy and reinforces results suggesting that OSNs can
positively influence individuals’ well-being by fulfilling their need to belong [42].
Importantly, our integrative model provides findings that start to unravel the condi-
tions under which individuals may experience OSN addiction as manifested through
OSN OCD. Whereas OSN use may have positive outcomes for some individuals, it
can lead to negative results in others. Our study provides insight into what char-
acterizes individuals experiencing OSN OCD.
One interesting pattern that emerged from our data is that feeling connected to one’s
online social group drives all the OSN U&Gs we tested—OSN purposive value, OSN
self-discovery, OSN maintaining interpersonal interconnectivity, OSN social enhance-
ment, and OSN entertainment value. Individuals who feel a sense of belonging with
their Facebook friends are more likely to use the OSN to gratify all the needs we tested
from prior UGT research. This result suggests that individuals whose need to belong is
being fulfilled through OSN use are more likely to turn to the OSN to satisfy desires.
For example, an OSN user with a strong sense of belongingness is likely employing
Facebook to maintain interpersonal interconnectivity, and this user may find the
socialization entertaining or relaxing because he or she feels accepted by and con-
nected to these friends. Interestingly, not all the OSN U&Gs increased the likelihood
of OSN OCD. This is important because it suggests that perhaps some U&Gs are
more likely than others to lead to OSN OCD. For example, pure socialization motives,
where the network is being used to maintain relationships (i.e., the OSN belonging-
ness is driving use of the OSN to satisfy the OSN maintaining interpersonal inter-
connectivity desires), do not lead to OSN OCD.
However, OSN purposive value and OSN social enhancement U&Gs were found
to drive OSN OCD. Cheung et al. [22] did not find a significant relationship between
purposive value and joint intention of a group of people to use the OSN. Our results
add explanatory depth to their outcome by discovering that OSN purposive value is
associated with OSN OCD. The purposive value motive means that the individuals
are using the OSN for more functional outcomes, such as learning, information
seeking, information generation, and making decisions. Relying on a social group
for such tasks may indicate an overreliance on others’ guidance. Prior research
indicates a relationship between impression management goals and compulsive
disorders [105], which our results also confirm given the positive relationship
between satisfying social enhancement needs and OSN OCD. Social enhancement
motives on an OSN may signal unsatisfying social relationships, similar to OSN
envy, self-esteem issues, or a narcissistic disposition. Future research should inves-
tigate these linkages in more detail. What our results indicate is that OSN U&Gs
hinting at possible dissatisfaction with social relationships or socialization disorders
(i.e., OSN purposive value or social enhancement) are predictors of OSN OCD.
Another key contribution of our work is discovering that OSN negative emotions
interacted with the two significant OSN U&Gs (OSN purposive value and OSN
social enhancement) to amplify their association with OSN OCD. All three of the
OSN negative emotions tested in this study significantly moderated the paths
between OSN social enhancement, OSN purposive value, and OSN OCD.
Consider one scenario that could explain these findings: An individual who uses
Facebook for social enhancement by posting pictures of his or herself on the OSN in
hopes that others will “like” or “comment” (e.g., have a reaction) to the pictures.
This person may view the number of “likes” or “comments” as a gauge of his or her
reputational or social influence (i.e., social enhancement through recognition from
others). Our findings suggest that this type of individual is more prone to OSN
OCD, with one possible explanation being that this person compulsively checks
Facebook to see how many people have “liked” or posted a comment on a post as a
way of tracking his or her social standing. Our findings suggest that this relationship
between OSN social enhancement and OSN OCD is amplified by OSN envy. That
is, if the individual using the OSN for social enhancement also consumes social
information posted by others in his or her network (e.g., that individual is looking at
his or her friends’ pictures) and feels envy toward the possessions and experiences of
others, he or she will be even more likely to experience OSN OCD. One explanation
is that this individual sees what another person has and worries that it may garner
more accolades, leading to more obsession (e.g., worry over what he or she posted
not being good enough to improve his or her social standing) and more compulsive
checking of the OSN. This suggests that for certain OSN U&Gs, unhealthy emotions
can further exacerbate the tendency toward OSN OCD.
In addition, all three of the negative emotions users experienced on the OSN were
shown to have a direct impact on OSN OCD. This suggests that individuals’ emotional
states are important determinants of OSN OCD. This finding was further reinforced
through the second-order factor model that shows OSN negative emotions to be the most
prominent category of predictors of OSN OCD. Users experiencing negative emotional
responses on the OSN may want to consider consciously reducing or stopping OSN use
to prevent OSN addiction. Also interesting is the finding that feelings of OSN belong-
ingness actually reduced susceptibility to OSN envy and OSN anxiety, indicating that if
the OSN is promoting healthy relationships, negative emotional responses may be less
common. However, OSN FOMO was positively associated with OSN belongingness,
which was expected. This is not a negative emotional response to unsatisfying relation-
ships; it is concern over missing a pleasurable experience because the individual was not
online at the time the experience was planned or executed. Thus, it is unsurprising that
the fear of missing activities in which individuals want to participate would lead to higher
levels of OSN OCD or that OSN belongingness would drive OSN FOMO. This indicates
that users are experiencing socialization on the OSN that is enjoyable and that they want
to be a part of, but reflects the fact that the platform facilitates such socialization, thus
driving OSN OCD due to the users’ desire to stay connected with their social group.
Finally, although the Big-5 personality traits were not substantial factors in our
model, openness to experience had a direct, negative effect on OSN OCD and
moderated the relationships between the OSN negative emotions and OSN OCD
(i.e., openness diminishes the negative emotional responses on the OSN). These
findings are aligned with prior research on OSN use [106] that found limited influence
of personality factors. One study linked the openness-to-experience personality trait to
“a greater tendency to be sociable through Facebook,” [106, p. 582] which indicates
that this finding may reinforce our previous conclusion that healthy socialization use
by well-adjusted individuals decreases OSN OCD risks, but those experiencing
unstable emotional responses or unhealthy socialization on the OSN should avoid use.
Overall, our findings suggest that healthy socialization is possible on OSNs but
that in the presence of OSN negative emotions—suggestive of unstable relationships
or social neuroses—or OSN U&Gs, OSN OCD can result. This is consistent with
previous research suggesting that emotional instability may result in more frequent
use [28]. Our results suggest that traditional psychological interventions to promote
healthy social interaction, emotional stability, and impression management may be
possible and recommended, especially because our results indicate that personality
traits were not positively related to OSN OCD. For example, to help treat Internet
addiction, cognitive or family therapy or support groups have been recommended in
the literature [90]. The transference of more of people’s everyday socialization to the
OSN environment makes the investigation of factors influencing OSN addiction
extremely important, and our study provides new insight into this.
Limitations and Future Research

Although our study opens possibilities for future research, its main limitation is that
the results have limited generalizability. The scope of our model was restricted to the
prediction of OSN OCD and did not include other negative conditions that may be
related, such as loneliness or depression. Although we argue that OSN OCD is
highly related to these, further research should test these assumptions. We also used
Facebook as our OSN, and although it is still one of the most popular social
networking platforms, it would be useful to examine OSN OCD on other social
media (e.g., Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn) that have different forms and functions to
see if the findings are generalizable across OSNs. Although outside the scope of the
current project, future research could consider the unique aspects of different OSN
platforms to determine if design characteristics influence OSN OCD.
Further investigation is required to consider other cultural environments because cultural
differences are shown to strongly influence the outcomes of technology use [76, 121, 144],
including the use of various forms of social networking (e.g., [70, 100]). Moreover, various
legal differences among countries could influence our model. For example, hundreds of
millions of Chinese consumers use several OSNs designed for the Chinese market (e.g.,
Sina Weibo, Tecent Weibo, Renren, QQ, WeChat). These are culturally isolated and unique
because almost no one outside China uses them because they operate in an environment of
strict government censorship and control, which includes severe punishments for spread-
ing rumors or even mild punishments for having too many followers. Anonymity and use
of pseudonyms have also recently been banned. Such controls could strongly influence
one’s self-presentation online, which requires further research.
Another key limitation is that we used a cross-sectional survey that captured users’
responses at one point in time. Although we were able to establish mediation in our
model, which points to possible causal mechanisms, we cannot claim causation
without further experimentation that controls for the time between cause and effect,
and without an underlying delivery of control and treatment conditions. For
increased realism, it is likely best to achieve such causation through longitudinal
field studies with actual OSN use rather than in the laboratory.
Finally, we cannot completely rule out the potential role of personality or other
dispositional traits even if most of these controls were insignificant. Previous studies
on non–OSN IT have concluded that the Big-5 personality traits influence technology
adoption and use [30, 86, 113]; thus, they might play a role in our context. We used the
official 44-item version of the Big-5 personality model, and thus its lengthy instrumen-
tation might have caused unnecessary testing fatigue, which could have diminished the
salience of these traits. Future research may consider the use of a truncated version of
this instrument. Furthermore, it may be possible that the factorial stability of the Big-5
scales has changed over time, which may necessitate further work on instrumentation to
measure personality traits. It may also be interesting in future work, given our findings,
to explore other dispositional traits, such as narcissism [12, 108].
Conclusion
We proposed a model based on NTBT to better represent the factors underlying OSN
OCD. NTBT suggests that positive and negative emotions are a result of concerns about
social acceptance and rejection and that “one of the basic functions of emotion is to regulate
behavior so as to form and maintain social bonds” [6, p. 508]. Testing our model, we
discovered that belongingness influences OSN U&Gs and OSN negative emotions, some
of which may lead to OSN OCD. We found that as OSN belongingness increased, the more
attractive all OSN U&Gs were to users. However, only OSN purposive value and OSN
social enhancement were found to indicate OSN OCD. Furthermore, OSN belongingness
led to OSN FOMO, which could result from satisfying social relationships and social
acceptance, and OSN belongingness decreased OSN envy and OSN anxiety, both of which
may be indicative of dissatisfying social relationships or possibly concerns about social
rejection. All three negative emotions increased the likelihood of OSN OCD and amplified
the relationships between OSN purposive value, OSN social enhancement, and OSN
OCD. In summary, our results shed light on online socialization and the intricacies of
adapting to social interaction in this environment. As online socialization becomes increas-
ingly widespread, it is crucial to understand both the advantages that can be derived from
new technological options and the disadvantages of converting social interaction to this
platform. Our study provides an important first step in this process.
Supplemental File
Supplemental data for this article can be found on the publisher’s website at
10.1080/07421222.2017.1334496
NOTES
1. Turel et al. [128, p. 1044] introduced a more detailed definition of technology addiction
into the IS literature, as follows: “a state of maladaptive dependency on the use of a
technology to such a degree that the following typical behavioral addiction symptoms arise:
(1) salience—the technology dominates a user’s thoughts and behaviors; (2) withdrawal—
negative emotions arise if a person cannot use the technology; (3) conflict—the use of the
technology conflicts with other tasks, which impairs normal functioning; (4) relapse and
reinstatement—a user is unable to voluntarily reduce the use of the technology; (5) toler-
ance—a person has to use the technology to a greater extent to produce thrill; and (6) mood
modification—using the technology offers thrill and relief and results in mood changes”.
2. Although we use the computer anxiety construct and measurement items as a guide, our
OSN anxiety construct is fundamentally different. Computer anxiety relates feelings of worry and
stress related to the use of the technology itself, whereas our construct explores the feelings of
worry and stress related to the socialization facilitated through the use of the technology (OSN).
3. Following the Peng and Lai [96] guidelines for researchers using PLS, we conducted
post hoc analyses to assess the effect sizes in our model and the statistical power and the
Stone–Geisser blindfold. Effect sizes cannot be estimated from PLS beta coefficients; instead,
a conservative approach is to use Pearson’s r for the supported paths. Table B3 in Online
Appendix B summarizes this analysis and indicates that most supported relationships had
medium to large effect sizes. The relevant effect sizes for r are as follows: small (> .10),
medium (> .30), large (> .50), and very large (> .70).
4. Regarding the Stone–Geisser blindfold, we performed the Stone–Geisser (Q2) test of
“predictive relevance, which tests whether a model can predict data points that are explicitly
excluded. According to Peng and Lai [96, p. 473], “If Q2 > 0, then the model is viewed as
having predictive relevance.” In every case, Q2 was greater than zero.
5. The repeated indicators [72] approach consists of two stages. In the first stage, a second-
order construct is created using all of the items of all the first-order factors. Then, a separate
construct is created for each of the first-order factors and a formative relationship is defined
between each of the first-order factors and the second-order construct containing all the items.
When SmartPLS is run, the R2 for the second-order factor will be 1.0 (i.e., the first-order
factors will perfectly predict the second-order factor). Thus, this first-stage model is used only
to obtain the latent variable scores (LVSs) for the constructs in the model. In the second stage,
the LVSs are used to test the structural model. Using the LVSs as the indicators in the model,
we tested a full model (i.e., OSN belongingness, OSN U&Gs, OSN negative emotions, OSN
OCD, and controls) and a base model (i.e., OSN U&Gs, OSN negative emotions, OSN OCD
only). The path coefficient was higher for the path between the OSN negative emotions and
OSN OCD in both models, indicating OSN negative emotions are more salient.
6. Bootstrapping is the process of resampling from the data set a predefined number of
times and calculating statistical values over all the resamples. Statistical significance for the
loadings and path coefficients in PLS are obtained in this manner. Mediation and moderation
can also be examined in this way, and the approach is advocated because it provides greater
statistical power [46, 115, 133]. To examine interactions through the bootstrapping method, it
is necessary to resample a very large number of times; the recommendation is 1,000 times or
more [46]. For our study, we resampled 2,500 times. SmartPLS provides the path coefficients
for each one of the 2,500 resamples as output. To examine the significance of the interaction
effects using the bootstrapping method, we calculated the interaction by multiplying the path
coefficient for the two paths under consideration for each of the 2,500 resamples for each
interaction of interest. This multiple was then sorted for each interaction. Based on the number
of resamples, a lower and upper bound are calculated using the formula k(.5 – ci / 200) for the
lower bound and the formula 1 + k(.5 + ci / 200) for the lower bound, where k is the number
of resamples and ci is the desired confidence interval (we specified 95 percent). It is then
determined if zero is found between the lower and upper bound of the multiplied path
coefficients for each interaction effect. If zero does not occur in the interval between the
bounds, then the moderation effect is significant; otherwise, it is not.
ORCID
Tabitha L. James http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0143-958X
Paul Benjamin Lowry http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0187-5808
Linda Wallace http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6705-3604
Merrill Warkentin http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7435-7676
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The Effect of Belongingness On Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in The Use of Online Social Networks

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Journal of Management Information Systems

ISSN: 0742-1222 (Print) 1557-928X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/mmis20

The Effect of Belongingness on Obsessive-

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2017.1334496

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TABITHA L. JAMES (tajames@vt.edu; corresponding author) is an associate professor

PAUL BENJAMIN LOWRY (Paul.Lowry.PhD@gmail.com) is a full professor of information

MERRILL WARKENTIN (m.warkentin@msstate.edu) is the James J. Rouse Professor of

ABSTRACT: Online social networks (OSNs) continue to have a transformative influ-

KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: Facebook, need-to-belong theory, obsessive-compulsive

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Theoretical Foundation, Model, and Hypotheses

OSN uses & gratifications

Figure 1. Operational Model of Hypotheses, Covariates, and Controls

OSN environment is especially conducive to this phenomenon because OSNs

Belongingness and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Hypothesis 1: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with OSN

UGT and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Predicting Relationships with OSN U&Gs

Table 1. Source of Items

OSN U&Gs Definitions from Cheung et al. [22, p. 1338]

Hypotheses 2a–6a: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with

Negative Emotions and OSN Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Moreover, a core function of emotional change is “to regulate behavior so as to form

Predicting Relationships with OSN Envy

comparison where others often invoke positive self-presentation management (i.e.,

Predicting Relationships with OSN Fear-of-Missing-Out

Hypothesis 8a: A user’s OSN belongingness is positively associated with OSN

Predicting Relationships with OSN Anxiety

at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or

Hypothesis 9a: A user’s OSN belongingness is negatively associated with OSN

Considering the Negative Emotions as Moderators

Considering the Big-5 Personality Model Traits as Covariates and

Final Data Collection

Table 2. Sample Demographic Information (n = 798)

Age distribution Employment Education

Analysis and Results

Preanalysis and Factorial Validity

Table 3. Technical Exposure of Sample (n = 798)

Checking for Mediation

Table 4. Detailed Results of Tested Hypotheses, Covariates, and Control Variables

Tested hypothesis/path β t-statistic Support?

Exploring the Second-Order Factor Model

Figure 2. Summary of Significant Results of Operational Model Testing

Checking for Moderation

to increased OSN OCD. In addition, we explored a second-order factor model to

Contributions to Research and Theory

Implications for Society and Practice

Limitations and Future Research

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