GED: 7 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS
A. General Concepts and Historical Development
HISTORY OF S&T IN THE WORLD
Ancient Three-Age System - a system of classifying ancient
ages into groups based on tools developmental stages.
STONE AGE
• Weapons made of stone, wood, bone or some other materials
for hunting.
• Neanderthals and Denisovans human species.
Paleolithic Period – Old Stone Age (2.5 MYA to 10,000 B.C.)
• People are mainly hunters and gatherers of food
• Living nomadically in caves
• Used basic stone tools for hunting
• Controlled fire
Mesolithic Period – Middle Stone Age (10,000 to 8,000 B.C.)
• People are still hunters and gatherers of food
• Living as permanent settlers in villages (near rivers)
• Used small stone tools for hunting
• polished, pointed spears/arrows
• Learned fishing and introduced agriculture
Neolithic Period – New Stone Age (8,000 B.C. to 3,000 B.C.)
• People are using agriculture and domesticate animals for
food
• Living as permanent settlers in villages (near rivers)
• Used stone tools in agriculture
• Polished hand axes
• Advanced farming, home construction, and art
BRONZE AGE (3,000 B.C. to 1,300 B.C.)
• Tools and weapons were widely made with copper and
bronze.
• Smelting is a process of extracting metal from involving
heating and melting.
• Sumerians discovered that a harder and stronger metal could
be made by blending copper and tin.
• Different human societies entered the Bronze Age at different
times.
• Rise of states or kingdoms—large-scale societies joined
under a central government by a powerful ruler.
o Sumer and Babylonia in Mesopotamia
o Athens in Ancient Greece
• The Bronze Age ended around 1200 B.C. when humans
began to forge an even stronger metal: iron.
IRON AGE
• Between 1200 to 600 B.C. depending on the region
• Hittites (Turkey) firstly made steel, a much harder metal, by
heating iron with carbon.
• Launched the beginning of mass production and created
major advancements in warfare.
• Persians, first civilization to develop an armored cavalry
completely covered in steel armor.
ANTIQUITY (600 BCE to 529 CE)
• Rise of Greek civilization
• Natural philosophers – first scientists
o Thales - Assumed Earth to be floating in water
o Anaximander - Formulated a theory of the origin and
evolution of life.
o Anaximenes - Suggests that air is the primary substance
o Heraclitus - “change is the essence of all being” and fire
plays a crucial role in the process.
o Leucippus - Introduces the first idea of the atom, an
indivisible unit of matter.
o Democritus - thought that atoms are solid, indestructible
particles that are separated by empty space
o Pythagoras - Recognizes that Earth is sphere
Pythagoreans - viewed the universe as form and
number.
o Hippocrates - Recognized as Father of Medicine
Hippocratic Oath - encourages separation of
medicine from religion.
SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS
o Socrates - Contribute knowledge through dialogues using
the Socratic Method.
o Plato - Coined the term element and established the
Academy.
-Used abstract geometry models rather than empirical
Observations.
o Aristotle - Elements undergo changes when they combine
and have qualities that are based on observations using our
senses.
 § Proposed the fifth element as aether
 § Established the Lyceum
 § Considered as Father of Biology
 § Introduced the inductive method
• Aristarchus – originally proposed Sun-centered universe
(Heliocentrism).
• Claudius Ptolemy - calculated size of Earth and its distance
to the Moon
§ Earth-centered model (Geocentrism) and became
the most common cosmological view until Middle Ages.
• Herophilus – Father of Anatomy
• Erasistratus – founder of Physiology
• Euclid – Father of Modern Geometry
• Archimedes – Father of Mathematics
MIDDLE AGES (476 – 1450 A.D.)
• Also known as Medieval Period
• European history between the fall of Roman Empire and
beginning of Renaissance
• Birth of ideas - many scientific discoveries and technological
advancement.
Early/Dark Middle Ages Discoveries (476-1000 A.D.)
• Slow progress of Science in Europe, rise of Catholic Church
and suppressing
natural scientists’ discoveries
• Islamic Empire became the most advanced civilization
• Agricultural and Transportation discoveries
 Heavy plough
 Horse collar
• Science in China
 Gun powder
 Paper
 Mechanical clock
 Compass - a magnetized needle placed on a
straw floating on water for reliable navigation.
Science and Mathematics in India
 Recognition of zero in mathematics
 Introduction of decimal system

• Arab Science
 Many of the works of the ancients have been
preserved (including Ptolemy’s Astronomy) because
they were translated into Arabic.
 Toledan Tables (by al-Zarkali), a collection of
mathematical tables used to predict the movements of
the Sun, Moon and planets relative to the fixed stars.
 Discovery of borax
 Firstly to synthesize sal-ammoniac (ammonium
chloride)
 Science of anatomy did not progress because
dissection of corpses is not allowed by Islamic law.
HIGH MIDDLE (1000-1450 A.D.)
• Rebirth of Science in Europe
• St. Thomas Aquinas – founder of Scholastic Schools
o Scholastic – Christian philosophers that set out to
absorb the newly gained knowledge of the ancients (Plato and
Aristotle) and reconcile it with teachings of the church.
• Roger Bacon – use experimentation to gain new knowledge
• Many scientists started to question Aristotelian teachings
(Theory of Motion and Earth’s fixity)
• Water Wheel - most important source of mechanical power
throughout northern Europe for many centuries.
• Black Death - 2nd Bubonic Plague Pandemic
-caused by the plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) carried by
fleas living on the black rats.
MODERN AGE (1453 - 1659 AD)
a. Renaissance Period - scientists began to perform many
experiments
• Scientific Method – scientific process based on observation
and experimentation, popularized by Francis Bacon.
• Printing Press – introduced by Johannes Gutenberg using
movable type printing
• Bible – world’s most printed book.
• Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus – discovered Laudanum,
tincture of opium as painkiller
• Tartaglia (Nicolo Fontana) – discovered Pascal’s triangle
and elevation of 45o for maximum distance shot of a canon
• Leonardo da Vinci – known for his engineering of canal
locks, cathedrals, and engines of war.
• He was also known for of physical concepts such as inertia,
and sketches for working parachutes and helicopters.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
• Nicolas Copernicus – successfully proposed the
Heliocentric Theory, published in his book De revolutionibus
orbium caelestium (The Revolution of Celestial Bodies)
• Johannes Kepler – Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion:
- describe a planet’s orbit as elliptical
- the speed at which it travels
- time it needs to complete one revolution around the Sun
• Galileo Galilei – first scientist of Scientific Revolution
- Law of Motion (force causes acceleration)
- Discovered pendulum and thermometer
- Dialogue on Two New Sciences, last published work
- Validated Copernican system using his own telescope and
observations
§ craters and mountains of the moon
§ moons of Jupiter
§ phases of Venus
§ stars of Milky Way
§ sunspots
• Tycho Brahe – first to describe 1572 Supernova and
published the positions of 777 stars
- determined the distance of 1577 comet from Earth using
parallax.
- Believes that Sun and Moon revolved around Earth and other
planets (Geo- heliocentric)
• John Ray – first to use species as the fundamental unit of
classification
• Carolus Linnaeus – Father of Modern Taxonomy
- Modern system of classification of living organisms
- Binomial System of Nomenclature
• Andreas Vesalius – Father of Modern Anatomy
- De humani corporis fabrica (Structure of the Human
Body), the first accurate illustrations of internal human
anatomy.
• William Harvey - the first to recognize the full circulation of
the blood in the human body.
• Marcello Malpighi discovered capillaries
• Blaise Pascal – discovered Pascaline, first mechanical
calculator that used gears
• Evangelista Torricelli – invented first barometer using
mercury, leading to production of first vacuum known to
science.
ENLIGHTENMENT (1735-1819)
• Isaac Newton – formulated the laws of motion and universal
gravitation
- Nature of white light
- Introduced calculus together with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
• César-François Cassini – first national geographic survey,
resulting in the first map produced according to modern
principles.
• James Watt – steam engines
• Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – first to propose Theory of
Evolution he called Transformation, acquired characteristics
gained during an organism’s life and can be inherited by the
organism’s offspring
• Charles Darwin – Father of Evolution, demonstrated that all
living things evolved from earlier forms of life by the process of
natural selection and published Origin of species.
• Sigmund Freud – Founder of Psychoanalysis
- importance of childhood experiences and sex in the
development of affective disorder (Psychosexual Stages of
Development)
- structured model of ego psychology (id, ego, super-ego)
• Alan Turing – developed Turing Machine, basis for the first
computer
- Turing Test - a computer in one room that can communicate
with humans in another room must be able to convince the
humans that it is intelligent.
S&T IN THE PHILIPPINES
Pre-Colonial Period
• Metal Age – significant influence in the lives of early Filipinos
• Developed tools in everyday life (planting, hunting, cooking,
and fishing)
• Interpret movements of heavenly bodies for predicting
seasons and climates.
• Made simple tools and weapons from stone. Which later
developed by sawing and polishing.
• Discovered the use of medicinal plants.
• Weaved cotton, glass ornaments and cultivated lowlands and
field terraces in mountain regions.
• Learned to build warfare boats (caracoa) which also used for
trading purposes.
• Traded with China and Vietnam.
• Counted years by the period of the moon and from one
harvest to another
• With alphabet and writing system, method of counting and
measurements.
Spanish Colonial Period
• Beginning of formal science and technology in the country.
• Spaniards established schools for boys and girls and
introduced concept of subjects and disciplines.
• Established schools
 Colegio de San Ildefonso – Cebu
 Colegio de San Ignacio – Manila
 Colego de Nuestra Senora del Rosario – Manila
 Colego de San Jose - Manila
• Medicine and Pharmacy - Most developed science-based
profession
- University of Sto. Tomas – highest institution of learning
• Development of Hospitals
- San Juan Lazaro Hospital – oldest in the far-east (1578)
• Manila Observatory - Founded by Jesuits to promote
meteorological studies
- Fr. Federico Faura issued the first public typhoon warning
• At the end of Spanish regime, the country had evolved into a
primary agricultural exporting economy.
American Period and Post-Commonwealth Era
• Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly
during the American regime due to:
 extensive public education system
 granting of scholarships for higher education in
science and engineering
 organization of science research agencies
 establishment of science-based public services.
• Promoted higher education in sciences through University of
the Philippines
 Agriculture
 Liberal Arts
 Engineering
 Veterinary Medicine
 Law
 Pharmacy
 Education
• Replaced Bureau of Science with Institute of Science as
primary research center
• Passed the Science Act of 1958
• Established the National Science Development Board
• Recognized National Research Council of the Philippines
Marcos Era And Martial Law
• Mandated Department of Education to promote science in
public high schools
• Training and scholarships were awarded
• Presidential Decree No. 78 s. 1972 – established the
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services (PAG-ASA)
• Other S&T Agencies established
 Philippine National Oil Company
 International Rice Research Institute
 Philippine Coconut Research Institute
 Philippine Council for Agriculture and Fisheries
Fifth Republic
• Pres. Corazon Aquino
 National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA)
was renamed as Department of Science and
Technology.
 Crafted the Science and Technology Master Plan
(STMP1991-2000) aiming to be a Newly Industrialized
Country.
 RA 6655 – Free Public Secondary Education Act of
1988.
• Pres. Fidel V. Ramos
 Significant increase in personnel specializing in S&T
 Crafted the Science and Technology Agenda for
Development (STAND) aiming to improve R&D in the
country.
 Enacted laws for S&T during his term, including RA
8439, Magna Carta for S&T Personnel.
• Pres. Joseph Estrada
 Signed the RA 8749, or Clean Air Act of 1999 and RA
8792, or the Electronic Commerce Act
• Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo
 Golden Age of Philippine S&T
 RA 9637, Biofuel Act of 2006
 To direct the use of biofuels, establishing for this
purpose the biofuel program, appropriating funds
therefore, and for other purposes.
• Pres. Benigno Aquino III
 Recognized scientific researchers
 Gavino C. Trono – seaweed species
 Angel Alcala – marine biology research
 Ramon Barba – induction of flowering of mango
 Edgardo Gomez – national conservation of coral reefs
 Abelardo Aguilar – discovered erythromycin
 Gregorio Zara – invented videophone
 Fabian Dayrit – research on herbal medicine
 Diosdado Banatao – invented single-chip graphical
use interface (for internet)
 Daniel Dingel – water-powered car
 Gregory Ligot Tangonan – research in the field of
Communications Technology
 Fe Del Mundo – invented incubator
 Lourdes Cruz – research on sea snail venom
S&T IN NATION BUILDING
S&T Defined
• Science is the systematic process of obtaining knowledge of
the physical and natural world through observation and
experiment.
• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for
practical purposes.
Importance of S&T in National Development
• Wealth creation
• Improvement in the quality of life
• Society transformation
• Economic growth
Importance of S&T
• Better life
• Information
• Comfort
• Education
• Save time and money
Impact of Technology on Society
• Communication
• Information
• Transportation
• Education
The Role of S&T in Nation-Building
• One of the driving forces of economic growth (Research and
development)
• The Role of S&T in the Developing World in the 21st Century
• Breakthrough in health services and education
• Improve infrastructure
• Determines socio-economic progress of a country
S&T Environment from 1986 to 2016
 Pres. Corazon Aquino highlighted the importance
of S&T in achieving economic progress.
 Established the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) formulating the Science and
Technology Master Plan (STMP1991-2000)
aiming to be a Newly Industrialized Country
 Pres. Fidel V. Ramos introduced laws on
Inventors’ Incentives (RA 7459) and S&T
Scholarships (RA 7687, RA 2067, RA 10612)
 Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo adopted policies
focusing on a national innovation system and
promoted technological entrepreneurship under
Medium Term Plan (MTP 2004-2010).
D. Gov’t Laws, Policies, Projects, and Plans
Government Policies and Laws Pertaining to S&T
• RA 2067 - Science Act of 1958
- To integrate, coordinate and intensify scientific and
technological research and development and to foster
invention to provide funds therefore and for other
purposes.
• National Research Council of the Philippines
- Act as the official adviser on scientific matters to the
Government of the Philippines.
• RA 3589 – Act Amending RA 2067
- No person may manufacture, produce, transfer,
acquire, own, possess, import or export any
radioactive material except in pursuance of a license
issued in accordance with this Act.
• RA 6655 – Free Public Secondary Education Act
- Opened free secondary education and promotes
scientific and technological literacy through Science
for the Masses Program.
- -
• RA 8439 - Magna Carta for Scientists Engineers
Researchers and other S&T
Personnel in the Government
- To empower Filipino scientists, expand the country's
pool of S&T experts, and motivate them to continue
working for the government.
• RA 7459 - Inventors and Inventions Incentive Act
- To empower Filipino scientists, expand the country's
pool of S&T experts, and motivate them to continue
working for the government.
• RA 8749 - Clean Air Act of 1999
- To protect and preserve the environment and ensure
the sustainable development of its natural resources.
-
• RA 8792 - Electronic Commerce Act
- To outlaws computer hacking and provides
opportunities for new businesses emerging from the
internet-driven New Economy
• RA 9637, Biofuel Act of 2006
- To direct the use of biofuels, establishing for this
purpose the biofuel program, appropriating funds
therefore, and for other purposes.
-
• RA 7687 - Science and Technology Scholarship Act of 1994
- Provides for scholarships to talented and deserving
students whose families’ are under socio-economic
status and do not exceed the set cut-off values of
certain indicators.
• RA 2067 - DOST-SEI Merit Scholarship Program
- Formerly known as NSTA Scholarship
- Awarded to students with high aptitude in science and
mathematics and are willing to pursue S&T careers.
• RA 10612 - Fast-Tracked S&T Scholarship Act of 2013
- Aims to strengthen the country’s S&T education by
fast-tracking graduates in the sciences, mathematics
and engineering who shall teach science and
mathematics in secondary schools throughout the
country.
• RA 8293 - Intellectual Property Code
- An Act prescribing the Intellectual Property Code and
establishing the Intellectual Property Office, providing
for its powers and functions, and for other purposes.
MAJOR S&T DEVELOPMENT PLANS
• S&T Master Plan (STMP) - shows the direction and desired
goals of Philippine S&T for both the public and private sectors
aiming the Philippines to become Newly Industrialized Country.
Sectoral Planning Councils
- § Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and
Natural Resources Research and Development
(PCAARRD)
- Philippine Council for Health Research and
Development (PCHRD)
- Philippine Council for Industry, Energy and Emerging
Technology Research and Development (PCIEERD).
Research and Development Institutes
Advanced Science and Technology Institute (ASTI)
- Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI)
- Forest Products Research and Development Institute
(FPRDI)
- Industrial Technology Development Institute (ITDI)
- Metals Industry Research and Development Center (MIRDC)
- Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
- Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI)
Scientific and Technological Services
 - Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA)
- Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS)
- Philippine Science High School (PSHSS)
- Science and Technology Information Institute (STII)
- Science Education Institute (SEI)
- Technology Application and Promotion Institute (TAPI)
Collegial and Scientific Research Bodies
Status of S&T and Plans for Development under President
- National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)
Rodrigo Duterte
- National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)  DIWATA-1 satellite, made by Filipino scientists was launched
- Major S&T Development Plans in 2016
 DIWATA-2 satellite, was improved and was launched in 2018
• S&T Agenda for National Development (STAND  Installed the Zamboanga Doppler Weather Radar System
Philippines, 2000)  RA 11035 – Balik Scientist Program - To give more
 Emphasizes the development and utilization of incentives to returning Filipino experts, scientists, inventors
superior technologies to a level of competitive and engineers who would share expertise in the country.
advantage.
B. STS AND THE HUMAN CONDITION
 Identified investment areas
The Human Flourishing
 export winners, domestic needs, supporting
industries and coconut industries. Aristotle Asks
• Eudaimonia “good spirited” - To describe the peak of human’s
National S&T Plan (NSTP 2002-2020) happiness that can be attained.
 By 2004, contributed significantly to the • Flourishing is the highest good of human attempt to achieve his/her
enhancement of national productivity. goal. It is a success as a human being when he/she achieved it for the
betterment of his/her life
 By 2010, earned niches and become a world  Western civilization tends to focused on the individual
class knowledge provider and user in selected (individual flourishing).
S&T area.  Eastern civilization tends to put community above the
 BY 2020, developed a wide range of globally individual (community-centric).
competitive products and services of high • Science as a Method
technological content.
 Priority Areas for S&T Development in NSTP Science as a Social Endeavor
• Balance possible biases
2002-2020.
• Stimulate problem solving
- Agriculture, Forestry and Natural • Facilitate specialization
Resources • Inspire and motivate
- Health and Medical Services • Divide labor
- Biotechnology
- ICT What are the Human Conditions before and after science and
- Microelectronics technology?
- Materials, Science and Engineering Technological advancements and their effects on Humanity
(Karehka Ramey, 2012)
- Earth and marine services
1. Transportation
- Fisheries and aquaculture 2. Communication
- Environment 3. Business
- Natural Disaster mitigation 4. Medicine and health
- Energy 5. Agriculture
- Manufacturing and service engineering 6. Education

National Integrated Basic Research Agenda, NIBRA 2022- THE GOOD LIFE
What is meant by a good life?
2028
• Moral approval (Socrates)
 Blue Skies (Pure Basic Research) • Pleasures in life (Epicurus)
 Issue-Based (Oriented Basic Research) • Fulfilled life (Aristotle)
• Meaningful life
- Tubig: Water Security (Tubig Ay Buhayin At Ingatan)
- Alert: Clean Energy (Alternative Energy Research Materialism, Hedonism, Stoicism, Theism, Humanism
Trends) • Materialism – comfort, pleasure and wealth are the only highest
goals.
- Likas: Health Sufficiency (Likas Yaman Sa Kalusugan) - Leucippus and Democritus
- Atin: Inclusive Nation-Building(Ang Tinig Natin) - Atomist Philosophers, universe and matter are only made up
- §Sapat: Food And Nutrition Security (Saganang of atoms.
Pagkain Para Sa Lahat) • Hedonism – see the end goal of life in attaining pleasure
- Saklaw: Sustainable Community (Saklolo Sa Lawa) - Epicurus, life is limited, one must indulge itself with
 Policy Research pleasures
- “Eat, drink and be merry for tomorrow we die”
• Stoicism – asserts virtue is happiness
Science for Change Program (S4CP)
- Marcus Aurelius
- People do not have any control must not rely on external
events
• Theism – one or more Gods exist within universe that are omniscient
(all-knowing),omnipotent (all-powerful) and omnipresent (all-pervasive).
- Monotheism
- Polytheism
• Humanism – human beings have right and responsibility to give • Globalization
meaning and shape their own lives. • Communication
- Stewards of creation • Cos-effectiveness
- Have control for themselves and world outside them. • Creation of new jobs

What is the ultimate goal of life?

• EudaimoniaTrue happiness is found by leading a virtuous life and
doing what is worth doing.
• Realizing human potential is the ultimate goal.
When Technology and Humanity Cross
• Television Sets, Mobile Phones, Computers, and Humanity
- Paul Gottlieb Nipknow, send images through wires with the UNDERSTANDING GENE THERAPY
aid of rotating metal disk, “electric telescope” Understanding Gene Therapy
- Alan Arachibald Campbell Swinton and Boris Rosing, used • Gene therapy is a technique that uses a gene(s) to treat, prevent or
cathode-ray tube in television, mechanical and electronic cure a disease or medical disorder.
television - adding new copies of a gene that is broken
- Martin Cooper, made the first mobile phone, Motorola - replacing a defective or missing gene in a patient’s cells with
- Charles Babbage, originated the concept of a digital a healthy version of that gene.
programmable computer • Ex vivo - introducing normal genes in isolated cells from patients
- Osborne 1, first true portable computer, Laptop • In vivo - introducing DNA directly into cells while they are in the
• Roles Played by These Technological Advancements patient.
- Advertisements and information dissemination • Genetic Engineering - It is a process to alter the DNA makeup of an
- Recreational activity organism by changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a
- Propagandas and advocacies region of DNA or adding a new segment of DNA.
- Communication
• Robotics and Humanity Diseased People Cured by Fixing their Genes
• Robot is actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes • CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
with degree of autonomy, moving within its environment, and Repeats) to treat sickle cell anemia
performed intended tasks. • CAR-T cell therapy (Chimeric antigen receptor) to treat ccute
- A service robot perform useful tasks for humans or lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)
equipment excluding industrial automation application. • Lukturna, FDA approved voretigene neparvovecrzyl to treat retinal
- A personal robot is a service robot for non-commercial tasks, dystrophy
• Roles Played by Robot • Spinraza, FDA approved nusinersen to treat Spinal muscular atrophy
- Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) - make decisions in • Diseased People Cured by Fixing their Genes.
near real-time as they go.
- Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) - tracks or predefined Ethical Considerations
paths and often require operator oversight. • Justice and equity
- Articulated Robots - emulate the functions of a human arm. • Informed consent
- Humanoids - perform human-centric functions and often • Genome-Editing Research Involving Embryos
take human-like forms. • Safety
- Cobots - function alongside or directly with humans.
- Hybrids - capable of more complex tasks. Effects of Gene in our Environment
• Ethical Dilemma/s Faced by Robotics • Major risks of GMOs
- Privacy & Surveillance - information privacy and the right to - Risk in gene flow
secrecy and personhood - Emergence of superweeds
- Manipulation of Behavior - vulnerability to “nudges”, - Recombination of viruses and bacteria to produce new
manipulation, and deception pathogens
- Opacity of AI Systems - lack of due process, accountability, • DNA Code
community engagement, and auditing - Genetic code is the set of instructions in a gene that tell the
- Bias in Decision Systems - where and when police forces cell how to make a specific protein.
will be needed most
- Human-Robot Interaction – cannot be replaced by robots: BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTHY SOCIETY
care, love, and sex. The impact of Biodiversity on Human Life
- Ethical Dilemma/s Faced by Robotics • Nutrition
- Automation and Employment - “job polarization” • Human health
- Autonomous Systems - must adapt to or whether they just • Environment-related illnesses
require technical adjustments.
- Machine Ethics - ensuring that the behavior of machines Human Population Growth
toward human users and other machines • 6th Mass Extinction
- Artificial Moral Agents – robots having rights and - The reduction in biodiversity since the emergence of humans
responsibilities is now on the scale of another mass extinction
- Singularity - trajectory of artificial.
What are the top ten environmental problems in the world
SPECIFIC ISSUES IN STS • Pollution
Information Age • Global warming
Historical Development • Overpopulation
• 21st century, also called Computer Age • Waste disposal
• Characterized by rapid shift from traditional industry • Ocean acidification
• 4 Periods • Loss of biodiversity
- Pre-Mechanical – 3,000 BC to 1450 AD • Deforestation
- Mechanical – 1450-1840 • Ozone layer depletion
- Electro-Mechanical – 1840-1940 • Acid rain
- Electronic/Information – 1940 to present • Public health issues
• Clade Shannon, Father of Information Age
Nanotechnology
Living in the Information Age • Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted
• Advantages of Information Technology at the nanoscale (1to 100 nm)
• Richard Feynman, Father of Nanotechnology
• Commercial Applications Top 10 benefits of Environmental Education
- Body armor/vests 1. Heightened imagination and enthusiasm.
- Surface protection materials 2. Learning transcends the classroom
- Solar panels 3. Critical and creative thinking are enhanced
- Food products and packaging 4. Develop tolerance and understanding
- Transdermal patches 5. State and national learning standards are met for multiple subjects
- Bandages 6. Decline in biophobia and nature deficit disorder
7. Healthy lifestyle
8. Communities are strengthened
9. Responsible action is taken to better the environment
• Potential Uses 10. Students and teacher are empowered.
- Energy production Beliefs and Convictions
- Agriculture productivity • Environmental Stewardship
- Water treatment and remediation - Help in forging community linkages for nature
- Disease screening and diagnosis preservation activities
- Health monitoring - Educate people on proper waste segregation
- Food processing and storing - Practice 7R
- Air pollution control - Save energy
- Construction
- Pest detection and control Alternative Energy Resources
• What is Alternative Energy
Climate Change and Energy Crisis - It refers to energy sources other than fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, and
• Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and natural gas) including all renewable resources and nuclear power.
weather patterns. - Intended to address concerns of high carbon emissions.
• Causes of Climate Change
 Natural Causes • Differences between Alternative Energy and Renewable Energy
- Volcanic eruptions - Renewable resources comes from sources that are naturally
- Orbital Changes occurring and replenishes.
- Variation in Solar Radiation
- Movement of Crustal Plates • Sources of Alternative Energy
- El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) - Nuclear power
 Changes in Greenhouse Gases - Wind power
- Sources of Greenhouse Gases - Solar power
• Carbon dioxide - Hydraulic power
• Water vapor - Geothermal power
• Nitrous oxide - Space-based solar power
• Methane - Tidal power
- Sources of Carbon dioxide - Biofuel
• Respiration and decomposition - Hydrogen or hydro-sulfuric power
• Weathering of carbonate rocks
• Burning of fossil fuels and forests • Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources in the Philippines

• How is Climate Change affecting the Philippines?  Hydroelectric Plants

o More intense El Nino - Angat Dam, in Bulacan is the major hydropower facility in the
o Sea surface temperatures to rise Philippines
o Ocean acidification - There are 14 conventional dams and 15 run-of-the-river systems
o Sea levels rise by 4 to 6 meters - Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources in the Philippines
o Tropical cyclones
o Rainfall, river flow and flooding  Geothermal Plants
o Altering agricultural production - Suitable for areas with low winds, such as Mindanao, and areas
o Reduction in crop yields that have rainy weather, such as Batanes.
o Food security declines
o Malnutrition increases  Solar Power
- The country is geographically located in a region that receives a
• Energy Crisis - It is the foreseeable end of the cycle of oil, gas and high amount of sunlight each year.
coal which takes
hundreds of thousands of years to replenish.  Wind Power
• Causes of Energy Crisis - All wind power sites in the Philippines are on-shore facilities and
- Overconsumption are tourist destinations
- Overpopulation  Biomass Power
- Poor infrastructure - Refers to energy derived from plant and animal sources.
- Unexplored renewable energy options - Bagasse, rice husks, coconut husks, as well as landfill are used
- Delay in Commissioning of Power Plants to generate power.
- Wastage of energy
- Poor distribution system
- Major accidents and natural calamities
- Wars and Attacks
- Miscellaneous Factors
• Possible solutions to Energy Crisis
- Move towards renewable resources
- Buy energy efficient products
- Lighting controls
- Easier Grid Access
- Energy Simulation
- Perform Energy Audit
- Common Stand on Climate Change
GED: 8 ETHICS &UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Self from Philosophical Perspective
Philosophers Concept of Self
He believed that the Self
exists in two
parts:
1. Physical (body) –
tangible and mortal
aspect of a person is or can
be constantly changing.
2. Soul – is immortal
A. Socrates “Our TRUE SELF is our
(496-399 B.C.)
SOUL”
-“Know thyself” is to question
oneself and others which is
the highest form of human
excellence
- “An unexamined life is not
worth living”
- “To live but to die inside”
can be the worst thing that
can happen to man.
-The self is an "immortal soul
in a mortal perishable body.
- The soul has a tripartite
nature.
-Soul is the "giver of life to
the body, the permanent,
changeless and divine
B. Plato element.
(428-348 B.C.)
-Body is changing, transitory
and perishable (Book IV of
Plato's Republic). The body
is just a shell of the soul.
-The self is composed of
body and soul, mind and
matter, sense (lower nature
of human person which
dominates person’s life) and
intellect, passion, and
reason (supreme in human
C. Aristotle person which govern all life’s
(384-322 B.C.) activities).
- Theory of Golden Mean
focuses on moderation;
avoid the extremes, avoid
too much and too little.
Living a life of moderation is
doing things in consonance
with reason.
- The self is made up of a
body and a soul, "a soul in
possession of a body' which
does not constitute two
persons but one man."
-Happiness is the end-all
and the be-all of human
living and this happiness can
be found in God alone.
- Virtue is "the order of
love."
- Aristotle's Golden Mean
- Taught against hedonism
D. St. Augustine
(354-430 A.D.)
E. St. Thomas - Proclaimed the supremacy
Aquinas of reason in a human person
(1225-1274) -God, who is TRUTH Itself.
- Aquinas pointed to a higher
Characteristics
Two Dichotomous Realms:
Physical Realm: The body is
changeable,
transient, and imperfect. The
body and soul are attached
while the person is alive.
Ideal Realm: Soul is
unchanging, eternal,
and immortal. When a person
dies, the body stays in the
physical realm while the soul
travels to the ideal realm
which
makes it immortal.
Famous quote: “The
unexamined life is NOT worth
living”
Tripartite Nature of Soul:
a) an immortal rational part
which existed before it
became part of the body
b) a courageous or spirited
part which is
mortal and perishable
c) an appetitive part,
“Life is a continuous ascent
towards the
world of ideas” which means
to free us
soul from imprisonment in the
body.
-He does not neglect the
development
of a human person's physical,
economic,
and social powers.
-Human happiness comes
from the harmonious
development of the whole
self.
- Perfection and happiness
come from
wisdom (true knowledge) and
virtue (doing what is best for
you).
- Every human person is
created into the image and
likeness of God. Every human
person is made for God. It is
only upon his/her recognition
of God's love and
his/her response to the
invitation to love that he/she
finds inner peace.
- To love God means
necessarily to love one's
fellow man.
- Never to do any harm to
another as you would not want
others to do unto you.
- Man craves for something
perfect, immutable, and
enduring. Possession of the
goods of this world such as
health, beauty, power, honor,
fame can never give to a
human person what he/she is
truly looking for, as these
goods are finite, unstable and
ephemeral.
-A human person can know
the truth with certainty by the
use of his reason. There are
some truths which cannot be
form of human perfection
beyond this life because of
the immortality of the human
soul - found in God alone.
- Dualism: self is an
immaterial mind and a
material body.
- One can have ideas prior
F. Rene
(a priori) to experience.
Descartes
-"I think, therefore, I am."
(1596-1650)
-At birth the (human) mind is
a tabula rasa which means
blank slate."
-“Associations of ideas”
that individuals make when
young are more important
than those made later
because they are the
G. John Locke foundation of the self.
(1631-1704) - Emphasized the "freedom
of individuals to author their
own soul."
-"God created man and we
are, [sic in effect, God's
property.
- Every human person has
the right to life, liberty,
health and property.
- Human person has an
inner and an outer self
which, together, form his/her
consciousness.
- Self as prone to corruption
H. Immanuel - Known for his supreme
Kant principle of morality, the
(1724-1804) Kantian Categorical
imperative: "Act only
according to that maxim by
which you can at the same
time that it should become a
natural law."
- Self is an inextricable union
between mind and body.
- Oneness or harmony
between the body and the
world as our being-in-the-
world, that our being is
always an existence that is
in the world.
-The mind and the body are
I. Maurice so intertwined that we
Merleau Ponty cannot even distinguish
(1908-1961) where the work of the mind
ends and where the work of
the body begins.
J. Gilbert Ryle -The workings of the mind
(1900-1976) are not distinct from the
actions of the body but are
one and the same.
- Understanding and
developing yourself is the
distinction of:
knowing how (technical
ability),
knowing that (facts and
propositions)
knowing what
(acquaintance with things
and persons).
known by human reason
alone and which can be
perceived only with the aid of
the light of divine revelation,
can never contradict each
other because they emanate
from the same source.
-Mind is the seat of
consciousness. The body
(which includes the human
senses) is unreliable hence
should not be trusted.
- The rationality and activity of
the mind are at the center of
man's being. To instill virtue
and to give primacy to the
mind.
-The mind is empty at birth.
- Infancy serves as the
foundation of the
development of the self, this
does not mean that individuals
can no longer unmake the
negative effect of not-so-
good earlier experiences.
- Individuals are free to define
the content of their character
except for their basic identity
as a member of the human
species.
- The chief end set by our
creator for us as a species
and as individuals is survival.
- Inner self consists of his/her
psychological state and
rational intellect.
- Outer self is a human
person's senses and the
physical world.
- Live in the Enlightenment
period characterized by
growing secularism and the
weakened effect of religion.
Kant replaced religion with
reason.
-"Everything that we
experience in this world -
experiences of joy, sadness,
love, remorse - happens with
our bodies. There is never a
moment in which we are
separated from our bodies as
if it is a clothing that we can
shed oft."
-We grow and move about in
the world in such a way that
our bodies learn to be in
harmony with it.
- Knowledge shows that the
body is also intelligent.
Conversely, the mind is not
pure spirit, detached from the
material world through its
cognitive activity. The mind
always thinks in an embodied
way.
- The mind is a set of
capacities and abilities
belonging to the body. The
mind is a mysterious entity
that controls the mechanical
workings of the body. The
mind should not be viewed as
an additional mysterious thing
that is subjected to
observation or to mechanical
laws.
-Knowing that (some facts) is
empty intellectualism without
knowing how to make use of
the facts.
- Effective possession of a
piece of knowledge (museum
possession of knowledge)
involves knowing how to use

- Adheres to materialism
-It is the physical brain and
not the mind that gives us
our sense of self.
- Defends his eliminative
materialism
-Decision-making and moral
behaviors are biological
phenomena
- Human behavior must be
explained materially in terms
of "recurrent neural
K. Paul
network” and this is neuro-
Churchland
conscience.
(1942-present)
THE SELF FROM A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
SOCIALIZATION is the whole and lifetime process by which people
learn the values, attitudes and behaviors that are appropriate and
expected by their culture and community.
-It is the process of internalizing the norms of society which
influences one's beliefs, actions, and behavior.
-The process of socialization helps shape a person's image.
According to both Cooley and Mead, the concept of self is developed
through a socialization process.
Philosophers Concept of Self
A. GEORGE -Self is not there at birth
HERBERT - Self influence is restricted
MEAD only to “significant others”
(1863-1931) -Self is also influenced by the
"Generalized other”
that knowledge, when
required, for the
solution of other theoretical or
practical problems (workshop
possession of knowledge).
-Materialism is the belief that
nothing except matter exists. If
a thing can't be recognized by
the senses, then it is not
real.
- the mind can't be
experienced by our senses,
then the mind doesn’t really
exist.
-Eliminative materialism is
when we believe in a mind
when science is proving that
mental health is connected to
the
physical brain? For instance,
depression is strongly linked
to brain chemicals gone
wrong.
-Example: depression is
strongly linked to brain
chemicals gone wrong. Some
people still say things like,
‘She's lost her mind. But
neuroscience says, 'No, it's a
physical problem and we aim
to fix it.
Characteristics
-Self is not based on
inherited traits and other
biological factors. Self is
something which has a
development and not initially
there at birth.
-Self is developed over time
from social experiences
and activities.
-Concept of self emerges
from social interactions
such as observing and
interacting with others
opinions about the self, and
it is developed with social
experience.
- The significant others are
people who play important
roles in the life of a person
such as parents, teachers,
friends and take place only
at certain periods of life.
-Example: younger children
do not really care about
what other people think of
them. They are focused
on their own world. But as
children grow up and get
more socialized, their beliefs
about how other people
perceive them become
important. They gain a new
understanding of society.
-The "generalized other”
act based on personal
beliefs but also on what
society expects of them.
Talks about our personality
as the “I” and the "me”.
-The "I” is the natural,
existential aspect of the
self.
-The “me" is the socialized
me or the cultured self.
-Man develop our sense of -We learn to view ourselves
self or self-image by his as we think others view us.
looking-glass self-theory. - We are influenced by our
-Three steps in the own imaginations or
formation of the looking perceptions or opinions on
B. CHARLES
glass self: how others see us. This
COOLEY
1. We imagine how we means that we are actively
(1864-1929)
appear to others. engaged in defining our
2. We imagine how others self-image or self-concept
judge our appearance using our past experiences
to aid us in interpreting
others responses.
THE SELF FROM AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Anthropology employs a holistic approach to the study of the self.
-Quinn refers to the self as the "totality of what an organism is
physically, biologically, psychologically, socially and culturally."
-Quinn refers to the self as the "totality of what an organism is
physically, biologically, psychologically, socially and culturally."
-Ewing (1990) likewise says, "self" encompasses the physical
organism, all aspects of psychological functioning and social attributes.
Anthropology employs a holistic approach to the study of the self by
integrating various models into a broader framework by considering
what each model brings and by showing the interactions among
them. The physical characteristics of people affect their culture, their
way of life.
Example: because man has two legs and two feet we walk upright. We
don't crawl nor move like quadrupeds (four-legged animals). Our
locomotion is not crawling like the snake but walking upright
on two feet. On the other hand, people's culture affects the physical
characteristics of people. Think of the tattoo that the Kalingas of the
Cordillera Administrative Region have even before this has
become widespread among the present generation who have tattoos
on their legs and arms and in other parts of the body for varied cultural
reasons.
Universals and Variety: Hallmarks of Anthropology
Holistic concept of the self, anthropologists look at the full range of
human people by studying people in all parts of the world, at different
times and at different levels of society. Anthropologists are likewise
mindful that any general theory of humanity must at the same time
account for variety. They are concerned with human universals as
well as human variety. This is the hallmark of anthropology.
Stratigraphic Approach and Reductionism
Division of Self:
1. physical self
2. biological self
3. psychological self
4. social self
Note: There is no integration of the different selves, avoid error
reductionism which means interpreting all observations by reducing the
different self to a single level analysis.
Example: reductionism as an error is committed when Ideas are
explained purely in terms of electron flows in the brain; life is defined
only in terms of chemical equations, and human culture is described
only by biological needs and instincts.
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF AND CULTURE
Culture is the integrated system of learned patterns of behavior, 1deas
and products characteristics of
a society. A person’s culture influences his/her physical being.
People’s physical being also affects the kind of culture they build and
the ways in which they relate to fellow human beings.
Two Contrasting Models of the Self: Egocentric and Sociocentric
Culture exerts an influence on the development of an egocentric and
sociocentric self.
1. Egocentrism but always within a larger interpersonal relation
"natural tendency to view everything within the world in relation to
oneself.
Example: Americans are egocentric, they believe that they should be
assertive and independent.
2. Sociocentrism is the natural tendency to view everything within the
world in relation to one's group and so be group-centered. The
sociocentric person abides by the group and so is highly accepted by
and is popular in the group. (interdependence).
Example: Japanese and Chinese are both sociocentric. Their very
essence of interpersonal relations is mutual dependence.
Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and
practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture,
rather than be judged against the criteria of another.
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's culture is Superior to that of
others.
Xenocentrism is the thinking that another's culture is superior to one's
culture.
THE SELF FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Sense of self (psychology) is defined as the way a person thinks about
and views his or her traits, beliefs, and purpose within the world.
-The self is said to be in constant change. As one grows up, his/her
sense of self changes.
-The self is a multilevel system not simply reducible to genes or
neurons that emerges from multifaceted interactions of mechanisms
operating at neural, psychological, and social levels.
Philosophers Concept of Self Characteristics
The Id, Ego and -Id is the completely unconscious,
SuperEgo impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche
that operates on the "pleasure principle”
and is
A. SIGMUND
the source of basic impulses and drives.
FREUD
It sees immediate pleasure and
(1856-1939)
gratification.
-Ego acts on “reality principle"
-Super ego acts on moralistic and
idealistic principles.
-James Theory of -The Self is the totality of all that a person
the Self can call his or hers.
- Self into the “Me" -"I" (Self-as-subject) is “The thinker that
and into the "I." does the thinking." Pure ego, “I” is the self
- Self is an object that knows who he/she is and what
that can be he/she has done in his/her life. "I know it
observed and a was me who ate the cookie."
subject, an agent -"Me is the “self-as-object." The "Me" is
that does the the material self, social self and spiritual
observing. self can be thought of as a separate
-The Material Self Object or individual a person refers to
– the core of when describing his/her personal
Material Self is experiences, part of self the “empirical
BODY. me”
- Associated with the body are clothes,
family, home, and material possessions.
Everyone pays attention to his/her
clothes because his/her clothes reveal
who he/she is. Clothes reflect a person's
B. WILLIAM
status. Clothes contribute to the formation
JAMES
and maintenance of self-image.
(1842-1910)
- 1. The Social Self – is a person in a
social situation. It is the person given
recognition by others. It is how one
presents oneself in public. Every person
has an innate desire to get Himself
/herself noticed favorably by others.
2. The Spiritual Self - is a person’s
subjective and most intimate self. It is
who a person is at his/her core. It is more
permanent than the other two selves. The
spiritual self includes things like
personality, core values and conscience.
The spiritual self-dwells on introspection
and asks spiritual, moral, or intellectual
questions. William James asserts that
achieving a high level of understanding of
our spiritual selves
is more rewarding than satisfying the
needs of the social and material selves.
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL THOUGHT
Oriental concept of a human person is one integrated whole. He/she is
also one with society and the universe.
Oriental philosophers do not emphasize the dichotomy of matter and
spirit, body, and soul. Everything that happens to the universe affects
man and everything that man does affect the universe.
People are fundamentally connected. Duty towards all others is a very
important matter.
Collectivism is strong. In contrast, for Westerners, a human being has
an individualistic nature and is an independent part of the universe and
society.
INDIVIDUALISM is comparatively stronger.
UNPACKING THE SELF: THE PHYSICAL SELF
Aspects of Physical Self - Refers to the body that includes basic
parts such as head, neck, arms, and legs. As part of the natural course
of nature, physical changes become evident at the onset of puberty.
During this period, some changes noticed among the boys are their
voice gets deeper; hair starts to show on their faces. This develops into
a mustache, as they progress into adulthood. At this period, they
experience rapid growth in a span of two to three years. This is
referred to as growth spurt. Also, during this period, they attain body
maturity when they experience ejaculation, the ejection of semen
through the penis. On the other hand, maturity of the body among the
girls is attained when girls experience
their first menstruation. It is at this stage when they become capable of
reproduction. More noticeable changes occur when the individual
reaches adolescence, the transition between childhood and
adulthood.
ADOLESCENCE STAGE (Corpuz, et. al., 2020)
Early Adolescents would rather tell their stories to their
Adolescence peers rather than to their family.
(11-14 y/o)
Middle The child demonstrates consistency to achieve their
Adolescence goals in life.
(15-17 y/o)
They become more concerned of others rather than,
mainly, of themselves.
-Children notice further changes in their physical self.
- They become more conscious of how they look,
rather than the other aspects of the Self.
- Sometimes, they can adapt to the changes, but there
Late Adolescence
are others who find these changes difficult to accept.
(18-24 y/o)
-Children at this period would need guidance from their
significant others to realize that they should not only
be concerned of their physical self, as they should
value much higher goal that lasts and that is, the
formation of the Positive Self-identity, self-image, self-
concept and self-esteem.
SELF-IDENTITY, SELF-IMAGE, SELF-CONCEPT, SELF-ESTEEM
There are four important concepts related to physical self
Self-introduction, what usually would you tell people about you In all
probability, you would state your name, your status, profession, your
place of origin, the place where you reside, your rank in the family
whether you're the eldest, or the youngest, as the case may be. That is
how you are known. That is your personal self-identity.
Self-image refers to the idea one has of his/her abilities, appearance,
and personality.
Example, as you stand before the mirror, what do you see? How do
you look? What skills are you capable of doing? All these tell of your
self-image, the idea that you have about yourself.
Self-concept is a collection and construction of an individual's
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that he/she holds about himself/herself
and the responses about him/her. It is active, dynamic, and adaptive.
Self-concept differs from self-awareness which refers to the extent to
which self-Knowledge is defined, consistent and currently applicable to
one's attitudes and dispositions.
Self-esteem, on the contrary, refers to how much you appreciate,
value and like yourself. Your self-concept affects your self-esteem.
What you hear from other people, their influences and beliefs, including
those of your family, contribute to the formation of self-concept.
 Factors Affecting Growth and Development Gender - Refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given
Is the transmission of physical characteristics from culture associates with a person’s biological sex.
parents to children through their genes
Heredity 2 biological factors: MAMAWA - Men-Are-Men-and-Women-Are-Women
1. Nutrition
2. Gender Gender Identity - Refers to the internal awareness of where the
Specifically in emotion, it means honestly evaluating individuals belong in the feminine and masculine categories.
Intelligence
and paying attention to how you feel.
Is observed that a well-nurtured child does better than Gender Identity Terminologies
a deprived one. Accidents and incidents that children Cisgender Cisgender Is a male or female that identifies with the
Environment sex that was assigned at birth.
experienced may also affect their physical
development. The binary conceptualization of gender, male or
Genderqueer female, does not accurately describe an individual's
Sexual Self - Comprises a complex set of schemas that allow us to gendered outlook or self-concept.
Described a variety of medical conditions wherein an
understand and express ourselves as sexual beings.
Intersex individual’s reproductive anatomy or genitals do not
Sex - Refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that fit the binary definition of male or female.
define men and women. Female to Man (FtM) - Is a man whose sex is
Transgenderman
female, but he lives and identifies as male.
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Male to Female (MtF) – is a woman whose sex is
Transgenderwoman
male, but she lives and identifies as female
PRENATAL STAGE
Gonads - At 6 weeks after fertilization, regardless of gender, all Gender Expression -The manner by which people express
embryos have identical primordial gonads (primordial meaning existing themselves and behave outwardly.
at the beginning) (Pinel, 2014). The identical pair of gonadal structures
consists of an outer covering, or cortex that has the potential to Sexual Orientation - Refers to the stable pattern of attractions or
become an ovary and an inner core, or medulla that can potentially sexual interest that one has to a member of particular sex.
become a testis. At about 6 weeks after conception, the SRY gene (so
named because it is found in the sox-determining region of the Y Sexual Orientation Terminologies
chromosome of the male embryos) triggers the synthesis of SRY Asexual Refers to absence of physical or sexual attraction to
protein (Arnold, 2004). This protein causes the internal part, or the another human being.
medulla, of each gonad to grow and develop into testes. In female Male or female who is attracted to both males and
Bisexual
females.
embryos that lack the: SRY gene that encodes the SRY protein, the
Gay males are self-identified men who are emotionally,
primordial gonads automatically develop into Ovaries. Gay physically, romantically and/or sexually attracted to
people who identify as male.
Internal Organs - Until about the third month in the prenatal Self-identified female who are emotionally, physically,
development, both embryos possess the same reproductive ducts Lesbian romantically and/or sexually attracted to people who
including a male Wolffian system and a female Müllerian system identify as female.
(Freberg, 2010). An individual who identifies as either male or female
Heterosexual
and is attracted to opposite sex.
The Wolffian system has the potential to develop into the male Its describes an individual’s self-concept of their sexual
Queer
orientation identity.
reproductive ducts comprising the epididymis, vas deferens,
ejaculatory duct and seminal vesicles (Witchel & Lee, 2014).
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
The Müllerian system, on the other hand, has the capacity to form
Erogenous zone – areas in the human body that have heightened
into the fallopian tubes, the uterus and the upper portion of the vagina
sensitivity, can produces sexual responses.
(Goodman, 2009). This duplication in the reproductive ducts of the
male and female embryos soon changes when at the third month, the
male's newly developed testes begin to secrete two hormones: the Body Parts Arousal Score (highest first)
testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormones (Freberg, 2010). Clitoris Penis
Vagina Mouth/Lips
PUBERTY STAGE Mouth/Lips Scrotum
It is the period of maturity of the external genitalia and the Nape of neck Inner thigh
development of secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex Breast Nape of neck
characteristics are those physical changes that distinguish sexual Nipples Nipples
maturity in women and in men. The changes that Occur during puberty Inner thigh Perineum
Back of neck Pubic hairline
are mainly caused by increased production of hormones. The anterior
Ears Back of neck
pituitary releases high levels of growth hormones that act directly on
Lower back Ears
the bones and muscle tissues resulting in growth spurt (Pinel, 2014).
The hypothalamus releases the gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Sexual Response
(GnRH) that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release two
● Sexual desire is typically higher in men than in women (Van Anders,
gonadotropic hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
2012).
luteinizing hormone (LH). Both hormones are present in males and
● Biological response:
females but produce different effects. In males, FSH and LH cause the
- Vasocongestion - swelling of bodily tissues in penis, vagina
testes to release testosterone while in females; they stimulate the
and nipples
ovaries to produce estradiol (the most common type of estrogen). The
- Myotonia - muscle contraction and tension that causes
higher the levels of androgen than estrogen, masculinization
spasms of orgasm and spasms of the hands and feet.
occurs. Likewise, the more abundant amount of estrogen than
androgen results in feminization.
Triangle model of Love
• Intimacy – refers to the couple’s sense of closeness and the
Abnormalities in Sexual Development
presence of mutual concern.
● Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) - Individuals with AIS have
• Passion – means romance and sexual feelings.
an XY genotype but develop a female appearance.
• Commitment – means deciding to enhance and maintain the
● Adrenogenital Syndrome - It is due to Congenital Adrenal
relationship.
Hyperplasia (CAH), an inheritable condition in which there is increased
• Consummate Love – ideal form of LOVE.
level of androgen.
● 5-Alpha Reductase Deficiency - The 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone is
responsible for masculinization of the external organ of the fetus.
Sexual Health
Sexually Transmitted Diseases are as follows:
- Gonorrhea
- Syphilis
- ChlamydiaTrichomoniasis
- HPV or Human Papillomavirus
- HSV or Herpes Simplex Virus
- HIV or Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Material Self - Refers to our body, as well as the tangible objects,
places, things that we describe as “My” or “Mine”.
● Two subclasses: Body self and Extra-corporeal Self = Extended self.
Spiritual Self - Refers to the real, true or authentic YOU. It is the least
explored. It is a system that stresses the idea that a person does not
need formal religion to live a life of faith. It includes a sense of
connection to something bigger than us, it typically involves a search
for meaning in life.
Religion - is the set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas, and practices that
define the relations between people and sacred beings or divinity.
Albert Bandura’s Self-efficacy - Is the belief in one’s ability or
capacity.
4 ways to develop it:
1. Mastery Experience - Set a goal and persist. We learn when we
continue against difficult challenges, we strengthen our belief that we
can succeed and become better.
2. Social Modeling - Be inspired by people who have overcome and
succeeded. Reading and watching about their lives can lead to
vicarious modeling.
3. Social Persuasion - Have a mentor and cheerleader. Surround your
life with people that will lift you up.
4. State of Physiology - Reflect and learn more about your emotions
and moods. Through reflection and education, you can learn to remain
positive even in trying times.
Dr. Carol Dweck Growth Mindset Framework –
Two mindsets:
1. Fixed Mindset – makes a person avoid challenges.
2. Growth Mindset – enables a person to embrace challenges.

Political Self - Is the aspect of the self that helps an individual to Locke and Latham Goal-Setting Theory –
understand and function effectively in society.
Five Goal Setting Principles:
National Identity - It boosts one’s sense of duty as a citizen of a 1. Clarity
particular country. It has 3 Dimensions: 2. Challenge
- Self-categorization, 3. Commitment
- Affect, and 4. Feedback
- Normative Contents. 5. Task Complexity
Filipino Values and Traits - Virgilio Enriquez (Father of Philippine
Psychology) known for his Kapwa Model Value and it includes 4 Taking Charge of One’s Health and Well-being
Categories and 12 Filipino Values. Stress is the inability to cope with a perceived (real or imagined) threat
to someone’s mental, physical, emotional and spiritual well-being,
Digital Self – is an aspect of the self that we present online. Trolling, which results in a series of physiological responses and adaptation
cyber bullying, bashing and shaming are modern terminologies (Seaward, 2017). Three types of stress: Acute, Episodic and Chronic.
referring to how seemingly unimportant people including strangers
have the capacity to create damage to their victims. Strategies for Good Health and Well-being
1. Embrace the positive perspective 6. Reach out to people
Self-Presentation – refers to the act of creating a favorable 2. Laugh and enjoy wholesome humor 7. Listen to music
impression or the desired image to an external and internal audience. 3. Establish limits and routine 8. Eat for a healthy immune
Learning to be a better Learner 4. Give time for hobbies system
5. Pray and Meditate 9. Exercise
Information-Processing Model – is a simple way to visualize how we 10. Be with nature
acquire information and store and retrieve it.
ETHICS
Metacognition - Thinking about thinking, learning to learn. Being ● The word ethics came from the Greek word Ethos which means
aware of your own thinking and learning process. Custom or character.
● Studies the righteousness or wrongness of human action.
1. Person – how you see yourself as a learner. ● How a human person ought to act.
2. Task – refers to what you need to accomplish
3. Strategy – includes effective ways of tackling learning tasks. Two Views on Ethics
Greek Tradition Judeo-Christian Tradition
PQ4R METHOD ● The main goal is to have a ● The main goal is “The ideas of
1. Preview Get a general picture of material before you begin “Good Life” righteousness before God”
2. Question Change headings into questions ● Being happy ● Doing what is right.
3. Read Look for the answers to your question as you read.
Try to relate the material to past learning or to personal Importance of rules - Rules are a set of guidelines that got created in
4. Reflect
experience.
communities and countries and get used all as a standard. These rules
Speak the answers to your questions aloud to solidify the
5. Recite usually differ from one place to the other and the differences
info in your mind.
6. Review Review the material regularly are often determined by factors such as social interactions, beliefs,
policies, and the method of governance in place. Also, the violators of
Self-Regulation these rules are often handled by the penalties which the
1. Adherence – a young child will do one thing because he/she is told laws of the land for the violation.
to do so.
2. Identification – A child will do one thing because he/she likes the Types of Applied Ethics
person asking him to do. ● Bioethics - This concerns ethical issues about life, biomedical
3. Internalization – An individual will do something because he/she research, medicines, health care, and the medical profession.
values it. ● Business Ethics - It examines moral principles concerning the
business environment, which involves issues about corporate practices
Setting Goals for Success and policies.
Goals should be what you want your life to be all about. Connect your ● Environmental Ethics - It deals with moral issues concerning
goals to what are the most important things to you. Your purpose and nature, ecosystem, and its nonhuman contents.
your goal should be the driving forces in your life. ● Sexual Ethics - It studies moral issues about sexuality and human
sexual behavior.
Moral - It is an adjective describing human act as either ethical right or
wrong.
Moral standards - Are norms that serve as the frameworks for
determining what ought to be done.
Moral standards
CONSEQUENCE STANDARD NON-CONSEQUENCE STANDARD
- Based on the Natural Laws.
- Law of God that is written in the
- Depends on result or outcome.
hearts of men.
- Greatest good of greatest
- Based on goodwill
numbers.
- Sense of duty that you wish to apply
to all human people.
Non-Moral standards:
• Social Rules, Etiquette, and Good Manners
COMPLIANCE OR NON-COMPLIANCE
MORAL STANDARD NON-MORAL STANDARD
- May only cause shame and
- Causes guilt.
embarrassment.
CLASSIFICATION OF THEORIES OF MORALS STANDARDS –
GARNER AND ROSEN (1967)
NOT-ONLY CONSEQUENCE
CONSEQUENCE STANDARD
STANDARD
- Deontological
- Teleological
- Right and wrong depends on the
- The act is wrong depending on
sense of duty.
the consequences of the act.
- Natural Law
WHAT MAKES STANDARD MORAL?
THEIST NON-THEIST
- Based on sages like Confucius and
Kant
- Don’t do unto others what you don’t
want others to do unto you. –
- Moral standards are
Confucius
commandments of God revealed to
- “Act only according to that maxim
man through prophet
whereby you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law”
– Immanuel Kant, Categorical
Imperative.
6. Creativity 6. Crab Mentality
7. Hard Work 7. Colonial Mentality
8. Ability to survive 8. Split Personality
9. Palusot Syndrome
10. Bahala na system
Universal Values:
Happiness Peace Love Freedom
Intelligence Human Respect Equality
Nature Health Safety Justice
Character - refers to a set of moral and mental qualities and beliefs
that makes a person different from others.
Personality - refers to the combination of qualities, attitude and
behavior that makes a person distinct from others.
Moral character – refers to having or lacking moral virtue
Moral agent – It is the person who does a moral act.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS – Medieval Philosopher
● Summum Bonum - “Every human act is directed toward an end”
● THREE THOMISTIC PRINCIPLES:
- According to Alfredo Panizo (1964):
a. Every agent that performs an action act for the sake of the end
purpose to be attained.
b. Every agent acts for an ultimate end.
c. Every agent has the power of moving for an end which is
suitable or good for him.
According to 20th Century thinkers – there were NO Pre-fixed
plans for man.
● Jean Paul Sartre - A human person is or becomes what he/she
makes of him/herself by choice.
● Teilhard de Chardin (1948) and Alfred north whitehead (1946) –
believers of Process Philosopher
– For them, whatever a human person is or will be a result of creative
process.
● Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Martin Buber - See
themselves as being-with-others, inseparably related to their fellow
man.
The Development of Moral Character Of The Moral Agent

FREEDOM DEFINING MOMENTS - Refers to the life changing event or moment

● Exercising our capacity to make decisions, choose or life path and that reverberates throughout your career and personal life and so
direct the course of our live through our own steering/ changes everything.
● Humans have freedom. Relationship between moral acts and character - “The person who
● Dilemmas presuppose Freedom has moral character does moral actions more readily”
● Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice Stages of moral development:
● Making moral choices is a necessary consequence for being free, a 1. Pre-Conventional
consequence of being a human person. 2. Conventional
3. Post-Conventional
FACTICITY - Refers to the “givens” of our situation.
Human Act Act of Human
CULTURE ● Acts of moral agent. ● Actions merely happen in the body
● Total way of life. ● Involves reasoning. without the awareness of mind.
● Ralph Linton (1945) defined the culture of a society as 'the way of life ● Observing prescribed diet, ● Breathing, blinking of the eyes,
of its members: The collection of ideas and habits which they learn, tutoring the slow learners and dilation of pupil of the eye, perspiring
share and transmit from generation to generation. preparing the board exam. and jerking of the knee.

Culture is transmitted through: The determinants of the morality of human act:

Enculturation 1. The object of the act
Acculturation 2. The end, or purpose
Assimilation 3. Its circumstances

CULTURAL RELATIVISM - The idea that a person’s beliefs, values FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION MAKING
and practices should be understood based on that person’s own FEELINGS - Is an emotional state or reaction, experience of physical
culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another. sensation like feeling of joy, feeling of warmth, love affection,
tenderness, etc.
FEELINGS as Instinctive response to moral dilemma - Several
THE FILIPINO CHARACTER studies conclude that up to 90% of the decisions we made are based
POSITIVE TRAITS NEGATIVE TRAITS on emotion. They can be obstacles but they can also help in making
1. Regards for other 1. Extreme personalism right decisions.
2. Family centeredness 2. Extreme family centeredness
3. Hospitality 3. Mañana habit
4. Sense of humor 4. Ningas-Cogon
5. Faith and religiosity 5. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome

Ethical Subjectivism
● Moral statements cannot be objective because it is only people’s
perception and attitudes that makes them right or wrong.
● It highlights the subjectivity of morality; it is always dependent on
feelings.
● It allows us to see convicting intentions behind moral statements.
● People may get involved in an argument by ethical subjectivism to
persuade the opponent to follow their point of view but not to disprove
their objective truth.
2 Versions:
1. Simple subjectivism - One can only approve or disapprove of the
things that he states to be good or bad in aspects of morality.
2. Emotivism - Moral Statements simply reflect preference. Moral
Statements are neither used to state facts nor to convey information;
instead, it serves as means of affecting human behavior and
expressing one’s feelings and emotion. Known as Boo-Hooray
Theory.
RULE OF REASON - When we make any kinds of judgment we must
reinforce them for valid reasons.
• Feelings can help in making the right decision - Subjective
feelings sometimes matter when deciding between right and wrong.
Emotions, like our love for our friends and family, are a crucial part of
what gives life meaning, and ought to play a guiding role in morality.
Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality
• Reason – is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction.
• Impartiality – is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to
be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for
improper reasons.
The 7-step model is as follows:
1. Gather the facts
2. Determine the ethical issues
3. Determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on the case
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues/principles
6. Consider the consequences
7. Make a decision
Will – refers to that faculty of mind which chooses, at the moment of
making a decision, the strongest desire from among the various
present.
Moral Courage – means doing the right thing even at the risk of
inconvenience, ridicule, punishment or loss of job, security or social
status.
ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS
● Is a set of codes that an individual uses to guide his or her behavior
● Also known as “Moral Standard”
● It is what people use to distinguish right from wrong in the way they
interact in the world.
Dominant Mental Frames:
1. Virtue or Character Ethics
2. Natural Law or Commandment Ethics
3. Deontological and Duty Framework
4. Utilitarianist, Teleological and Consequentialist Approach
5. Love and Justice Framework
1. ARISTOTLE VIRTUE ETHICS
● This question focuses on the character traits one is supposed to
have in order for that person to be considered as ethical.
● An ethical person is a virtuous person.
● Virtue ethics is Person-based Rather than action-based.
Aristotle - A Philosopher from Stagira, he wrote a lot of ranging
topics in various disciplines.
● “Good character is the indispensable condition and chief determinant
of happiness, itself the goal of all humans. The end of all action,
individual or collective, is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number.” – Ethics, 350 BCE
● “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim
and end of human existence”
● We must cultivate virtues because they are the qualities that will help
the people to live well.
● Telos – End / Ultimate Goal:
● Happiness = Eudaimonia
2. ST. THOMAS NATURAL LAW ETHICS
● “Some truths about God exceed all the ability of human reason... but
there are some truths which natural reason also is able to reach. Such
as that God exists” -Summa contra Gentiles
● He was from a noble family in Naples and early in his life he decided
to join the Dominican Order.
● “We call this man a dumb ox, but his bellowing in doctrine will one
day resound throughout the world.”- Albertus Magnus in defense of
Aquinas
● “REASON” is the source of the moral law; it directs us towards the
“GOOD”
● GOOD – is the ultimate GOAL of the person’s actions. The good is
discoverable within the person’s nature.
● An act is morally right if it is done according to moral law.
● What is MORAL LAW? Do good and avoid evil
● How do we know that one is acting in accordance with good? An
action is Good if it is done in accordance with CONSCIENCE.
● How do we know that one’s action obeys conscience? If it satisfies
the three-fold natural inclination of the human person.
THREE-FOLD NATURAL INCLINATION OF THE HUMAN PERSON
1. Self-preservation - Natural inclination to take care of one’s health
or not to kill or to put one’s self in danger.
2. Just dealing with others - Treat others with the same respect that
we accord ourselves
3. Propagation of human species - The reproductive organ is by
nature designed to reproduce and propagate human species.
- An act does not obey conscience; It is therefore immoral.
- Circumstance - The CONDITIONS affecting the morality of
an action.
Classification:
- Quality of person (Who)
- Quality/Quantity of the moral object (What)
- Circumstances of place (Where)
- Circumstances of mean (By what means)
- Circumstances of end (Why)
- Manner in which the action is done (How)
- Time Element (when
3. KANT’S DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
● Born in 1724 in Konigsberg, Prussia. He is a philosopher that
published books entitled Critique of Pure Reason and Prolegomena to
any Future Metaphysics.
● “I had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith.”
● Deontological – means duty. It focuses on “duty, obligation and
rights” instead of consequences or ends.
● The duty-based approach argues that doing what is right is not about
the consequences of our action (something over which we ultimately
have no control) but about having the proper intention in performing the
action.
● THE ETHICAL ACTION IS ONE TAKEN FROM THE DUTY.
● How important is the intention in the analysis of one’s ethical
behavior?
● Whatever result may happen as consequence of the act is not
included in this moral assessment. Thus, it is possible that though the
consequence was not the desired result, or may result in something
bad, still- the act can be considered good.
● A person should be morally judged only on things that are within his
control, in short those that he willed.
● An action is legally right if it is the same in accordance with a
universal law, that is, in accordance with the categorical imperative.
4. UTILITARIANISM: THE CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICAL
FRAMEWORK
● An action is morally right if it maximizes overall well-being and
happiness.
● “The said truth is that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number that is the measure of right and wrong” -Jeremy Bentham
● Bentham studied law and wrote on ethics, politics, economics and
the law. He is known as the founder of Utilitarianism.
● The primary motivation of human behavior is the desire for pleasure
and the avoidance of pain.
● Hedonism – The pursuit of pleasure.
● “I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather
than in attempting to satisfy them” -John Stuart Mill
● He continued Bentham’s legacy and is generally credited for having
popularized it. As a utilitarian, he lived its tenet and found that one of
the secrets of happiness is the limitation of desire.

5. JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS PROMOTING COMMON GOOD

● Social Justice is equal access to wealth, opportunities and
privileges within society.
● Promotion of Social Justice is equivalent to promotion of the
common good.
● Common Good – refers to those facilities that the members of a
community provide to all members in order to fulfill a relational
obligation they all have to care for certain interests that they have in
common.
● When the government improves public property and services, and
develops natural resources, it simultaneously promotes equal access
to wealth, opportunities, and privileges within society.