Psychology Core Concepts 7th Edition Zimbardo Solutions Manual Download

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Psychology Core Concepts 7th Edition

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CHAPTER 6
THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
▲ TABLE OF CONTENTS
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To return to the Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents
To return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on ► Return to Lecture Guide
► LECTURE GUIDE
➢ 6.1 What Are the Components of Thought? (p. 310)
➢ 6.2 What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? (p. 312)
➢ 6.3 How Is Intelligence Measured? (p. 317)
➢ 6.4 Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? (p. 321)
➢ 6.5 How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups? (p. 324)
➢ Chapter Summary (p. 329)
▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

➢ Teaching Objectives (p. 330)
➢ Key Questions (p. 330)
Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 309
➢ Core Concepts (p. 330)

➢ Psychology Matters (p. 331)
➢ Songs to Launch the Lecture (p. 331)
➢ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 332)
➢ Activities and Exercises (p. 349)
➢ Handouts (p. 365)
➢ Web Resources (p. 383)
➢ Video Resources (p. 385)
➢ Multimedia Resources (p. 387)
➢ PowerPoint Slides (p. 389)
➢ Accessing Resources (p. 389)

LECTURE GUIDE
6.1 WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THOUGHT? (text p. 215)

Lecture Launchers/Discussions Topics:
➢ Types of Problems (p. 332)
➢ Intuition (p. 333)
➢ Don’t Believe Everything You Read… Except This (p. 334)
➢ Functional Fixedness (p. 335)
➢ Using Cognitive Maps (p. 336)
Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:
➢ Learning a Concept (p. 349)
➢ Mental Imagery (p. 350)
Web Resources:
➢ Intelligence (p. 383)
Video Resources:
➢ NEW MyPsychLab Video Series (p. 387)
Multimedia Resources in MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com):
6.1 LECTURE OUTLINE: What are the Components of Thought? (text p. 215)
6.1 KEY QUESTION
What are the Components of Thought?
6.1 CORE CONCEPT
Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and
memory to create and manipulate mental representations such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts.
I. Concepts
➢ Déjà vu, French for “seen before”, is an experience in which the individual has the feeling of
repeating having experienced a current event sometime in the past.
➢ The process of déjà vu reflects the brain’s ability to match a present experience to a previous
experience, even though the explicit memory is not retrieved.
➢ This ability to assimilate and associate experiences, objects, or ideas into mental categories and
take the same action toward them or give them the same label is one of the most basic attributes
of thinking organisms.
➢ These categories are called concepts.
o Concepts are mental structures and cannot be observed directly.
o Cognitive scientists infer concepts from their influence on brain activity or behavior;
Individuals, using the same process, cannot be sure that another person shares their same
concepts.
A. Two Kinds of Concepts

➢ Natural concepts are imprecise mental categories that develop out of everyday experiences
in the world.
➢ A natural concept, such as “bird”, invokes a mental prototype, or mental image, representing
a typical bird from your experience.
o A determination of whether an object is a bird is made by comparing the object to the
bird prototype; the closer it matches, the quicker a decision of “bird” can be made.
➢ Artificial concepts are defined by a set of rules or characteristics, such as dictionary
definitions or mathematical formulas.
B. Concept Hierarchies
➢ Much of the individual’s is organized into concept hierarchies, arranged from general to
specific.
C. Culture, Concepts and Thought

➢ Concepts carry vastly different meanings in different cultures.
➢ Some examples are the terms “democracy” and “freedom”, which look obvious to Americans
but which may connote chaos, excess, and rudeness in parts of Asia.
➢ In the United States, many people place a higher value on qualities variously known as
“common sense,” which refers to thinking based upon experience rather than logic.
➢ Universal principles of thought that cut across cultures involve very basic processes.
➢ It cannot be assumed that the processes of concept formation or their meaning attached to
them are universal.
II. Imagery and Cognitive Maps

➢ We think in words, but we also think in images, spatial relationships, and other sensory images.
➢ A cognitive representation of physical space is a special form of visual concept called a cognitive
map.
III. Thought and the Brain

➢ Developments in brain imaging have allowed cognitive researchers to begin mapping the mind
itself.
➢ Scientists can now connect certain thoughts, with specific electrical wave patterns in the brain by
presenting a stimulus and viewing brain responses and pathways. Over many trials, responses
can be averaged into a pattern.
➢ PET, MRI, and FMRI neuroscientists have identified brain regions that become active during
various mental tasks.
➢ Thus, thinking is an activity involving widely distributed areas of the brain – not just a single
“thinking center.”
➢ Neuroscientists now see the brain as a community of highly specialized modules, each of which
deals with different components of thought.
➢ Moreover, the brain generates many of the images used in thought with the same circuitry it uses
for sensation.
IV. Intuition
➢ Intuition is the ability to make judgments without conscious reasoning, using feelings as well as
reason.
➢ This emotional component of thinking, like many other complex cognitive tasks, involves the
prefrontal cortex, which unconsciously factors emotional “hunches” in our decisions in the form
of information about past rewards and punishments.
➢ Intuition is not always correct—sometimes intuitive snap judgments, which may feel like truth,
are merely prejudices and biases; sometimes, however, quick intuitive judgments can be on
target.
➢ Accuracy in intuition may depend upon context.
➢ In general, “instincts” about personality may be correct, although they are not infallible.
➢ When we “intuitively” make statistical or numerical judgments, we are likely to be wrong.

➢ Intuition may be more reliable in complex situations when time is limited; conscious processing
skills, located in working memory, may not be capable of handling the complexity or the number
of factors that have to be quickly weighed.
➢ When time is not short and when a person has the expertise necessary to analyze a situation,
intuition may impede their thinking.
➢ Thus, it is important to recognize when intuitive judgments are being made and to consider the
context, the time available, and expertise in that area, furthermore acknowledging that intuition
can be wrong.
PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: Schemas and Scripts Help You Know What to Expect (text p. 221)
Much knowledge is stored in the brain as schemas, clusters of related concepts that provide a framework
for thinking about objects, events, ideas, or emotions. Schemas are used in the cognitive process in
several ways.
Schemas act as “search engines”; they provide contexts and expectations about the features likely to be
found when familiar people, situations, images, and ideas are encountered. They provide a way of
relating new information to previously stored information. Things are often found to be funny when they
draw on two or more incongruous or incompatible schemas at once. Finally, an event schema, or script,
gives us a pattern for behavior in specific circumstances.
Scripts differ from culture to culture. Each culture has a unique way of observing the world and dealing
with its situations; therefore, its scripts will differ.
6.2 WHAT ABILITIES DO GOOD THINKERS POSSESS? (text p. 223)

➢ Hormones and Thinking Skills (p. 338)
➢ Fallacies in Reasoning (p. 338)
➢ Einstein’s Brain (p. 340)
➢ What Exactly is Intelligence? (p. 351)
➢ Problem Representation (p. 351)
➢ Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving (p. 352)
➢ Availability Heuristics (p. 352)
➢ Demonstrating Cognitive Biases (p. 353)
➢ Creative Thinking (p. 354)
➢ Insight (p. 354)
➢ Mental Sets in Everyday Life (p. 355)
➢ Creativity Quiz (p. 355)
➢ The Nine-Dot Problem (p. 356)
➢ Handout Transparency: Luchins’ Water Jar Problem (p. 371)
Web Resources:
➢ Problem-Solving (p. 384)
Video Resources:
6.2 LECTURE OUTLINE: What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? (text p.

223)
6.2 KEY QUESTION
What Abilities Do Good thinkers Possess?

6.2 CORE CONCEPT
Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies, called algorithms and heuristics, they
also know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision-making.
I. Problem Solving
➢ Effective problem solvers have several things in common: requisite knowledge for solving the
problem being faced; skill in identifying the problem; skill in selecting the strategy to solve the
problem.
A. Identifying the Problem

➢ The good problem solver learns to consider all relevant possibilities without leaping to
conclusions prematurely.
➢ The good problem solver considers all relevant possibilities before committing to one
solution.
B. Selecting a Strategy
➢ The good problem solver selects a strategy that fits the problem at hand.
➢ While trial and error may serve strategically for simple problems, more complex ones may
require specialized knowledge or procedures or formulas – algorithms.
➢ The expert expert problem solvers may use heuristics, more intuitive and less precise
strategies.
1. Algorithms
➢ Algorithms are procedures and formulas that guarantee success if properly applied.
➢ Some examples are those formulas learned in science and math classes.
2. Heuristics
➢ Heuristics are rules of thumb that are accumulated through life experience and act as
shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.
➢ They do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, but they are often useful for
starting off in the right direction.
➢ Some heuristics require special knowledge, such as training in medicine, physics or
psychology.
3. Working Backward
➢ The strategy of starting at the end of a problem can often be effective in cutting down on
the number of possible pathways to a solution of a problem.
➢ In forensics, for example, police gathering evidence at a crime scene can narrow down a
list of suspects.
4. Searching for Analogies

➢ If a new problem is similar to an old one, it may be possible to employ a strategy that was
previously used successfully.
➢ It is necessary to recognize the similarity, or analogy, between the two problems.
5. Breaking a Big Problem into Smaller Problems

➢ Breaking a problem into parts, or subgoals, may make it more manageable.
➢ In this way, the work required for the solution can be organized into parts and a plan can
be developed for each part of the solution.
C. Obstacles to Problem Solving

➢ While having a good repertoire of problem solving strategies is essential problem solving, it
is important to recognize and let go of an ineffective strategy.
1. Mental Set
➢ Mental set refers to the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for an
old one.
➢ If a problem solving strategy is based upon the wrong analogy, schema or algorithm, this
mental set can generate an ineffective strategy for solving the current problem.
2. Functional Fixedness
➢ This type of mental set is the inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with
a different purpose.
➢ Under this condition the function of a familiar object becomes fixed in the mind, which
cannot develop a new use for it.
➢ A dime used a coin can also be used as a screwdriver; function fixedness can prevent a
person from recognizing this.
3. Self-Imposed Limitations
➢ There are many instances in which people impose limitations upon themselves.
➢ People may have absorbed racial or gender stereotypes directed at their group, or as
students often say, “I’m not good at math.”
4. Other Obstacles
➢ There are many other obstacles to problem solving.
➢ These include lack of specific knowledge required to solve the problem; lack of interest;
and low esteem.
➢ Fatigue, drugs (legal and illegal), arousal and its stress create stumbling blocks, as well.
➢ In general, humans are thinkers who readily jump to conclusions, based on our
knowledge but also biased by our knowledge; as well as our motives, emotions and
perceptions.
➢ Most of our problem solving efforts draw upon past experiences to make predictions
about future rewards and punishments.
➢ This process is what operant conditioning is all about, which suggests that this mode of
thinking is fundamental part of human nature.
II. Judging and Making Decisions

➢ Decisions are made every day; each decision is a solution to a problem for which there may not
be a clear answer, but for which a decision is required.
➢ Judgment may be clouded by emotions and biases that interfere with critical thinking.
A. Confirmation Bias
➢ Confirmation bias makes us pay attention to events that confirm our beliefs and ignore
evidence that contradicts them.
➢ Evidence shows that confirmation bias is a powerful human tendency.
B. Hindsight Bias
➢ Hindsight bias, the “I knew it all along” response, is the tendency, after learning about an
event, to “second guess” or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance.
➢ Hindsight bias impedes the ability to learn from mistakes; “I knew it all along” ignores an
opportunity to improve judgment next time by recognizing errors this time.
➢ There is a correlation between hindsight bias and poor performance; being swayed by
hindsight bias may increase the chance of repeating the same mistake.
C. Anchoring Bias
➢ Anchoring bias is a faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a
completely irrelevant quantity.
➢ In a series of numbers, people base their estimate on whether the first number is higher or
lower than the ones that follow.
D. Representativeness Bias
➢ Representativeness bias is a faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that, once
people and events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in the same
category.
➢ This bias is used because it is convenient, simplifying the tasks of social judgment.
➢ In employing this bias, what is ignored is that people and events do not belong to categories
simply because a category label can be applied; we risk ignoring or underestimating the
tremendous diversity of individual cases and complexity of people.
➢ Base rate information is the probability of a characteristic occurring in the general
population, and by ignoring this information, representativeness bias judgments are made.
E. Availability Bias
➢ The availability bias reflects our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily
examples come to mind; for example, detailed coverage of plane crashes in the media obscure
the statistical fact that car crashes are more probable than plane crashes.
➢ People who watch a lot of television judge their chances of being mugged or murdered as
being much higher than people who watch little television.
F. The Tyranny of Choice

➢ Too many choices can be overwhelming and can interfere with decision-making.
➢ The tyranny of choice, the impairment of effective decision making when confronted with
too many choices, can create stress.
➢ Satisficing, finding a choice that is merely good enough, rather than perfect, can be a useful
strategy.
G. Decision Making and Critical Thinking

➢ The impediments to effective decision-making described above are related to lapses in critical
thinking, especially the identification of bias.
➢ Critical thinkers should know how to identify a problem; select a strategy; apply the most
common algorithms and heuristics; and identify biases and work to correct them.
III. Becoming a Creative Genius

➢ Although experts cannot agree on an exact definition of creativity, it is generally agreed that
creativity is a process that produces novel responses to the solutions of problems.
➢ Experts generally agree that a genius is someone whose insight and creativity are greater than
that of the general population.
A. Creative Genius as Not So Superhuman

➢ There is little evidence to show that people with extreme creativity and genius are
superhuman–a breed apart.
➢ The psychologists Robert Weisberg portrays the thinking of people who are considered
geniuses as “ordinary thought processes in ordinary individuals”.
➢ Weisberg attributes extraordinary creativity to extensive knowledge, high motivation, and
certain personality characteristics, not superhuman talents.
B. Knowledge and Understanding

➢ The most highly creative individuals have expertise, or highly developed knowledge in their
fields.
➢ Such mastery requires a high level of motivation to sustain years of intense training and
practice.
➢ Studies indicate that it takes about ten years of work, or 10,000 hours to become fully
competent in virtually every field.
➢ Such factors as time pressures or an overly critical supervisor, teacher or parent can suppress
a creative flow.
C. Aptitudes, Personality Characteristics and Creativity

➢ Opposing Weisberg’s views, the psychologist Howard Gardner argues that the extraordinary
creativity seen in the work of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, and others results not only from
expertise and motivation but also from certain patterns of abilities and personality
characteristics.
➢ In Gardner’s view, highly creative people have aptitudes, or largely innate potentialities (as
contrasted with abilities acquired by learning).
➢ These potentialities must be developed by intensive study and practice.
➢ In addition to aptitudes, creative people usually posses a common cluster of personality traits,
including:
o Independence: the ability to resist social pressures to conform to conventional ways of
thinking;
o Intense interest in a problem: an all-consuming interest in their subject matter;
o Willingness to restructure a problem: not only struggling with a problem, but also
questioning the way the problem is presented;
o Preference for complexity: creative people like to work with seemingly chaotic or
messy problems, finding it challenging to look for simplicity in complexity;
o A need for stimulating interaction: creativity almost always grows out of an
interaction of highly creative individuals.
➢ Early on, creative people usually find a mentor, a teacher who brings them up to speed in a
chosen field.
D. The Role of Intelligence in Creativity

➢ While low intelligence inhibits creativity, having high intelligence does not necessarily
produce creativity.
➢ Among those with low intelligence, some special cases – individuals called savants – may
have a highly developed skill despite their handicaps.
➢ Thus, intelligence and creativity are distinct abilities.
➢ The psychologist Robert Sternberg argues that creativity requires a decision to go against the
expectations of the crowd.
o This makes creativity potentially achievable for anyone who chooses to adopt a creative
attitude.
o Sternberg says that most people will not do so, being unwilling to take the necessary
risks.
PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology (text p. 232)

Experts are people who know a great deal about a particular subject. Unlike a novice, an expert
confronting a problem does not have to start from scratch to find a solution. A study of chess experts
found that experts organize their knowledge into chunks, or schemas, so that when they are confronted
with a problem, they can retrieve the solution from the specific information stored and organized in their
schemas. They not only know facts; they also know the connections between them. Last, they have a
repertoire of heuristics, the “tricks of the trade”.
Perhaps the most important two variables in developing expertise are motivation and practice. There is
evidence that people have different aptitudes for a particular skill, but it is impossible to predict in
advance who will become an expert. Motivation and a lot of practice are required to turn aptitude into
expertise.
6.3 HOW IS INTELLIGENCE MEASURED? (text p. 233)

➢ IQ and Juror Selection (p. 341)
➢ The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t (p. 341)
➢ Does the SAT Have Predictive Value? (p. 342)
➢ Birth Order and Intelligence (p. 343)
➢ Mental Retardation (p. 344)
➢ Terman’s Termites (p. 344)
➢ Information Processing Approach to Intelligence (p. 345)
➢ Arthur Jensen (p. 346)
➢ Intelligence (p. 356)
➢ Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film (p. 357)
➢ Age and Intelligence (p. 357)
➢ A Critique of the Mozart Effect (p. 358)
➢ Multiple Intelligences (p. 358)
➢ Emotional Intelligence (The EQ Test) (p. 358)
Video Resources:
6.3 LECTURE OUTLINE: How Is Intelligence Measured? (text p. 233)

6.3 KEY QUESTION
How Is Intelligence Measured?

➢ Intelligence, the mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason and solve problems effectively,
has long fascinated psychologists, and mental testing has been used for thousands of years.
➢ Intelligence must be defined in relation to the same abilities in a comparison group, usually of the
same age range.
➢ Intelligence is a hypothetical construct, a characteristic that is not directly observable but which
must be inferred from behavior.
6.3 CORE CONCEPT

Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence as
normally distributed and measurable by performance on a variety of tasks.
I. Binet and Simon Invent a School Abilities Test

➢ In 1904, French educators Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon were asked to design a test to
identify those school children starting school who might need remedial help.
➢ They designed a 30-problem sampling of a variety of abilities needed for school that predicted
which children could or could not handle normal schoolwork.
➢ Four features of the Binet-Simon test were: 1) interpretation of test scores as a measure of
current performance not innate intelligence; 2) using test scores to identify children who needed
special help, not to categorize them as bright or dull; 3) emphasis on training and opportunity that
could affect intelligence and pinpointing the areas of performance in which special education
could help the children identified as needing such help; 4) empirical testing, basing the test on
how children were observed to perform, rather than tying the test to a theory of intelligence.
➢ Binet and Simon assessed French children of various ages with this test and first computed an
average score for children at each age. That comparison yielded a score for each child, expressed
in terms of a mental age (MA). Mental age is thus the average age at which normal (average)
individuals achieve a particular score.
➢ For example, when a 5-year old child’s score was the same as the average score for the group of
5-year olds, the child was said to have a mental age of 5 years, regardless of his or her
chronological age (CA), or age since birth.
➢ Binet and Simon determined that students most needing remedial help were those whose MA
score was two years behind their CA score.
II. American Psychologists Borrow Binet and Simon’s Idea

➢ With ten years after Binet and Simon began testing schoolchildren, American psychologists
imported the Binet-Simon test and turned it into what we now think of as an IQ test.
➢ They modified the scoring procedure, expanded the test’s content and obtained scores from a
large normative group of people including adults.
A. The Appeal of Intelligence Testing in America

➢ Three forces changing the face of America in the early 20th century combined to make
intelligence testing seem like an orderly way out of turmoil and uncertainty.
➢ The United States was experiencing an unprecedented wave of immigration resulting from
global economic, social and political crises, and new laws requiring universal education were
flooding schools with students.
➢ When World War I began, the military needed a way of assessing and classifying new
recruits.

➢ Intelligence was seen not only as a means of bringing order to the turbulence of rapid social
change but also as an inexpensive and democratic was to separate those who could benefit
from education or military leadership training from those who could not.
➢ The American public came to accept the idea that intelligence tests could accurately
differentiate people in terms of their mental abilities; this acceptance led to widespread use of
tests in schools and industry.
➢ An unfortunate consequence was that test results reinforced prevailing prejudices by linking
test results to race and country of origin.
➢ This consequence can be viewed in hindsight but at the time testing accomplished its goals;
tests were simple to administer and provided a means of assessing and classifying people
according to their scores.
B. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

➢ The Stanford University professor Lewis Terman adapted the Binet-Simon test for American
schoolchildren by standardizing its administration and its age-level norms.
➢ The result was the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, which became the standard by which
other tests were compared.
➢ Its two important features were its design for both children and adults and its individual,
rather than group, administration.
➢ The test introduced the concept of the intelligence quotient, or IQ, which was the ratio of
mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals.
➢ The Stanford-Binet test became popular in clinical psychology, psychiatry and educational
counseling.
➢ Terman accompanied the test with his belief that intelligence is large innate and measurable
and that the IQ score reflected something fundamental and unchanging about people.
➢ Critics of the test objected that the test employed an inconsistent concept of intelligence
because it measured different mental abilities at different ages.
➢ Test makers, heeding this criticism and bringing it in line with the scientific understanding of
intelligence, have modified the test to measure multiple intellectual abilities at all age levels.
III. Problems with the IQ Formula

➢ By the mid to late teenage years, gains in mental intelligence usually level off as people develop
mentally in many different directions. Consequently, mental growth as measured by a test
appears to slow down. Terman’s formula for computing IQ scales thus makes normal children
appear to become mentally retarded adults.
➢ People do not grow less intelligent as they become adults; they develop in different directions,
which IQ scores do not necessarily reflect.
➢ The original formula for IQ was abandoned and grading “on the curve” was adopted as the
replacement.
IV. Calculating IQs “on the Curve”

➢ Behind the new calculation of IQ is the assumption that intelligence is normally distributed
throughout the population, that it is spread throughout the population so that only a few people
fall into the high or low ranges while most cluster around a central average.
➢ The normal distribution, or normal curve, is the bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a
characteristic throughout the population.

➢ Many characteristics, such as height, fall into this pattern, when a population is measured on this
characteristic and the results put recorded a graph, and when IQ tests are given to large numbers
of individuals, the scores of those at each age level fall into this pattern.
➢ IQs are now determined from tables that indicate where test scores fall on the normal curve.
➢ Scores are statistically adjusted so that the average for each age group is set at 100.
➢ Scores near the middle of each group, between 90-110, are determined to be in the normal
range, whereas at the extreme ends of the distribution, scores below 70 are often said to be in the
mentally retarded range, while those above 130 are said to indicate giftedness.
➢ Psychologist James Flynn has noticed that the average IQ score has gradually increased at the rate
of three points per decade, ever since the tests were invented – the Flynn effect.
➢ The gradual increase probably results from a combination of factors, including better test-taking
skills, greater complexity and mental stimulation in society, more schooling and better nutrition.
➢ Flynn points out that different components of intelligence have accelerated at different rates, so
part of the gain in IQ can be explained by societies encouraging factors that contribute to
intelligence.
➢ Since the mid-1990s, however, the Flynn effect may be slowing down, at least in developing
countries.
➢ Close examination of the Flynn effect is the result of increases at the lower end of the intelligence
scale, not at the higher end, suggesting that the effect may be the result of better education,
nutrition and cognitive stimulation.
V. IQ Testing Today
➢ The success of the Stanford-Binet encouraged development of other IQ tests.
➢ As a result, psychologists can choose from a wide array of testing instruments.
➢ Psychologist David Wechsler has developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale
of intelligence (WPPSI).
➢ This family of tests measures many skills presumed to be components of intelligence, including
vocabulary, verbal comprehension, arithmetic ability, similarities, digit span, and block design.
➢ These tests measure intelligence by assessing performance on a variety of tasks.
PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: What can You Do for an Exceptional Child? (text p. 239)
Mental retardation and giftedness lie at opposite ends of the intelligence spectrum. Mental retardation
is conceived as representing the 2 percent of the population of the IQ range scoring below about 70
points. Giftedness is conceived as representing the upper 2 percent of the population of the IQ range
scoring above about 130 points.
The most current view of mental retardation deemphasizes IQ scores and focuses on practical abilities to
get along in the world. Some causes of mental retardation, such as Down syndrome, are known to be
genetic; some causes, such as fetal alcohol syndrome, are environmental,; other types of mental
retardation have no known cause. No cures have been found for certain types of mental retardation,
although research has found some preventive measures. Genetic counseling, pregnancy care services and
education of new parents are effective, as well as diet for some specific types. Special education,
providing life skills and vocational training and enrichment help the mentally retarded to lead fulfilling
lives.
A study of giftedness suggests that a high IQ is an advantage in life. Psychologist Louis Terman initiated
a longitudinal study in which 1528 children scoring in the gifted range were followed throughout their
lives. Decades of data showed correlations between IQ and health, happiness, and academic achievement.
As they moved into adulthood the gifted group contained an unusually high number of scientists, writers,
and professionals. Yet, no one in the group attained the level of an Einstein or a Picasso. Nor did a high
IQ guarantee wealth or stature; group members led ordinary, undistinguished lives. The most visibly
successful seemed to have extraordinary motivation and someone at home or at school who was
especially encouraging to them – some of the same characteristics found to be markers of “genius”.
Because of the personality traits common to gifted children – especially a tendency to spend time alone
working on their interests – they are more likely than other children to suffer social and emotional
disorders. Gifted children already possess a strong sense of curiosity, and parents should not push their
children excessively, destroying it or making curiosity burdensome.
6.4 IS INTELLIGENCE ONE OR MANY ABILITIES? (text p. 242)

➢ Multiple Intelligences (p. 358)
➢ Emotional Intelligence (The EQ Test) (p. 358)
➢ Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence? (p. 359)
➢ Do Animals Have Language? A Survey (p. 359)
Video Resources:
Multimedia Resources in MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com)
6.4 LECTURE OUTLINE: Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? (text p. 242)

6.4 KEY QUESTION
Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities?
6.4 CORE CONCEPT
Some psychologists believe that intelligence comprises one general factor, g, while others believe
that intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities.
I. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence

➢ Psychometrics is the field of mental measurements.
➢ The psychologist Charles Spearman used psychometric technique to advance his theory of
intelligence as a single factor.
A. Spearman’s g Factor
➢ In 1927 Spearman observed that individuals’ scores on different tests tend to be highly
correlated; those who score high on one test tend to score high on others.
➢ These correlations point to a single common factor of general intelligence underlying
performance in several intellectual domains, which Spearman called g.
➢ Tests of g have located it in the frontal lobes.
➢ Although some neuroscientists accept the concept of g, others believe that this explanation of
intelligence as a single factor oversimplifies both the nature of intelligence and of the brain.
B. Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

➢ Psychologist Raymond Cattell determined that general intelligence can be broken down into
two relatively independent components: crystallized and fluid.
➢ Crystallized intelligence consists of the knowledge a person has acquired, plus the ability to
access that knowledge.
➢ Crystallized intelligence, related to the person’s ability to store and retrieve information from
semantic memory, is measured by tests of vocabulary, arithmetic, and general information.
➢ Fluid intelligence is the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems – abilities
that involve using algorithms and heuristics.
➢ Fluid intelligence is often measured by tests of block design and spatial visualization, tests
that do not rely on the individual possessing certain “crystallized” background information to
solve a problem.
➢ For Cattell, both types of intelligence were essential to adaptive living.
II. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence

➢ Cognitive psychologists say that intelligence includes cognitive processes underlying success in
many areas of life, not just school, and thus is broader than the psychometric view of intelligence.
A. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

➢ Psychologist Robert Sternberg has proposed a three-part – triarchic – theory of intelligence
that three different types of intelligence, each independent of the other.
➢ Practical intelligence is the ability of individuals to cope with people and events in their
environment, sometimes called “street smarts.”
➢ Analytical intelligence, the abilities measured by most IQ tests, relies on problem solving,
rational judgment and the ability to compare and contrast ideas to analyze problems and find
solutions.
➢ Creative intelligence helps people develop new ideas and see new relationships among
concepts.
➢ According to the triarchic theory, an individual’s ability in one of the three does not
necessarily predict his or her intelligence in the other two.
➢ Recently, Sternberg and his colleagues added another element of intelligence, wisdom, using
one’s intelligence toward a common good, rather than a selfish pursuit.
➢ Only by promoting wisdom can we achieve the societal goals that most people desire,
Sternberg says.
➢ Studies show that wisdom is one predictor of well being later in life.
B. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

➢ Psychologist Howard Gardner views traditional IQ tests as limited measures of human
abilities.
➢ Gardner argues that we have at least eight separate mental abilities, which he calls multiple
intelligences:
o Linguistic intelligence – measured by vocabulary tests and tests of reading
comprehension;
o Logical-mathematical intelligence – measured with analogies, math problems and logic
problems;
o Spatial intelligence – the ability to form and manipulate mental images of objects and to
think about their relationships in space;
o Musical intelligence – the ability to perform, compose and appreciate musical patterns,
including patterns of rhythms and pitches;
o Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence – the ability for controlled movement and coordination,
such as that needed by an athlete or a surgeon;
o Naturalistic intelligence – the ability to classify living things as members of diverse
groups and recognize subtle changes in one’s environment;
o Intrapersonal intelligence – the ability to know oneself, to develop a satisfactory sense

of identity and to regulate one’s life.
➢ Gardner claims that each of these intelligences arises from a separate module in the brain.
➢ The latter two are similar to what some psychologists call emotional intelligence (EQ).
➢ People who are high on emotional intelligence are good at reading other people’s emotional
states as well as their own.
C. Assessing Cognitive Theories of Intelligence

➢ For cognitive psychologists, there are many ways to excel, and one way is not necessarily
superior to others.
➢ While this notion is appealing, the challenge is how to develop ways of assessing and
measuring these types of intelligences.
➢ Sternberg and his colleagues developed supplemental questions designed to measure creative
and practical intelligence and appended them to SAT tests.
➢ When Sternberg’s team scored them, they proved not only to be valid measures of creative
and practical intelligence, but also increased the college’s ability to predict freshman success.
➢ Sternberg’s supplemental questions also reduced ethnic variations group differences in
college admissions by identifying cultural variations in demonstration of intelligence.
III. Cultural Definitions of Intelligence

➢ The value of each component of intelligence is culturally determined according to what is needed
by, useful to, and prized by a given society.
➢ Many cultures have no word for intelligence as we conceive of it: the mental processes associated
with logic, vocabulary, mathematical ability, abstract thought and academic success.
A. African Concepts of Intelligence

➢ In Kenya, Sternberg found that children who scored highest on tests of practical intelligence
scored lower on traditional IQ tests that measure academic success; practical solutions are
more valuable than academic skills.
➢ The western assumption that intelligence is associated with school success and quick
solutions is not universal.
B. A Native American Concept of Intelligence

➢ The Cree tribe in northern Ontario makes a distinction between ‘school” intelligence and the
“good thinking” centered on respect, valued in the Cree culture.
➢ What are seen as White values are often disparaged, when they are in conflict with Cree
values.
IV. The Question of Animal Intelligence

➢ In the wild, animals have survival skills for hunting and raising their young, often involving
cooperation.
➢ For many years it was not determined whether these were conditioned, learned from previous
consequences, or demonstrations of thinking and intelligence.
➢ Jane Goodall, in her observational studies of wild chimpanzees, reported their making and using
tools— abilities requiring forethought and planning.
A. What Abilities Make Humans Unique?

➢ If chimpanzees can make and use tools, previously thought to be human skills only, the
question is whether there are any abilities that are unique to humans and make them
“human.”
➢ Humans possess a theory of mind, an awareness that other people’s behavior may be
influenced by beliefs, desires and emotions that differ from one’s own.
➢ Theory of mind is thought to underlie our human ability to form effective social relationships.
➢ Language has been thought to be a unique human ability.
➢ Studies have shown that some animals possess both a theory of mind and language.
B. Language of the Apes

➢ Researchers Allen and Beatrix Gardner taught a chimpanzee named Washoe language skills
previously thought to be impossible in nonhuman animals.
➢ “Adopting” Washoe when she was 10 months old and raising her in an environment similar
to that of a human child, the Gardners taught Washoe American Sign Language for
communication.
➢ After Washoe successfully learned 160 words, other psychologists taught language to a
variety of primates.
➢ Other species have been taught to communicate, as well.
C. What Are the Lessons of Research on Animal Language and Intelligence?

➢ Animals are capable of intelligent behavior, and most psychologists (except strict
behaviorists) would acknowledge that animals are capable of cognition.
➢ Most animals are adapted to a particular biological niche, and they are intelligent in ways that
aid their survival.
➢ Our observations of animal cognition should make us aware of our kinship with other
animals.
➢ Observations of animal behavior are limited by our study of them in human terms, rather tha
in ways that are appropriate to the species under study.
PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: Test Scores and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (text p. 249)
Expectations influence student performance. Labels and the expectations that they represent influence not
only people’s beliefs but also the outcomes of those beliefs. Observations or behaviors that result
primarily from expectations are called self-fulfilling prophecies. These play important roles in the
performance of children in the classroom; in situations in which teachers were told to expect high
performance from certain children and treated them in accordance with what they were told, those
children performed at a higher standard. Self-fulfilling prophecies also can be observed in the workplace,
where positive expectations of employees raise productivity significantly.
6.5 HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS EXPLAIN IQ DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS?

(text p. 250)
Lecture Launchers
➢ Early Arguments for Nativism (p. 346)
➢ Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals (p. 348)
➢ Cultural Bias in IQ Testing (p. 360)
➢ Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test (p. 361)
➢ Is There a Racial Difference in Intelligence? (p. 361)
Video Resources:
➢ Multimedia Resources in MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com):
6.5 LECTURE OUTLINE: How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among

Groups? (text p. 250)
6.5 KEY QUESTION
How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups?
6.5 CORE CONCEPT
While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they disagree
on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups.
➢ While we find the full range of IQ scores in every ethnic group, we also find IQ differences
between groups.
➢ If it is assumed that intelligence is primarily the result of innate (hereditary) factors, it could
also be concluded that intelligence is fixed and unchangeable; the next step in this reasoning
might be that there are superior and inferior ethnic groups, based upon IQ scores.
➢ If it is assumed that intelligence is shaped largely by experience (environment), society is
more likely to make a range of educational opportunities available for everyone and to view
people of all ethnic, cultural and economic groups as equals.
➢ In actuality, neither the hereditarian nor the environmentalist view is completely correct.
I. Intelligence and the Politics of Immigration

➢ In the early 1900s, the psychologist Henry Goddard, believing that intelligence is a hereditary
trait, proposed that all immigrants undergo tests; the goal was the exclusion of those believed
to be “mentally defective.”
➢ In 1924 the United States Congress passed legislation to limit immigration of groups and
nationalities that Goddard’s data had identified as being mentally deficient.
➢ Both Goddard and the Congress had ignored the fact that his tests had been given in English
to people with little familiarity with English; in short, the test takers couldn’t read the test.
➢ Today, we are aware of the shortcomings of intelligence tests; we know that Goddard used
faulty reasoning in concluding that heredity affected group data outcomes; we know that the
environment and experience have effects on an individual’s intelligence.
II. What Evidence shows That Intelligence Is Influenced by Heredity?

➢ Many lines of research indicate a hereditary influence on intelligence.
➢ Twin studies, particularly identical twins raised by adoptive parents and twins separated at
birth show that the IQs of children are more closely correlated with the IQs of their biological
parents than that of their adoptive parents.
➢ Research under the rubric of the Human Genome Project supports the notion that intelligence
has a genetic component, most likely involving the interaction of many genes.
➢ The closer the genetic relationship – from cousins to siblings to twins – the closer the
relationship of IQ scores.
➢ While psychologists agree that heredity plays an important part in determining an
individual’s IQ scores, they also agree that it remains difficult to estimate the relative weights
of heredity and environment.

➢ A reason for this is that children raised in the same household do not have the same
psychological environment; each child is treated somewhat differently.
III. What Evidence Shows that Intelligence Is Influenced by Environment?

➢ A longitudinal study of 110 children from impoverished homes revealed that 1) a stimulating
environment was strongly associated with language ability but not with memory and 2) a
nurturing environment was associated with memory but not with language ability.
➢ There are greater similarities of IQ among people who have been reared together than among
those reared apart.
➢ In laboratory animals, those raised in a stimulus-enriched habitat early in life have a more
complex, complete development of brain cells and cortical regions.
➢ Early intervention programs can boost children’s IQ scores.
➢ The amount of schooling children receives correlates well with their IQ scores.
➢ In adulthood, environmental factors such as the cognitive complexity and intellectual demand
of one’s job can influence mental abilities through life.
➢ Psychologists William Dickens and James Flynn, analyzing IQ scores recently, reported that
the gap between group scores of Euro-Americans and African Americans is narrowing.
IV. Heritability (not Heredity) and Group Differences

➢ The influence of heredity on individual intelligence does not mean that heredity accounts for
differences between groups.
➢ Heredity is not the same as heritability, the amount of trait variation within a group that can
be attributed to genetic differences. While both terms arise from the notion of heredity, they
have different meanings; heredity is DNA related, while heritability refers to the amount of
influence that heredity can have with respect to a given trait.
➢ Suppose children are all raised in a group in a stimulating environment with devoted parents
who read to them and interact with them – all of which are known to improve intellectual
abilities – because the environments are essentially the same, much of the differences in their
IQ scores could be attributed to the effects of heredity. In this group, IQ scores have high
heritability.
➢ IQ scores of children raised under conditions of neglect – given mere custodial care in an
orphanage, with no intellectual stimulation from their caregivers – would probably have little
variance because they are all intellectually stunted. Group IQ scores would have low
heritability; the genetic contribution to their IQ was minimized because the poor environment
limited development of their genetic potential.
➢ While the IQ differences between the two groups would be real, observations yield no
information about genetic differences, if any, between the groups. Because the environments
are different it cannot be determined what role genetics play in the difference.
➢ Because people are exposed to different cultural traditions and experience different levels of
wealth or discrimination, we have not found a way to evaluate what proportion of differences
between groups can be attributed to heredity or environment.
➢ We can speak of heritable differences only within a group of individuals who have shared
essentially the same environment.
➢ Biologists have determined that “race” is not a valid biological concept.
A. The Jensen Controversy

➢ Despite the concerns about correlating IQ scores with group differences, in the early
1960s, some psychologists, including Arthur Jensen, have contended that racial
differences in IQ scores have a substantial genetic basis; IQ scores can be boosted to

some extent, he said, by helping the poor and disadvantaged, but the potential for
gains is limited.
➢ Jensen presented three types of evidence: 1) several studies showing a strong
influence of heredity on IQ; 2) a complex statistical argument showing only weak
environmental effects on IQ; 3) an interpretation of the results of government
programs attempting to give extra help to disadvantaged black children that, while
showing positive effects, had not erased the racial differences in performance.
➢ More than 100 published articles responding to Jensen’s challenge pointed out that
Jensen had minimized or ignored several factors, including the effects of racism,
lower expectations for black children, lack of opportunity, low self-esteem and a
White, middle-class bias built into IQ and achievement tests.
➢ Many psychologists now agree that a combination of environmental factors can
explain the differences that Jensen found.
B. The Scarr and Weinberg Adoption Study

➢ Psychologists Sandra Scarr and Richard Weinberg compared 113 black and white
children who were adopted into similar home environments in Minnesota.
➢ Their research utilized educational records and IQ test scores from both the
biological families and adoptive families, with biological parents averaging IQ scores
of around 100 and adoptive parents averaging about 115.
➢ Their findings revealed no differences between groups, thus contradicting Jensen’s
claim that group differences are genetic.
C. Social Class and IQ

➢ Research on the relationship between social class and IQ shows similar effects.
➢ Socioeconomic class, as reflected in an individual’s financial status and lifestyle,
clearly correlates with IQ.
➢ Affluence is associated with higher IQ scores.
➢ Groups with the lowest average IQ scores experience the greatest degree of poverty,
illiteracy and hopelessness.
➢ The negative effects of growing up in a disadvantaged home far outweigh the
benefits of growing up in a wealthy family.
➢ Poverty also limits individual potential by limiting health care, good nutrition, and
education.
➢ Since schools are funded largely by property taxes, wealthy neighborhoods can
provide bigger and better school facilities, while poorer districts have schools that
suffer from crowding, physically deteriorating buildings, threats to personal safety,
and poorer teachers.
D. Head Start: A Successful Intervention Program

➢ Head Start, a successful intervention program grew from the assumption that many
children from deprived families need an intellectual boost to prepare them for school.
➢ The program serves children’s physical and mental needs with nutritional and
medical support as well as a year or two of preschool education.
➢ The program also involves parents in making policy, planning programs working in
classrooms and learning about planning and child development.

➢ A great deal of research suggests that the Head Start program works; children in the
program score higher on IQ tests and have higher achievement that a matched control
group of children who received no intervention.
➢ The effects of Head Start participation persist into adolescence.
➢ Since educational intervention in the first months of life can raise infants’ scores on
intelligence tests by as much as 30% compared to control groups, beginning such
programs earlier would produce positive results.
➢ The earlier that a child is immersed in an enriched environment, the stronger the
effects.
E. Test Biases and Culture-Fair Tests

➢ Problems with the IQ tests themselves influence IQ scores and contribute to test
biases.
➢ Many psychologists have argued that IQ test questions have built-in biases toward a
middle or upper class background, biases that favor the white child.
➢ One source of bias stems from the fact that most IQ tests rely heavily on vocabulary
level, giving an advantage to children who are encouraged to read.
➢ Another criticism is that the norms of White-American culture are the norms by
which other cultures are judged.
➢ While a culture-free test of ability or achievement is impossible, more psychologists
would agree that culture-fair tests using nonverbal assessment techniques could be
used more widely.
F. The Bell Curve: Another Hereditarian Offense

➢ In 1994 a book, The Bell Curve; Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life,
by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, argued that racial differences in IQ scores
have a strong genetic basis.
➢ They maintained that if these innate differences could be accepted, the nation could
move on to more enlightened and humane social policies.
➢ Flaws in the book’s arguments are those of the hereditarians; they offered no proof
that differences between groups exposed to different environments have a different
hereditary basis.
➢ The evidence presented in the book is flawed, as well.
➢ Also, the book’s authors confuse correlation with causation. The relationship
between poverty and other social ills that are claimed to be the result of differences
can be turned around and shown to be the causes of group differences. Correlation is
not causation.
➢ The book’s preference for simple genetic explanations for the difference in IQ scores
has resonated with the American population because it is a simple explanation for a
complex problem.
➢ Other cultures do not regard genetics as the predominant influence upon IQ scores;
when surveyed, Asians expressed the view that studying hard raises performance
levels.
PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: Stereotype Threat (text p. 256)

The expectancy bias and the self-fulfilling prophecy mean that when members of some groups harbor low
expectations about the abilities of everyone in their group, their expectations might adversely affect their
IQ scores. Psychologist Claude Steele calls this stereotype threat and has amassed evidence
demonstrating its effect on minority groups. Stereotype threat also affects gender, when girls may learn
to feel inferior in math and science or on the elderly who may feel intimidated about memory failure.
Stereotype threat can be reduced when people, are encouraged to think of intelligence as being influenced
by experience and expectations rather than as a fixed trait.
CRITICAL THINKING APPLIED: The Question of Gender Differences (text p. 258)

Are the undisputed gender differences we see the result of socialization, prejudice, discrimination and
lack of opportunity for women who go into science, or are they the result of different ways of processing
information?
Analyzing this issue from the nurture perspective by applying the critical thinking questions, the research
literature on gender has shown that there are far more similarities than differences in the dimensions
studied. Similarities include mathematical ability, problem solving, reading comprehension, leadership
effectiveness and moral reasoning. A few exceptions exist, however, among them greater male
aggression, acceptance of casual sex, and throwing velocity, all of which may have biological roots.
Analyzing this issue from the nature perspective, another set of facts emerges. Men, as a group, are more
variable and extreme than women, with more men lying at the opposite poles of virtually all mental and
behavioral dimensions. Men seem to outnumber women as among the biggest losers and the biggest
winners.
Both sides of this issue agree that gender differences are small. It may be that there are differences in
motivation with males more willing to take risks rather than male ability, and cultural differences that can
be shaped.
CHAPTER SUMMARY (textbook p. 259)

Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises
➢ Additional Discussion Questions (p. 361)
➢ Crossword Puzzle Chapter 6 (p. 362)
➢ Fill in the Blank Exercise Chapter 6 (p. 363)
Video Resources:
Multimedia Resources in MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com)
▲ Return to Table of Contents

Teaching Objectives for Chapter 6

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the main components of thought.

2. Define the two kinds of concepts and discuss the role of concepts in the process of thought.
3. Discuss the role of culture and concepts.
4. Explain the role of the frontal lobe in thought.
5. List the steps in problems solving.
6. Give examples of the major obstacles to problem solving.
7. Differentiate between an algorithm and an heuristic.
8. Explain how the five major biases impede decision making.
9. Discuss the relationship between creativity and intelligence.
10. Discuss strategies and common errors of decision-making.
11. Describe the history of intelligence testing, and the appropriate uses and misuses of IQ tests.
12. Discuss the significance of the classifications "mental retardation" and "gifted."
13. Compare and contrast the psychometric and cognitive theories of the structure of intelligence.
14. Discuss the issue of the cultural definition of intelligence.
15. Evaluate the issue of nature and nurture in the intelligence debate.
Chapter 6 Key Questions

1. What are the components of thought?
2. What abilities do good thinkers possess?
3. How is intelligence measured?
4. Is intelligence one or many abilities?
5. How do psychologists explain IQ differences among groups?
Chapter 6 Core Concepts

1. Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions,
and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas
and scripts.
2. Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies, called algorithms and
heuristics, they know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision-
making.
3. Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence
as normally distributed and measurable by performance on a variety of tasks–both verbal and
nonverbal.
4. Some psychologists believe that intelligence comprises one general factor; while others believe
intelligence is best described as a collection of distinct abilities.

5. While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they
disagree on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups.
Chapter 6 Psychology Matters

➢ Schemas and scripts help you know what to expect. But sometimes they fill in the blanks
without your realizing it.
➢ Using the psychology of thinking to learn psychology. Psychology has learned the secrets of
developing expertise in psychology or any other subject.
➢ What can you do for an exceptional child? In both mental retardation and giftedness, children
should be encouraged to capitalize on their abilities.
➢ Test scores and the self-fulfilling prophecy: An IQ score can create expectations that have a
life of their own.
➢ Stereotype threat. Just a reminder that you belong to a minority group may be enough to lower
your test scores.
Songs to Launch the Lecture (See Suggested Activity 1 in Chapter 1 for instructions):
Cognition: “You Were on My Mind” (We Five)
Thought and Knowledge: “Don’t Think Twice” (Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Johnny Cash)
“Think It Over” (Buddy Holly)
“I Don’t Want to Know” (Phil Collins)
“Let’s Call the Whole Thing Off” (Harry Connick, Jr.)
“Think” (Aretha Franklin)
“Is There Something I Should Know?” (Duran Duran)
“You Oughta Know” (Alanis Morissette)
“I Know What I Know” (Paul Simon)
“Too Much Information” (The Police)
Problem Solving: “I Guess I’ll Have to Change My Plans” (Frank Sinatra)
Irony: “Isn’t It Ironic?” (Alanis Morissette)
Intelligence: “Wonderful World” (James Taylor)
IQ: “IQ” (Ani Difranco)
Exceptional: “International Bright Young Thing” (Jesus Jones, Doubt)
“Land of Confusion” (Genesis)
“Mayor of Simpleton” (XTC)

▼LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS

Types of Problems (p. 332)
Intuition (p. 333)
Don’t Believe Everything You Read… Except This (p. 334)
Functional Fixedness (p. 335)
Using Cognitive Maps (p. 336)
Hormones and Thinking Skills (p. 338)
Fallacies in Reasoning (p. 338)
Einstein’s Brain (p. 340)
IQ and Juror Selection (p. 341)
The Darwin Awards—What Intelligence Isn’t (p. 341)
Does the SAT Have Predictive Value? (p. 342)
Birth Order and Intelligence (p. 343)
Mental Retardation (p. 345)
Terman’s Termites (p. 345)
Information Processing Approach to Intelligence (p. 346)
Arthur Jensen (p. 346)
Early Arguments for Nativism (p. 347)
Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals (p. 349)
▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Types of Problems
Sometimes the kinds of problems you have to solve determine the way you try to solve them. There are basically
three kinds of problems: arrangement, inducing structure, and transformation.
Arrangement Problems
Arrangement problems are those in which it is necessary to rearrange the information you have. Anagrams,
a type of puzzle in which letters must be rearranged to form a familiar word, are a good example of this
problem type. What common word, for example, could be made from the letters bemnur?
(The answer is “number.”)
Jigsaw puzzles are also arrangement problems, as are puzzles or tasks that require you to put certain
pictures or events in order. When an investigator of a crime tries to recreate the sequence of events, it is also a
problem of arrangement.
Problems of Inducing Structure

If you have ever faced a puzzle that involved finding the next number or letter in a sequence, you have
been trying to induce (reason from the specific examples to a general solution) structure. What is the next letter
in this sequence?
S M T W T F __
This is not only a good example of inducing structure, it’s also a good example of insight. Once you
realize that the letters are the first letters of the days of the week, “S” becomes an easy answer.
Transformation Problems
In a transformation problem, one has to carry out a sequence or series of transformations, or changes, to solve the
problem. The 3-cup and 5-cup measure problem would be a simple example of this type. Another example would be
to try to solve the “Tower of Hanoi” puzzle mentioned in Chapter Six (the one in which the rings have to be moved
from one post to another without ever putting a big one on a little one, or moving more than one at a time—Figure
6.4).

► Return to Lecture Guide Section:

6.1 What Are the Components of Thought?
6.2 What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess?
6.3 How Is Intelligence Measured?
6.4 Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities?
6.5 How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups?
Chapter Summary
▼ Return to List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 6
Lecture/Discussion: Intuition
Psychologists have long been interested in understanding reasoning, problem solving, and decision-making. But the
other, “softer” side of this cognitive coin is the study of intuition; how we develop a “gut feeling” or “sense” about a
judgment, situation, or another person. Far from relying on an aching bunion or creaky joint to understand intuition,
scientists have recently put the notion to the test.
Antonio Damasio and his colleagues at the University of Iowa College of Medicine studied 6 people who had damage
to the ventromedial sector of the prefrontal cortex and 10 people who did not. This area of the brain is responsible for
storing information about emotional experiences and is also involved in decision-making. Armed with $2,000 in fake
money, the participants were presented with four decks of cards and were told they could turn over cards from any
deck during the course of a game. Unbeknownst to the participants, two decks were rigged to produce lower immediate
rewards but a higher overall payoff, whereas the other two decks yielded short-term, large payoffs but at the price of
greater total losses. Participants flipped cards at will while being monitored for GSR as an indicator of nonconscious
(or conscious) anxiety. After the first 20 rounds the research team questioned the participants and did so again after
each subsequent 10 rounds, in order to determine when the participants became conscious of the best strategy to win.
Those participants without brain damage began to show signs of anxiety before picking cards from the losing decks,
and began to avoid those decks, although consciously they were not yet aware that they were losers. By the 80th round
7 of the 10 normal participants consciously knew to avoid the losing decks, and although the remaining 3 did not reach
that insight, they nonetheless continued to make advantageous choices. The 6 brain damaged participants, however,
continued to pick from the losing decks, never expressed a hunch that something was amiss, and never showed signs
of anxiety. In short, the intuition or unconscious knowledge that arose in the normal subjects was absent in the impaired
group; there never arose a “sense” or “feeling” of what was going on.
One study digs deeper to the roots of intuition. A team of researchers led by David Skuse, a psychiatrist at the Institute
of Child Development of University College in London, found evidence suggesting intuition is an inherited trait passed
from fathers to their daughters. Skuse and his colleagues defined intuition in terms of social skills, such as the ability
to decode nonverbal communication or recognize socially appropriate behavior. Although the research team has not
identified a gene (or genes) responsible for these abilities, their patterns of evidence suggest a specific chain of
inheritance. The parents of 88 girls with Turner’s syndrome (characterized by a single X chromosome) were asked to
rate their daughters on various measures of social intelligence, such as awareness of other’s feelings, skill at following
instructions, or awareness of offending others. The researchers next determined whether each girl’s single X
chromosome had come from her father or mother. The results revealed that those girls who had inherited the mother’s
chromosome scored worse on the measures of “intuition” than did those receiving the X from their fathers.
Parents of normal boys and girls were also asked the same questions. The boys, compared to the normal girls, scored
lower on the measures of social intuition: Like all boys, they also received their X chromosome from their mothers.
Furthermore, the researchers also compared the responses of the Turner’s syndrome girls with those of normal boys
and girls on a battery of neuropsychological measures. Turner’s syndrome girls who received their X chromosome
from their mothers scored worse on tests that required extensive planning or the inhibition of urges; normal boys also
scored worse on the inhibition measures (but not the planning tasks).
Brown, D. (June 12, 1997). Women inherit intuition from dads, researchers say. Austin American-Statesman, A1, A6.
Stein, R. (March 9, 1997). Intuition affects sensible choices, researchers find. Austin American-Statesman, A25.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Don’t Believe Everything You Read…Except This
People sometimes believe in things they ought not to, such as flat Earths, cheese moons, or their own invulnerability.
But forming and clinging to misbegotten beliefs may itself be a consequence of some fundamental cognitive processes,
such as how information gets encoded in memory or what happens to a disrupted attentional system.
Dan Gilbert, of Harvard University, has been exploring the problem of “believing what isn’t so” for several years. In
explaining the process by which such belief takes place he invokes the thinking of Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza,
both who wrote quite a bit about how information is perceived and stored in a mental system. Descartes argued that
information is first comprehended, and then in a subsequent step, a truth-value is assigned to it: We decide to accept
or reject the information as being true. This would suggest, of course, that we can easily entertain ideas (indefinitely,
perhaps...putting them up in a mental guest room, so to speak) without necessarily putting stock in them. If
comprehension (understanding) of information and endorsement (acceptance or rejection) are two distinct steps,
humans should be able to hold an idea without believing it.
Spinoza adopted a different position on the nature of belief, arguing that comprehension and acceptance of information
are accomplished in a single initial step, only later to be followed by certification or rejection of the information. This
view holds that the very act of receiving information entails assigning a belief to it [“this information is true” (or false,
as the case might be)], which only later can be substantiated or “unbelieved,” as might be called for. Quite unlike
Descartes, then, Spinoza argued that ideas could not be entertained, “beliefless,” in a cognitive system but rather are
believed upon first being received into the cognitive system.
How to disentangle these competing predictions? Notice that both, if allowed to run their course, would lead to the
same outcome: The acceptance or rejection of information as being true. The difference lies in when the belief is
assigned, either in a Spinozan first step or in a Cartesian second step. Gilbert reasoned, then, that disrupting a belief
system in action would be the only way to tell which system (Spinozan or Cartesian) was at work. If Descartes was
correct, disrupting the system between steps should have no effect on cognition: We would be left holding a collection
of ideas that had not yet been assigned truth-values. If Spinoza was correct, however, disruption should produce a
very pronounced tendency: We should be left believing information to be true (since it was automatically tagged with
a truth valued upon entering the cognitive system) when in some cases it is not.
To test these ideas, Gilbert and his colleagues asked research participants in one of several experiments to learn some
(fictitious) Hopi language terms. Participants saw a Hopi/English word-pairing flash on a computer screen (such as
“A monishna is a star,” “A rirg is a valley,” or “A neseti is a bee”), which was followed by a brief pause, and then
followed by one of three outcomes: The word “True” (signaling that the preceding pairing was accurate), the word
“False” (indicating that the preceding pairing was incorrect), or a blank screen. Note that Descartes and Spinoza are
still neck-and-neck at this point. Either account of belief would argue that participants could take in the information
(untouched, as Descartes would have it, or believed as true, as Spinoza would have it) and then correct it based on the
True or False cue later given (which would mean assigning a belief in the Cartesian system, or revising/substantiating
an existing belief in the Spinozan system). However, the researchers asked participants to do one additional task. On
some trials participants were asked to press a button if they heard a particular tone. This additional task served to tax
their available cognitive resources, making it more difficult to perform the correction step of integrating the true/false
cues with the prior information. These participants, however, provided an answer to the riddle of belief. When later
polled they showed a particular pattern of errors; namely, they were left believing propositions that should have been
revised (i.e., those tagged as “False”) as being true. Given the controls of the experiment, the only way to account for
this outcome is that the information must have been encoded as true upon first being read (just as Spinoza argued).
Because these resource-depleted subjects were disrupted from performing Spinoza’s second task (certifying or, in
these cases, rejecting the previously-believed information), they were left believing what they ought not to.
The implications of this research are startling. For example, as Dan Wegner and his colleagues have shown, it may
help explain the workings of innuendo. When presented with information that may or may not be correct, our Spinozan
belief system compels us to endorse that information upon comprehension. If our cognitive resources are later
disrupted we may be unable to correct our initial comprehension. Similarly, this research may help explain why belief
perseverance takes place. If the stage of correcting initial information is subject to disruption, we may be left clinging
to beliefs even in the face of clearly disconfirming evidence. Finally, these results fly in the face of what your parents
always told you. Far from “not believing everything you read,” it seems that we can’t escape that fate.
Gilbert, D. T. (1993). The assent of man: Mental representation and the control of belief. In D. M. Wegner & J. W.
Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 57–87). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gilbert, D. T. (1991). How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46, 107–119.
Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Malone, P. S. (1990). Unbelieving the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of
false information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 601–613.
Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975). Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased
attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 880–892.
Wegner, D. M., Wenzlaff, R., Kerker, R. M., & Beattie, A. E. (1981). Incrimination through innuendo: Can media
questions become public answers? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 822–832.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Functional Fixedness
To demonstrate functional fixedness, gather a number of household items, such as an egg carton, film container, baby
food jar, nail, paper clip, baking cup, empty toilet paper roll, piece of string, paper napkin, clothes pin, safety pin,
Band-aid, and cotton ball. You may wish to have several of each item depending on how many students are in your
class.
Arrange the class in small groups and have each group choose several items. Their task is to brainstorm as many new
uses for their items as possible in the time allowed. For four or five items, allow 10 to 15 minutes. Have each group
report their results to the class.

The following discussion should

allow you to reinforce ideas about
the nature of creativity and the
meaning of functional fixedness.
If a person suggests using a baby
food jar to store small items such as
buttons, this is still fixating on the
function of the jar as a container. A
more creative suggestion would be
to break the jar and use a piece for
cutting, or to draw around it to make a
circle.

6.1 What Are the Components
of Thought?
6.2 What Abilities Do Good
Thinkers Possess?
6.3 How Is Intelligence
Measured?
Chapter Summary
Lecture Launcher: Using Cognitive Maps
When students enter a new course, their “cognitive maps” of the material are, at first, somewhat disorganized–as you
might expect. Then, as the course progresses, their mental images of the field become simpler, organized around core
concepts, and more like that of the experts: their professors. Cognitive scientists have discovered this using path
analysis, a mathematical technique that shows the connections between concepts in our minds and how these
connections change as we learn (Gonzalvo, Cañas, & Bajo, 1994).
The research examined how students and their professors saw the relationships among 30 important concepts in a
history of psychology course. The students’ cognitive map at the beginning of the course is shown in the top figure.
By the end of the course it had changed, more closely matching the professors’ map, shown on the next page. (Both
are group averages.) Notice how the students and professors organized their thinking around quite different concepts.
The professors’ map reflects their expertise in its relative simplicity (not simple, but simpler than the students’) and
in its choice of the most important concepts, which you can see serve as organizing principles around which other
concepts are clustered.
What does this suggest for your learning of psychology and other disciplines? You would do well to attend to the way
your professors organize their courses.
Reference:
Gonzalvo, P., Cañas, J. J., & Bajo, M. (1994). Structural representations in knowledge acquisition. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 86, 601-616.


6.2 What Abilities
Do Good Thinkers
Possess?
6.3 How Is
Intelligence
Measured?
6.4 Is Intelligence One
or Many Abilities?
6.5 How Do
Psychologists
Explain IQ Differences
Among Groups?
Chapter
Summary
▼ Return to List of Lecture
Launchers and Discussion Topics
for Chapter 6
▲ Return to Chapter 6: Table of
Contents
Lecture/Discussion: Hormones and Thinking Skills
Uriel Halbreich, UB professor of psychiatry and gynecology and obstetrics, and an expert in
psychopharmacology, hormonal disorders and behavior, has reported that the performance of postmenopausal
women on certain tests measuring the ability to integrate several cognitive functions improved significantly after a
course of estrogen-replacement therapy (ERT).
It was found that low levels of estrogen may impair some cognitive functions, while
estrogen-replacement therapy may help improve certain thinking and biological brain processes, and also may play a
role in elevating mood, results of studies involving postmenopausal women conducted by researchers at UB have
shown.

Post-menopausal women and women of childbearing age were given a wide variety of tests that measure
different areas of cognitive functions according to Halbreich. The women were then given estrogen for 60 days, and
there appeared to be a significant improvement. This increase in cognitive ability was correlated with the plasma
levels of estrogen. The results indicated that integrative abilities, reaction times and short-term verbal memory of
many of the postmenopausal women improved after estrogen therapy. Halbreich believes that estrogen may help
maintain some functions that typically decline with age or menopause.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Fallacies in Reasoning
We often have lapses in critical thinking as we speak and write. A fallacy is a belief or argument that rests on invalid
or false inference, that is logically unsound. Fallacies are often used unintentionally, but they are also used
intentionally when an effort is being made to deceive or mislead the listener or reader.
1. “If you know about BMW, you either own one or you want one.”
What’s wrong with this statement? It is an example of the fallacy called false alternatives. It is also called
dualistic or black-and-white thinking and bifurcation. The fallacy occurs when it is presumed that a classification is
exclusive or exhaustive. It often takes the form of overlooking alternatives that exist between two polar opposites.
Here is another example of false alternatives written by an educator who was suggesting that children
should begin public school at the age of four and that high school should end after the eleventh year: “Twelfth grade
has become a bore for able students and a holding tank for the rest.”
2. “I asked my doctor why my mouth was so dry and he told me that it was because my saliva glands are not
producing enough saliva.”
What do you think of the doctor’s diagnosis? This is an example of the fallacy of begging the question, or
circularity. The fallacy occurs when the solution to a problem is a restatement of the problem, or, an argument for a
proposition is equivalent to the proposition, such as “He throws tantrums all the time because he has a terrible
temper.” Diagnoses of mental disorders are sometimes considered to beg the question: “Why is he so nervous and
agitated?” “He has generalized anxiety disorder.” “What does that mean?” “It means that he has anxiety and
apprehension.”
Here is another example that may seem ridiculous, but when things such as this occur in the context of
speech or writing, they often sound all right, maybe even impressive: “Bodies fall because they have a downward
tendency.”
3. “He is an innocent man. He was tried before a jury of his peers and the prosecution was unable to prove him
guilty.”
Is the assumption of innocence justified? This is an example of the fallacy called appeal to ignorance. This
fallacy occurs when it is argued that because we cannot prove a proposition to be true, it must be false; or if we
cannot prove a proposition to be false, it must be true.

Here is another example: “There has never been any scandal about this candidate for president. Therefore,
he must be an honest, moral person.”
4. “If you don’t pick up your clothes before you go to bed at night, pretty soon you’ll be knee-deep in dirty clothes.”
Is that the way it is? This is an example of the fallacy called slippery slope; certain applications of it have been
called the domino theory. The argument is that if the first in a possible series of steps or events occurs, the other
steps or events are inevitable.
Here is an example from a letter to the editor of a metropolitan newspaper. The writer was responding to an
article discussing the morality of euthanasia in the case of a person with an advanced case of multiple sclerosis: “If
we allow this to happen, where do we stop? Who would decide at what point someone should die? Do we give them
poison the moment they know they have multiple sclerosis or cancer, before they have any suffering?”
5. “TV can’t be harmful for children because it occupies their attention for hours and keeps them off the streets.”
Is this argument against the idea that TV can be harmful for children convincing? It is an example of the fallacy
called irrelevant reason. This fallacy occurs when the argument given to support a proposition has little or no
relevance to the proposition.
Here is another example: “Conservationists have suggested that we could conserve fuel by increasing the
tax on gasoline. But more taxes, whether they’re paid by the oil companies or passed on to the consumer at the
pump, will not produce one more barrel of oil.”
6. “I don’t see how she can get elected. No one I know is going to vote for her.”
What’s wrong with this argument? This is the fallacy called hasty generalization. It occurs when an isolated or
exceptional case is used as the basis for a general conclusion. In more statistical language, it is making a conclusion
about a population based on information obtained from a sample that is biased or too small. It is an error of
inductive reasoning—going from the particular to the general when it is not justified by the evidence.
Another example is attributed to the brother of a former president of the United States: “I never read a book by
a woman because I never met a woman who had sense enough to write a book.” (Either he hasn’t met very many
women, in which case the sample is too small, or the ones he has met are a biased sample. Of course, there is the
possibility that he is a devout sexist.)
7. “If socialized medicine will result in better and lower-cost healthcare, shouldn’t the same logic be applied to
automobiles? Wouldn’t nationalization of the auto industry produce better and lower-cost cars? And if we
nationalized auto mechanics, wouldn’t we get better and less-expensive repairs?”
These words were spoken in rebuttal after Senator Kennedy had called for national health insurance in a speech
at a meeting of the United Auto Workers. Does the speaker’s argument make sense? It represents the fallacy called
questionable analogy. In questionable analogy an attempt is made to make two situations seem more similar than
they actually are.
Another example is from a state senator who was using the crucifixion as a rationale for capital
punishment:
“Where would Christianity be if Jesus got 8 to 15 years with time off for good behavior?”


Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Einstein’s Brain
After Albert Einstein died of a hemorrhaged abdominal aneurysm in 1955, pathologist Dr. Thomas Harvey removed
Einstein’s brain and kept it for scientific study. He noted that on a gross-anatomical level, Einstein’s brain was no
larger or heavier than the normal human brain. Since 1955, Einstein’s brain has been photographed extensively and
sectioned for further investigation. In 1996, Dr. Sandra Witelson obtained a significant section of Einstein’s brain and
has reported with her colleagues that although Einstein’s brain was reported as average in size and weight, Einstein’s
inferior parietal lobe was 15% wider than comparable parietal lobes. This brain area is associated with visual-spatial
cognition, mathematical thought, and imagery of movement. Note that Einstein’s theoretical insights were usually the
result of mental imagery that he translated into the mathematical language. Witelson and her colleagues also found
that the sylvian fissure, which separates the frontal and temporal lobes, was shorter than average, suggesting tightly
packed neurons and interconnections and thus increased communication between neurons in this brain region.
It is still unknown whether Einstein was born with an extraordinary mind, or whether the brain reorganized itself
around Einstein’s life work (following the principles of neural plasticity). As long as humans are intrigued by
intelligence, we will always be interesting in the mystery behind genius.
Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., & Harvey, T. (1999). The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein. The Lancet, 353, 2149–
2153.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: IQ and Juror Selection
A California court case (People v. Pierce [40 Cal. Rptr. 2d 254]) raises the issue of how intelligent a person must be
to serve as a member of a jury in a criminal trial. Ronald Blaine Pierce was convicted of forcible oral copulation,
forcible sodomy, and false imprisonment. His conviction was overturned, however, on the grounds that one of the
jurors who convicted him was mildly mentally retarded.
During the voir dire process the judge asked prospective jurors to state their names, occupations,
occupations of their spouses, and whether they had ever served on a jury. The juror in question answered honestly
and simply. Subsequently, the judge asked, “Do any of you know any reason at all, perhaps something I haven’t
touched on in my voir dire, that would bear upon your qualities to serve as a fair and impartial juror?,” to which no
one responded. The defendant’s attorney discovered during the jury’s final instructions that one of the jurors was
mildly mentally retarded, and filed for a reversal of the conviction.

A clinical psychologist later testified that the juror in question was a long-term resident of a group home
and had an IQ of 66. In the psychologist’s opinion, the juror would have had difficulty processing the information in
the trial, due to “her shortened attention span and her inability to process testimony at a normal rate of speech.” It
was also revealed, however, that the juror in question worked 20 hours a week in a retail store, and had received
several promotions and raises during the past two and a half years. The juror was also capable of getting to and from
work using public transportation.
California Code of Civil Procedure, section 203, lists the factors that disqualify potential jurors. These
include people who are not U.S. citizens; who do not live in the state or in the jurisdiction in which they are called to
serve; who have been convicted of a felony; who are serving as grand jurors; or who are the subject of
conservatorship. On these grounds, the judge denied the defendant’s motion for a new trial, noting that none of these
exclusions applied to the mentally retarded juror. The California Court of Appeal, however, ruled that the defendant
had been denied due process “to a jury whose members are both impartial and mentally competent.” The appellate
court ruled that section 203 eliminates certain categories of people, but not all categories of people who may be unfit
to serve.
This case raises several issues regarding the efficacy of the voir dire process, as well as the standards of
“competence” and “incompetence” to be used in juror selection.
Ewing, C. P. (1995, July). Is IQ relevant to juror selection? APA Monitor, p. 16.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: The Darwin Awards – What Intelligence Isn’t
Another way to approach the issue of defining intelligence is to define what intelligence is not! This can be done in
a humorous way by recounting a few passages from the well known Darwin Awards books. It honors certain people
who kill, or in rare cases sterilize themselves accidentally by attempting to do stupid feats or making careless
mistakes. The Darwin Award books state that, “The Awards honour people who ensure the long-term survival of
the human race by removing themselves from the gene pool in a sublimely idiotic fashion.” The Darwin Awards
website has many examples of award winners from the past, plus a “vintage Darwins” section, which is a hall of
fame of sorts for Darwin Awards: http://darwinawards.com/darwin/
Consistent with a critical thinking approach, the examination of an apparent lack of intelligence will prime students
to consider what intelligence really is (besides not being stupid).

Chapter Summary

Lecture/Discussion: Does the SAT have Predictive Value?
A discussion of the predictive value of the SAT is sure to get students’ attention. The following are some recent
data and news regarding the SAT, and a critical look at whether the test is doing what it is supposed to do, i.e.,
predict school performance.
The SAT is woven into the fabric of the college admissions process. Nearly all colleges use the SAT to help whittle
down their applicant pool to a manageable number, and to select students with desirable intellectual qualifications.
Nearly 2 million hopeful college applicants take the test annually, and nearly 1600 undergraduate institutions use the
SAT to help them in their selection process. There have been many critics of the SAT, however, for many different
reasons.
Jeff Rickey, dean of admissions at Earlham College says about the SAT, “The test is too long (about 4 hours) for
most young people to actually sit through…the present SAT experience is almost cruel and inhumane punishment.”
According to an April 5 article in USA Today, 24 of the top 100 liberal arts colleges as ranked by U.S. News &
World Report are SAT- and ACT-optional. “We expect the ACT/SAT-optional list to continue growing as more
institutions recognize that the tests remain biased, coachable, educationally damaging, and irrelevant to sound
admissions practices,” said Robert Schaeffer, public education director of FairTest, a Cambridge, Mass., agency that
monitors standardized tests. “As leaders of the new test-optional campuses have eloquently stated, dropping ACT
and SAT score requirements will enhance diversity and academic quality,” he said in an announcement about the
increase in schools dropping test-score requirements.
To examine the point of whether SAT scores actually do what they are supposed to do, we need to look at the issue
scientifically. The information presented in the chapter that indicates two “branches” of predictive value for the
SAT (the “low branch” of SAT scores has some [albeit limited] predictive power concerning college grade point
average, whereas the “high branch” of SAT scores has virtually no predictive power) is intriguing. Another set of
data, generated by the Ralph Nader report (1980) on the Educational Testing Service, indicates that random
predictions for student performance were nearly 90% as accurate as the SAT! In other words, the SAT doesn’t
appear to have much discriminative power with regard to future student school performance. As noted above, these
kinds of revelations have been causing some schools to reconsider their reliance on the SAT as a tool for student
selection in the admissions process. Of note, M.I.T. (a very prestigious institution) no longer uses it. Given the lack
of predictive power for the “upper branch” of SAT scores, this totally makes sense. In fact, more and more colleges
and universities are giving more weight to what appears to be the best predictor of collegiate success: high school
grades.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Birth Order and Intelligence
Birth order has been invoked to explain all manner of behavior, according to the pop psychology that crowds the
bookstore shelves. Although some of the claims are false and some are wishful thinking, there is a ring of truth to

the effects of one’s family position on behavior. In particular, birth order has been used to explain some elements of
intellectual performance.
Several studies have found that earlier-born children (in a family sequence) tend to perform better on
aptitude and intelligence tests compared to later-born children. Why this is the case, however, remains somewhat a
matter of debate. Several theories on the “nature” side of things, such as hormonal or other biological changes in
slightly older mothers affecting later-borns, have been advanced and rejected. At present, the “nurture” side of the
debate, emphasizing environmental influences, has captured the attention of researchers seeking to explain this
outcome.
Robert Zajonc and Gregory Markus have offered an explanation. Their confluence model argues that
children will attain higher intellectual achievements if they are raised in environments that provide greater
intellectual stimulation, coming, in part, from parents and siblings. At first blush this theory would suggest that
larger families should provide more of such opportunities, and further that later-born children should reap the
rewards of the abundant intellectual stimulation of their numerous siblings. However, Zajonc and Markus made the
opposite argument, that as family size increases the intellectual climate of the family decreases.
In the simplest case of two parents and a single child, the overall intellectual climate can be calculated
based on a simple heuristic. If the parents each contribute 50 “intelligence units” (an arbitrary value used for
illustration) and the infant contributes zero, the overall intellectual climate of the family would be 50 + 50 + 0 = 100
/ 3 = 33. As the child grows his or her contribution to the family intellectual climate might increase by 3 points a
year. After two years, if another child is born, the overall intellectual climate of the family has now changed to 50 +
50 + 6 + 0 = 106 / 4 = 27. If another sibling arrives two years after that, the equation changes to 50 + 50 + 12 + 6 + 0
= 118 / 5 = 24. In short, as more children arrive the overall intellectual climate decreases, given the contributions
made by each family member, but only to a point. With extraordinarily large families (e.g., 10 or more children) a
rise in overall climate can be seen in these calculations.
When applied to data, Zajonc and Markus’ theory holds up remarkably well. For example, a reanalysis of
data from a large Dutch study (Belmont & Marolla, 1973) generally confirmed the confluence model, with a few
exceptions. First, there was an “only-child” effect, such that children with no siblings scored at about the same
performance level as first-borns in families with four children. The confluence model should predict only-children to
score highest, given that they enjoy the richest intellectual climate (based on the calculations). Second, there was a
“last-born” effect, such that the last sibling’s intellectual performance tended to drop dramatically. This is curious,
given the slight rise in calculated scores as families become substantially larger.
Zajonc and Markus suggested that neither only-children nor last-borns get to be “teachers,” which may
account for the anomalies in the pattern of scores. Only children have no one to teach, and last children seem
unlikely candidates for teaching their older siblings. This intriguing explanation has a ring of truth to it, and fits well
with the available data.
So, how to plan a family to maximize intellectual development? Here the answer is not so clear. Only
children may enjoy a rich intellectual climate, but succumb to the only-child effect. Up to a point, more children will
reduce the overall intellectual climate. The strategy of spacing births out considerably, such as 5 or more years
between two children to maximize the first child’s contributions, may lead to the last-child effect. Although the
confluence model makes a compelling case for explaining birth order effects, it remains silent on strategies for
optimal family planning.
Belmont, L., & Marolla, F. (1973). Birth order, family size, and intelligence. Science, 182, 1096–1101.
Zajonc, R. B., & Markus, G. B. (1975). Birth order and intellectual development. Psychological Review, 82, 74–88.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning that occurs prior to the
age of 18. There must also be a limitation in skills such as communicating, taking care of him/herself, and social
skills. People scoring below an IQ score of 70–75 and have adaptive problems are considered to be mentally
retarded.
There are many things that can cause mental retardation. Among them are genetics, problems during
pregnancy, problems during birth and some health problems. Being mentally retarded causes the individual to have
other problems as well. As many as 3 out of every 100 people in the United States are considered to be mentally
retarded. Of those individuals, over 600,000 between the ages 6 to 21 have some level of mental retardation and
need special education in school (Twenty-fourth Annual Report to Congress, U.S. Department of Education, 2002).
In fact, 1 out of every 10 children who need special education has some form of mental retardation. Most individuals
with mental retardation, about 87%, will only be a little slower than average in learning new information and skills.
For more information about mental retardation, please check the following source:
American Association on Mental Retardation. (2002). Mental retardation: Definition, classification, and systems of supports (10th ed.).
Washington, DC.
Reprinted from Alan Swinkels (2003). Instructor’s resource manual for Psychology by S. Kassin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Terman’s Termites
Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956), began his career as a school principal in San Bernardino, CA. after having
received his Ph.D. in psychology from Clark University. He was influenced by Alfred Binet and Sir Francis Galton.
His Ph.D. thesis was titled “Genius and Stupidity: A Study of the Intellectual Processes of Seven “Bright” and
Seven “Stupid” Boys.” He became a professor at the Los Angels Normal School and from there went to Stanford
University where he taught from 1910 to 1956. While at Stanford, Terman published a revised and perfected the
Binet-Simon scale for American populations. This “Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale,” soon became
known as the “Stanford-Binet,” and was considered by far the best available individual intelligence test that is still in
use today.
Terman’s most ambitious undertaking in the 1920’s was a study of 1500 child prodigies over their entire lives.
Terman was to discredit the stereotype that bright children were frail, sickly, and socially maladapted.
It was evident from the beginning of the study that the “Termite’s,” as they became to be called were healthier then
their peers, were more likely to obtain a college education and generally earned more money. Terman was surprised
to find that having a high IQ was no guarantee to success.



Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Information-Processing Approach to Intelligence
As noted in Chapter Four, information-processing theory focuses on the study of how the mind processes and uses
information. One of the concepts that information-processing theorists study is speed of processing, which is the
speed with which the brain can make decisions. Would a person whose brain is speedier than someone else also be
more intelligent than that other person?
Researchers (Bowling and Mackenzie, 1996; Deary and Stough, 1996) have designed tests to measure
speed of processing. The results of these tests were then correlated with the IQ of the subjects. The correlation was –
0.45, which is a fairly decent, although not spectacular, correlation. (The correlation is negative because the shorter
the speed of processing, the higher the IQ—see Chapter Two for a review of correlation.) The conclusion from these
studies is that having a speedy nervous system is at least part of what it means to be intelligent.
Perkins, like Sternberg, has proposed that intelligence depends upon three factors (1995). But his three
factors are a little different:
1. Neural intelligence: the speed and efficiency of the nervous system, which is relatively unchanging
until late adulthood.
2. Experiential intelligence: the knowledge and skills that a person has acquired over time.
3. Reflective intelligence: The ability to become aware of one’s own habits of thinking, also known as
metacognition.
Both experiential and reflective intelligence can be improved, with the result that a person’s overall intelligence can
increase with training and experience.

Chapter Summary
Lecture/Discussion: Arthur Jensen
In 1969, Arthur Jensen stirred up a hornet’s nest of controversy by publishing an article titled “How Much Can We
Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?” in the Harvard Educational Review (February, 1969). In this article,
Jensen concluded that race and intelligence are highly related to each other, with people of some races having a
higher degree of intelligence than others. Specifically, he claimed that the white population in the United States
typically scores about 15 IQ points higher than the black population, leading to his claim that black people were
genetically less intelligent than white people. Therefore, the government was wasting the taxpayer’s money on
remedial education for black children.
Jensen also failed to understand that heritability only applies to differences that can be found within a group of
people as opposed to those between groups of people or individuals (Gould, 1981). As discussed earlier, heritability
estimates can only be used to talk about general trends within a particular group, and everyone in that group should
have experienced similar environmental influences.
In fact, Jensen’s two groups were not truly equivalent. His white subjects came from segregated schools in
urban areas (with higher tax brackets and therefore more money for education, healthcare, and so on) while his black
subjects came mostly from segregated schools in rural and economically depressed areas (reference to come). The
differences between these two groups were far greater than the color of their skin in terms of money, health, and
opportunity.
Jensen’s work was met with a flurry of criticisms. But Jensen still argues that his original findings are
correct (Jensen, 1998). In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published the controversial The Bell Curve, in which they
cite large amounts of statistical studies (never published in scientific journals prior to the book) that lead them to
make the claim that IQ is largely inherited. These authors go further by also implying, and in some cases stating
outright, that people from lower economic levels are poor because they are unintelligent, and the fact that this
particular level of the population has more children than does the upper class, economically enriched level of the
population. They also imply that some sort of “controls” should be placed on the “breeding” of the lower
socioeconomic levels, and that intelligent (and therefore financially well-off) people should have more children.
Jensen, A. R., & Miele, F. (2002). Intelligence, race and genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Chapter Summary
Lecture Launcher: Early Arguments for Nativism
The belief that intelligence is determined by one's ethnic inheritance is a modern-day version of the earlier theories of
nativism. Published in 1875, Richard Dugdale's investigation of the inherited basis of “crime, pauperism, disease, and
insanity” was accepted throughout the world as the best documented evidence of the bad seed, or nativist, theory of
evil. In his intensive analysis of the “Jukes” clan, Dugdale identified over 700 people “belonging to the Jukes blood,”
of whom more than 500 were social degenerates. There were those who were “immoral,” “harlots,” “lecherous,”
“paupers,” “drunkards,” “lazy,” “fornicators,” as well as murderers, rapists, and thieves. So evil and corrupt was this
family line that during the 73 years of its studied existence, it cost the taxpayers of New York State over a million
dollars.
In 1912 another researcher, Henry Goddard, found further support for the nativist position when he came upon a
natural experiment in breeding (this “study” is described in more detail in the next suggested lecture). A Revolutionary
War soldier, whom Goddard dubbed “Kallikak” (from the Greek kalos, “good” and kakos, “bad”), sired two families,
one illegitimate and one legitimate. His first alliance was with a tavern maid who was reportedly mentally defective;
he later married a young woman of “better stock.” What were the consequences of these different unions? Only a few
of the nearly 500 descendants from Martin Kallikak's legal marriage could be classified as “undesirable.” In contrast,
the son born of Martin's affair with the tavern maid produced a long line of defective descendants. Of 480 traced
descendants, 14 were reported to be feeble-minded, 33 were sexually immoral, 24 were alcoholics, many died in
infancy, and others were criminals, brothel keepers and the like.
These studies led some criminologists to accept the theory that “social disease,” as well as insanity and idiocy, could
be inherited. The apparent inevitability that a tainted individual would pass the bad seed onto future generations was

a powerful stimulus to the eugenics movement in America. Twenty-seven states proceeded to adopt compulsory
sterilization laws to prevent the transmission of such “unalterable” defects.
Goddard's own eminence rose as a consequence of this famous study, and he was invited by the U.S. Public Health
Service to test the intelligence of European immigrants arriving at New York's Ellis Island. Based on what he described
in his 1913 report of the testing of the “great mass of average immigrants,” Goddard claimed to have discovered the
following percentages of feeble-minded individuals among them:
Russians 87 percent
Jews 83 percent
Hungarians 80 percent
Italians 79 percent
In 1917, Goddard was able to report a vast increase in deportation of immigrants whose feeble-mindedness was
detected by the use of tests of mental ability. (These tests of mental ability were given in English to non-English
speaking people!)
Lewis Terman furthered the idea that those identified as feeble-minded by IQ tests were a menace to society. Terman
is well known among psychologists for two contributions: his introduction into the United States in 1916 of a version
of the IQ test developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet, and his longitudinal study of the development of a group
of children classified as geniuses on that “Stanford-Binet IQ test. (Terman was then a professor at Stanford University.)
What is less well known is Terman's belief that feeble-mindedness represented a serious menace to society. He wrote
in 1917: “Only recently have we begun to recognize how serious a menace it is to the social, economic, and moral
welfare of the state...If we would preserve our state for a class of people worthy to possess it, we must prevent, as far
as possible, the propagation of mental degenerates” (pp. 161, 165). Also after having found low IQ scores for a pair
of Mexican and Indian children he tested, Terman generalized:
“Their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come. The fact that one
meets this type with such extraordinary frequency among Indians, Mexicans, and Negroes suggests quite forcibly that
the whole question of racial differences in mental traits will have to be taken up anew...Children of this group should
be segregated in special classes...They cannot master abstractions, but they can often be made efficient workers.”
(1916, pp. 91-92)
Consider the sources of bias in this evidence.
No one would dispute the fact that “eminence” as recognized social status runs in certain families--but is that support
for inheritance or for the social, political, and economic contacts that eminent parents can provide for their offspring?
Can we rule out the availability of advantageous social influences, supportive family environments, appropriate role
models, and educational opportunities (limited in earlier times only to the rich)?
How was it possible to construct the genetic family trees of the Jukes and Kallikaks from a period of history when
public record keeping of vital statistics was rare or incomplete--and did not exist for illegitimate births?
How objective are the stigmatizing labels applied by the researchers to the bad-seed offspring: “immoral,” “lazy,”
“perverted?” Is ``fornication” an indicator of pathology?
How were the tests given to the eastern and southern European immigrants? Were the people, fatigued from months
aboard a ship, not allowed to enter the city until they completed the test? In what language were the tests given? One
must wonder about the “objectivity” of the criteria used to assign the categorical label “feeble-minded” when the
results included the vast majority of eastern and southern European immigrants.
Clearly, this is one area of research where the personal values of researchers have interfered with proper utilization of
the scientific method for collecting unbiased data and drawing valid conclusions from reliable evidence.
Reference:
Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Chapter Summary
Lecture Launcher: Group Differences in IQ Do Not Apply to Individuals
A discussion of group differences in IQ (e.g., White vs. African American) and the possible genetic and
environmental factors that contribute to the differences is a nice way to delve into a lecture that critically examines
this topic. The chapter presents some convincing evidence and theory regarding the apparent gap in IQ scores that
exists between Whites and African Americans. The explanation is based on two highly overlapping distributions of
IQ scores (see figure 9.18). So, as the authors suggest, this indicates that the two groups really aren’t all that
different – the primary differences in representation will be found at the upper and lower ends of the IQ distribution.
To extend this line of reasoning, and to demonstrate how the formation of stereotypes can be a bad thing in many
cases (see Chapter 13), you can provide students with a slightly different explanation of the IQ score disparity
(based on the same analysis). Although there is brief mention of this concept near the end of the subsection titled,
“Reconciling Race Differences,” to introduce this idea in class should facilitate deeper processing of the material.
The idea is that, given such a highly overlapping distribution of anything (IQ included), what can we conclude when
we evaluate an individual from one or the other group?
The short answer is nothing. Just as an average doesn’t really describe any one person, group differences do not
apply to individuals. In fact, many African Americans do better than Whites on IQ tests. As another example,
although women tend to do (on average) better than men on tests of verbal ability, the two distributions of scores is
highly overlapping, and many men do better than many women on tests of verbal ability.
Another phenomenon of social psychology tends to rear its ugly head in these kinds of situations: confirmation bias.
That is, if we know (or have a belief) of a group difference, when we see evidence for the difference, we will notice
that difference, thus confirming our belief (bias). This might be a good time to introduce students to ways in which
our beliefs can impact our judgments.

Chapter Summary
▼ ACTIVITIES, DEMONSTRATIONS, AND EXERCISES

Learning a Concept (p. 349)
Mental Imagery (p. 351)

What Exactly is Intelligence? (p. 352)
Problem Representation (p. 352)
Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving (p. 352)
Availability Heuristics (p. 353)
Demonstrating Cognitive Biases (p. 353)
Creative Thinking (p. 354)
Insight (p. 355)
Mental Sets in Everyday Life (p. 355)
Creativity Quiz (p. 356)
The Nine-Dot Problem (p. 356)
Handout Transparency: Luchins’ Water Jar Problem (p. 372)
Intelligence (p. 357)
Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film (p. 357)
Age and Intelligence (p. 358)
A Critique of the Mozart Effect (p. 358)
Multiple Intelligences (p. 359)
Emotional Intelligence (The EQ Test) (p. 359)
Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence? (p. 359)
Do Animals Have Language? A Survey (p. 360)
Cultural Bias in IQ Testing (p. 360)
Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test (p. 361)
Is There a Racial Difference in Intelligence? (p. 362)
Additional Discussion Questions (p. 362)
Crossword Puzzle Chapter 6 (p. 363)
Fill in the Blank Exercise Chapter 6 (p. 364)
Activity: Learning a Concept
Objective: To demonstrate concept learning

Materials: 3 x 5 index cards
Procedure: Draw one square and one triangle on each index card. The figures should vary in size (large/small),
color (green/red), and position (up/down). The fourth concept is, of course, shape. Select one student to learn the
concept you have chosen but not revealed from the four possibilities. Give the student feedback after each card as to
whether his or her response was correct. For instance, you have selected size as the relevant concept. If the student
selects a large, blue triangle on the card, tell the student the choice is wrong (since you secretly selected small). See
how many cards it takes the student to discover the relevant concept. You may want to repeat this exercise using a
different concept for at least two other students.
Conclusion: Discuss how concept formation is an important but often difficult task.

Chapter Summary
▼ Return to List of Classroom Activities, Demonstrations and Exercises for Chapter 6
Activity: Mental Imagery
The textbook notes that images (i.e., mental representations of a sensory experience) play an important role in
thinking and cognition; that is, we commonly visualize things in order to think about and solve problems. Margaret
Matlin suggests two simple demonstrations that illustrate how certain attributes of mental images (such as their size
and shape) influence our ability to make judgments.
Imagery and size. Read the following questions aloud to your students:
Scenario I: Imagine an elephant standing next to a rabbit. Now, answer this question: Does a rabbit have a beak?
Scenario II: Imagine a fly standing next to a rabbit. Now, answer this question: Does a rabbit have an eyebrow?
Next, ask your students to tell you whether the rabbit was the largest in Scenario I or II. Which scenario
seemed to have more detail in the area they were examining for the beak or the eyebrow, I or II? According to
Matlin, research by Stephen Kosslyn suggests that the size of an image is an important factor in determining how
fast we can make judgments about it. Indeed, across several studies people made faster judgments when relying on a
larger mental image (such as the rabbit next to the fly) than when using a smaller mental image (such as the rabbit
next to an elephant). Did your students’ experiences mirror this result?
Imagery and shape. For this problem students will need to imagine two standard (non-digital) clocks.
Explain that you will present them with two specific times, and that for each pair of times they should compare their
mental clocks and decide which clock has the smaller angle between the hour hand and the minute hand. Give
students the following times:
1. 3:20 and 7:25

2. 4:10 and 9:23
3. 2:45 and 1:05
4. 3:15 and 5:30
Did some sets seem to take longer than others? If your students took longer with sets 1 and 4 than with 2
and 3, your results are consistent with Allan Paivio's research, which showed that decision time is related to the size
of the difference between angles. That is, it is much harder (and thus, takes longer) to make a decision between
angles that are nearly equal (e.g., 3:20 and 7:25) than it is to make a decision between angles that are quite different
(e.g., 4:10 and 9:23).
Matlin, M. W. (1994). Cognition (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.

Reprinted from Alan Swinkels (2003). Instructor's resource manual for Psychology by S. Kassin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Chapter Summary

Activity: What Exactly is Intelligence?
An in-class discussion of what intelligence is can be an interesting and enlightening experience. Having students get
together in small groups to discuss the definition of intelligence can produce even better results… pedagogically
speaking. The following questions should be addressed by each group, and the groups should be prepared to share
their ideas with the other groups.
1. What are the common characteristics of intelligent behavior? In other words, how can you tell if someone
is intelligent? Why? (try to come up with 5 or 6 common characteristics)
2. What proposed characteristics of intelligence that came up during your discussion of #1 were eventually
eliminated? Why?

Chapter Summary
Activity: Problem Representation
Challenge your students by presenting them with the hospital room problem (taken from Matlin, 1994). Handout
Master 6.1 contains the details of the problem, which can be projected onto an overhead or photocopied and
distributed to students. After students have had a reasonable amount of time to solve the problem, have them discuss
their representation of it as well as its correct answer. (Answer: Ms. Anderson has mononucleosis and is in Room
104.)
Matlin, M. W. (1994). Cognition (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.

Reprinted from Alan Swinkels (2003). Instructor's resource manual for Psychology by S. Kassin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving
Objective: To demonstrate how psychological set (e.g., stating the problem) can interfere with the generation of
solutions to problems
Materials: See Handout Master 6.2
Procedure: Ask students to think about a problem; the problem may be a corporate problem (e.g., crime or
pollution) or a personal problem (e.g., poor grades). Using the handout, each student should reword or describe the
problem in several different ways. This may open some doors in terms of solutions. Next, students should develop at
least two solutions to the problem.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Availability Heuristics
Objective: To demonstrate the potential shortcoming of availability heuristics

Materials: See Handout Master 6.3: Availability Heuristics
Procedure: When people judge the relative frequency of objects or events, they are often influenced by the relative
availability or accessibility of such events in their own memories. Distribute the handout and ask the students to
indicate their answers to the questions. Their estimates are influenced by the availability heuristic if they indicate
that the number of words beginning with r or k is greater than the number of words with those letters appearing
third. This is because first letters are more useful cues than third letters for referencing and accessing items in one's
personal word collection. It is easier to generate (i.e., make available) words that begin with the letters. Actually,
words with those letters appearing third are far more numerous. Similarly, their estimate of the number of women
faculty on campus should be positively correlated with the number of female professors they have actually had.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Demonstrating Cognitive Biases
Cognitive biases are often difficult for students to grasp. The following simple demonstrations will help students
recognize such biases in their own thinking.
1. The availability heuristic is the tendency to judge the frequency of some event as a function of how available
specific instances of that event are in memory.
A geographer named Thomas Saarinen provides an interesting variation on the availability heuristic by asking
students to draw their “mental maps” of the world. Saarinen asks students to take a pencil and a piece of paper and
spend half an hour sketching a map of the world. He finds that there are two consistent patterns in the resulting
maps. Students greatly enlarge the size of Europe and reduce the size of Africa. Saarinen finds that this occurs
regardless of the country of origin of the students. This undoubtedly reflects the relative prominence of Europe and
the relative obscurity of Africa in the Western view of history. That which we know more about is seen as physically
larger, and that which we know little of is diminished in size.
This is an easy phenomenon to demonstrate. Before a discussion of cognitive biases, ask students to spend
half an hour outside of class drawing a map of the world. Make sure they know that they may not “cheat” by looking
at maps, globes, or atlases. It may help to reassure students that you will not grade their maps, and that they may
submit them anonymously. Have students turn in the maps at least one class prior to your discussion of the topic, so
that you have time to review and summarize the results of the demonstration. See if your students exhibit the same
biases that Saarinen reports; you might make overheads of some of the better examples you receive. You might use
this demonstration to highlight the influence of culture on cognition, a topic that psychologists are only recently
beginning to investigate.
2. The confirmation bias is the tendency to look for information that confirms one’s belief.
There are many easy ways to demonstrate the confirmation bias. The standard approach is to write a series of
three numbers, such as 5, 7, and 9 on the board. Tell students that there is a rule to which these numbers conform,
and it is their job to determine what the rule is. To solve the problem, students may give you any sequence of three
numbers and you will tell them whether it conforms to the rule. Record their sequences and your responses on the
board or transparency. When they feel confident that they have guessed the rule, they should raise their hands and
offer their solution.
The rule for the above sequence is simply “any three ascending numbers,” but students will develop many
more complicated possibilities. The confirmation bias will be demonstrated by the nature of the sequences that
students offer to test their guesses. If a student believes that the rule is “three successive odd numbers,” he or she
might ask whether “9, 11, 13” conforms to the rule. Additional sequences that they suggest will probably conform to
the same rule. But these are confirming instances of their rule, and therefore provide little information. It is much
more informative to provide a sequence that they believe is wrong, such as “2, 3, 4,” and discover that it is, in fact,
consistent with the rule, thereby allowing them to reject an incorrect guess.
3. The hindsight bias is the tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is
known.
To demonstrate this bias, ask students to predict the outcome of an upcoming event (Academy Awards, elections,
World Series, etc.). Next to their predictions, ask students to rank their degree of confidence in the prediction on a
scale from 1 (“Just a guess, I’m not at all sure.”) to 5 (“I’m very sure!”). Collect the papers, and return them after the
outcome of the event. Ask students to reflect on their reactions. Do they feel that “they knew it all along” even
though their confidence ratings before the event indicate otherwise?
Monastersky, R. (1992). The warped world of mental maps. Science News, 142, 222–223.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Creative Thinking (Group Activity)

Tell your students that you want them to take out a sheet of paper because there is a quiz. Once all the groaning has
stopped, have them write down all the uses they can think of for some item, i.e., Kitty Litter or rice. At the end of 5
minutes have them get into small groups and see how many uses the small groups can come up with for whatever
item you have chosen.
Have the students present their cooperative list to the class. Make sure that you tell them they need not repeat
an item that another group has already presented. Find out how many items they originally came up with versus the
number of items that the group named. It is interesting how many items have similar in the group.
This finding can be a lead in to discussing a mental set and how it impedes creativity.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Insight
Insight, the sudden understanding of a problem, is often considered to be a component of intelligence. You can
demonstrate the "aha" feeling that insight inspires by presenting students with the problems in Handout Master 6.4,
which are taken from the popular game, MindTrap©. Students are likely to exclaim with joy each time they
experience the insight necessary to solve a particular problem.
Answers:
1. The letters should be arranged as follows: one word.
2. A desert is a region so arid that it supports little or no vegetation. This includes frozen deserts of the far north,
where Abdullah made his crossing. Thus, he survived by eating ice and snow.
3. It is the shortest sentence in the English language that includes every letter of the alphabet.
4. The "pack on her back" was a pack of wild wolves.
5. The two of you must stand back to back.
6. There aren't any penguins in the Arctic (they are native to the Southern Hemisphere).
MindTrap Games, Inc. (1991). MindTrap. Norwalk, CT: Great American Puzzle Factory.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Mental Sets in Everyday Life

Luchins' water jar problem and the alphabetical number puzzle are ways to demonstrate how mental sets can create
barriers to effective problem solving. After students have been introduced to the notion of mental sets (from the text,
lecture, and exercises such as those given in the next section), you might ask them to write a short paper in which
they identify instances of mental sets in everyday life. As one example, students could consider the problem of
making the adjustment from high school to college. How might a mental set (i.e., the tendency to approach or
respond to a problem in a particular way) learned in high school interfere with the successful solution of problems
later on in college? Students should specify how strategies that at one time were adaptive or successful could
eventually become undesirable or maladaptive. Traditional-age college students should have plenty of experience
with mental sets related to academic strategies, social life, living away from home, financial responsibilities, and so
on. If your students are older, they might consider mental sets related to major life changes (e.g., marriage, divorce,
death of a loved one), career changes, or other situations requiring adjustment on their part. An added benefit of this
assignment is that—in addition to better understanding the notion of mental sets—your students might also gain
valuable insight into their own problem solving strategies and skills.
Adapted from Zechmeister, E. B., & Johnson, J. E. (1992). Critical thinking: A functional approach. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Creativity Quiz

Draw a circle on the board. Allow students five minutes to list all of the things they can think of that your picture
could represent. Use a plate and a wedding ring as examples, and urge them to think divergently. Sample responses
may include, for example:
Total eclipse of the sun / Top view of a baldheaded man / Floor plan for an igloo / Port hole at night / The
end of a gun as seen by a victim / Belly button / Bucket of tar from the top

Chapter Summary
In-Class Activity: The Nine-Dot Problem
Mental set can hinder problem solving because it often leads us to use our past experience to impose rules on a
problem-solving situation that do not exist. These rules may prevent us from solving the problem. A classic example
of this phenomenon is the nine-dot problem. Have students attempt to complete Handout Master 6.5 and see how
many of them figure it out. Typically, many will impose the “rule” that you cannot go outside the perimeter of the
outer dots when drawing the four lines. Unfortunately, this restraint makes the problem impossible to solve. If you
allow yourself to draw the lines outside the perimeter of the dots, solving the problem is surprisingly easy. This
activity is a simple, yet fun example that students are not likely to forget.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Intelligence (Group activity)
After discussing the different theories of intelligence, have your students design a series of test items that would
indicate the different intelligences according to Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. For example:
Spatial intelligence may be putting together a puzzle made out of a piece of plywood; Mathematical intelligence
may be figuring out how many cups of water it is going to take to fill up a bucket; Athletic intelligence may be the
actual running of a relay to fill up the buckets of water; Interpersonal intelligence may be assessed by having
students find out information about other students; Musical intelligence may be assessed by defining which
instrument is being played in a musical piece or knowing the words to a song, Verbal may be assessed with knowing
what words fill in the blanks to some simple sentences; Intrapersonal may be understanding how you feel about a
topic; Naturalistic may be assessed by being able to figure out how a plant needs to planted in order to grow the
most it can.
Students can up with a variety of means of assessing these different types of intelligences. There is no one real
measure of any of these. Students will begin to see that intelligence is composed of many different abilities and may
be expressed in numerous ways.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Intelligence and Mental Capacity in Film
Chapter 7 discusses the extremes of intelligence, from mental retardation to giftedness. The two films described
below expand on these topics and give students an opportunity to explore these extremes in much greater detail.
Charly explores the world of mental retardation whereas Little Man Tate considers the question of how best to
nourish genius. Depending on your interests, assign either of these films (or give students a choice) and ask students
to write a short paper relating insights in the films to psychological principles covered in the text and lecture. You
might ask students to supplement their discussion with an article or two from the mental retardation or giftedness
literatures using Psychological Abstracts.
• Charly (1968). In this endearing and classic tale, Oscar-winner Cliff Robertson portrays a retarded man with a
drive to learn so powerful that he agrees to an experimental surgical procedure in order to become smarter. When he
gets his wish, he must struggle to adapt to the changes and newfound emotions that accompany his sharp increase in
intelligence (CBS/Fox; 104 min).
• Little Man Tate (1991). Jodie Foster stars in this heart-wrenching tale of an uneducated mother who knows she
cannot provide the stimulating and enriched environment her genius son needs to thrive. This extremely well-done
film depicts the boy's frustrating struggle to gain both the love and the academic stimulation he needs (Orion; 99
min).

Chapter Summary
Activity: Age and Intelligence
Objective: To help students understand the role of norms in the calculation and interpretation of IQ scores
Materials: See Handout 5.7
Procedure: Have students fill in the blanks on the handout, then lead a discussion of what constitutes intelligent
behavior for people of various ages.

Chapter Summary
Activity: A Critique of the Mozart Effect
The sensational finding (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, 1993) of a simple way to increase intelligence, by simply
listening to classical music, spawned numerous studies that examined the validity of the effect. A great way to
expose students to the idea of environmental influence on intelligence, and the flaws associated with the original
study is to conduct a short discussion of the original finding (many students will no doubt have heard of the effect).
Remind your students that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. You could then indicate that the
study was never replicated (at least to the degree that Rauscher et al. originally found). Then ask students to think of
ways in which this study may have been flawed – why might the Mozart Effect be a spurious finding? This will
surely get their critical thinking “hats” on!


Chapter Summary
Activity: Multiple Intelligences
Objective: To relate Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences to examples generated by students

Materials: Handout Masters 5.8 Parts A and B
Procedure: After discussing Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, have your students generate items that
measure his concept of interpersonal intelligence. First, have students think of people they know who exemplify the
types of intelligences presented on Handout 8.1a. Next, on Handout 8.1b, ask them to think of the individual named
who has interpersonal intelligence and to describe two behaviors that the person exhibits that represent this high,
interpersonal intelligence. After that, develop test items that you could use to measure interpersonal intelligence.

Chapter Summary
Activity: EQ Test (Emotional Intelligence)
Objective: To assess students' emotional intelligence

Materials: See Handout Master 5.9 EQ Test
Procedures: Instruct students to take the test and follow directions to find their scores. After all have finished, tell
them that the closer their score to 24, the higher their EQ.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Should Psychology Adopt a Theory of Multiple Intelligence?

Intelligence used to be a simple thing; so simple, in fact, that it wasn’t even capitalized. But pretty much since the
time of Spearman’s advocacy of “g” (a “general intellectual ability” factor) other theorists and researchers have
proposed views of intelligence that involve multiple factors. Classic examples of such theories include Thurstone’s
multiple factor model, Guilford’s Structure of Intellect model, Sternberg’s triarchic theory, modern musings on
emotional intelligence, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Clouding the issue is the fact that much of the
time higher-order factors can be factor-analyzed back down to “g.” The debate, then, seems to center on the utility of
thinking about intelligence as a single thing versus many things. Ask your students to share their views as they debate
this controversial issue.
Slife, B. (2003). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (13th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin
Publishing Group.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Do Animals Have Language? A Survey
A fairly large number of people believe that animals have language abilities. Most scientific data on the point,
however, indicate that animals communicate, but do not use a complicated system of symbols and syntax to convey
ideas. The following three questions can be used by students as an informal survey of people (including fellow
students, parents, etc.) regarding the issue of animal language:
1) Do you believe that animals have language?

a. If so, what specific species?
2) Why or why not?
3) Why do you think humans have such well-developed language abilities?
Students can potentially learn a great deal by teaching those that they survey (presumably there will be many people
who may not grasp the vast difference between animal communication and human language). Additionally, the
answers to #3 may be interesting, enlightening, and even humorous.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Cultural Bias in IQ Testing
In order to allow students to experience how it feels to take a biased and unfair “intelligence” test, adminster the
Chitling Test (Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test) found on Handout Master 6.10. This test was developed in
the 1970s by sociologist Adrian Dove as a statement about how biased intelligence testing was at that time. This test
usually provides a lively discussion about fairness in testing. Students are often uncomfortable until they realize that
it is not a real IQ test. Ask them how it might feel if their scores on this test determined their admission to college.
Scoring Sheet: Chitling Test of Intelligence
The answers are as follows:
1. (c)
2. (c)
3. (c)
4. (c)
5. (c)
6. (c)
7. (c)
8. (a)
9. (c)
10. (d)
11. (d)
12. (a)
13. (b)
14. (a)
15. (b)
http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/intelligenceChitlingTestShort.html (last updated 02 Aug 2003)
Dove, A. The "Chitling" Test. From Lewis R. Aiken, Jr. (1971). Psychological and educational testings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Chapter Summary
Activity: Creating a Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
Objective: To help students understand the difficulties involved in separating culture from intelligence.
Materials: None
Procedure: Divide students into small groups. Instruct each group to come to a consensus about the kinds of
questions that should be on a culture-fair intelligence test. After the groups have finished, ask each to report on its
conclusions. Engage the entire class in discussions of each proposal, carefully examining how culture or specific
experiences (e.g., education) might influence the results.


Chapter Summary
Activity: Is There a Racial Difference in Intelligence?

A debate related to that above is the more focused question of whether there are racial differences in intelligence.
Taking Sides provides a starting point for this volatile issue. J. Philippe Rushton argues that the correlation between
brain size and intelligence can help explain his position that blacks are genetically predetermined to have lower
intelligence levels, whereas Zack Cernovsky argues that the correlation is weak and the overall evidence is dubious,
at best. In short, this debate topic, like the previous one, will help students examine issues raised in the text, such as
the nature versus nurture argument and the role of culture in learning and intelligence.
Slife, B. (1998). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial psychological issues (10th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin
Publishing Group.

Chapter Summary
Additional Discussion Questions
1. How would you define critical thinking? What do you think should be included in a critical thinking
program? How can you improve your critical thinking skills?
2. How do the various cognitive maps that we each carry contribute to some of the conflicts in the world? How
would you go about mediating such differences?
3. Discuss the evidence for each side of the nature/nurture debate in intelligence. What is the support for each side
of the argument?
4. You have schemas and scripts for how to interact with your friends online. Your professors probably have very
different scripts and schemas. How do expectations influence the inferences we make of electronic
communication?
5. How and when do we use algorithms and heuristics in our everyday life? How do they help us? How can they
get in the way?
6. Give an example of a time when functional fixedness impeded your work. How can someone limit their mental
set?
7. Find examples of each of the five cognitive biases (confirmation, hindsight, anchoring, availability,
representativeness) in the news. Describe each and explain how it is an example of that particular
type of bias. How can we avoid such biases?
8. What is the relationship between intelligence and creativity? Can someone be creative but not intelligent?
Can you be intelligent but not creative? How?
9. Not all cultures have the same criteria for intelligence. In fact, while in our culture we tend to think someone
is smart if they are “quick,” in many other cultures a person who thinks quickly is impetuous and does not take
the time to consider things carefully. In some cultures politeness is a sign of intelligence. How do you see
these differences in terms of your ideas about intelligence?

Chapter Summary
Activity: Crossword Puzzle
Copy and distribute Handout Master 6.11 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Answers for the Crossword puzzle:

Across
4. the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways. creativity
5. aspects of language involving the practical aspects of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of
language. pragmatics
7. type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities
based on that point. divergent
11. the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems. intelligence
13. ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. concepts
14. a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others. language
15. concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. formal
16. an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. prototype
Down
1. the smallest units of meaning within a language. morphemes
2. the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. semantics
3. very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. algorithms
4. the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those
beliefs. Confirmation Bias
6. the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. semantics
8. the two percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of
130 or above. gifted
9. the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. validity
10. the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
Mental set
12. the system of rules by which the symbols of language are arranged . grammar

Chapter Summary
Activity: Fill in the Blank
Copy and distribute Handout Master 6.12 to students as a homework or in-class review assignment.
Chapter 6: Answers to Fill in the Blanks
1. Thinking or Cognition
2. Mental Images
3. Concepts
4. Superordinate Concept
5. Formal Concepts
6. Natural Concept
7. Prototype
8. Problem Solving
9. Trial and Error
10. Algorithms
11. Heuristic
12. Insight
13. Functional Fixedness
14. Mental Set
15. Confirmation Bias
16. Intelligence Quotient
17. Intelligence
18. Standardization
19. Validity
20. Reliability
21. Developmentally Delayed
22. Creativity
23. Convergent Thinking
24. Divergent Thinking
25. Howard Gardner
26. Practical Intelligence
27. Emotional Intelligence
28. Language
29. Phonemes
30. Pragmatics


Chapter Summary

▼ HANDOUT MASTERS
Handout Master 6.1: The Hospital Room Problem
Handout Master 6.2: Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving
Handout Master 6.3: Availability Heuristics
Handout Master 6.4: Insight
Handout Master 6.5: The Nine Dot Problem
Handout Master 5.6: Luchins’ Water Jar Problem
Handout Master 5.7: What Is Intelligence?
Handout Master 5.8 A. Multiple Intelligences and B. Measuring Interpersonal Intelligence
Handout Master 5.9 Emotional Intelligence Test
Handout Master 6.10 The Chitling Intelligence Test
Handout Master 6.11 Crossword Puzzle
Handout Master 6.12 Fill in the Blank

Handout Master 6.1

The Hospital Room Problem
Instructions: Use the following information to answer the question posed below.
Five people are in a hospital. Each one has only one disease, and each has a different disease. Each one occupies a
separate room; room numbers are 101–105.
1. The person with asthma is in Room 101.
2. Ms. Jones has heart disease.
3. Ms. Green is in Room 105.
4. Ms. Smith has tuberculosis.
5. The woman with mononucleosis is in Room 104.
6. Ms. Thomas is in Room 101.
7. One of the patients, other than Ms. Anderson, has gall bladder disease.
Question: What disease does Ms. Anderson have and in what room is she?
► Return to Activity: Problem Representation

▼ Return to List of Handout Masters for Chapter 6

Handout Master 6.2

Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving
Think of a problem. Describe it concisely; then list four alternative ways to describe the difficulty.
Initial statement of the problem:
Alternate 1:
Alternate 2:
Alternate 3:
Alternate 4:
Describe the problem from the point of view of other parties involved:
Describe two solutions to this problem, indicating how these solutions are influenced by the particular statement of
the problem you have chosen:
► Return to Activity: Breaking Sets in Problem-Solving


Handout Master 6.3

Availability Heuristics
Heuristics
1. In the English language, are there more words beginning with the letter r or more words with the letter
r appearing as the third letter?
q First position
q Third position
2. In the English language, are there more words beginning with the letter k or more words with the letter
k appearing as the third letter?
q First position
q Third position
3. What percentage of the faculty at this university are women?
________ %
4. How many of your courses have been taught by female professors?
________ courses
► Return to Activity: Availability Heuristics


Handout Master 6.4

Insight
Instructions: Give the correct answer for each of the following problems.
1. How would you rearrange the letters in the words new door to make one word? [Note: There is only one correct
answer.]
2. It is impossible for anyone to survive longer than one week without drinking, yet Abdullah managed a ten-day
desert crossing without finding water or bringing any along. How was this possible?
3. What is so unusual about the sentence below? (Aside from the fact that it doesn't make a lot of sense.)
"Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz."
4. A well-known fashion designer, wanting to escape the hustle and bustle of the city, decided to spend a few days at
a rural resort. After a day of relaxing, she went for a winter stroll to get some fresh air. That was the last time
anyone saw her alive. The autopsy revealed that her death was due to the pack on her back. What was so
deadly about this pack?
5. How can you stand behind your father while he is standing behind you?
6. Even if they are starving, natives living in the Arctic will never eat a penguin's egg. Why not?
► Return to Activity: Insight


Handout Master 6.5

The Nine Dot Problem
Without lifting your pencil from the paper, draw exactly four straight, connected lines that will go through all nine
dots, but through each dot only once.
⚫ ⚫ ⚫
⚫ ⚫ ⚫
⚫ ⚫ ⚫

Handout Master 5.6

Luchins’ Water Jar Problem
Instructions: For each of the following seven problems, use some combination of the jars (i.e., by adding or subtracting
quantities of liquid) to obtain the target amount listed in the goal column. The capacity of Jars A, B, and C for each
problem is listed below.
Problem Jar A Jar B Jar C Goal
1 24 130 3 100
2 9 44 7 21
3 21 58 4 29
4 12 160 25 98
5 19 75 5 46
6 23 49 3 20
7 18 48 4 22
Source: Matlin, M. W. (1994). Cognition (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
Handout Master 5.7

What Is Intelligence?
For each age group, list five traits that characterize intelligence.
6-month-old 2-year-old
1. ________________________ 1. ________________________
2. ________________________ 2. ________________________
3. ________________________ 3. ________________________
4. ________________________ 4. ________________________
5. ________________________ 5. ________________________
10-year-old 20-year-old
1. ________________________ 1. ________________________
2. ________________________ 2. ________________________
3. ________________________ 3. ________________________
4. ________________________ 4. ________________________
5. ________________________ 5. ________________________
50-year-old 80-year-old
1. ________________________ 1. ________________________
2. ________________________ 2. ________________________
3. ________________________ 3. ________________________
4. ________________________ 4. ________________________
5. ________________________ 5. ________________________
► Return to Activity: Age and Intelligence


Handout Master 5.8

Handout A: Multiple Intelligences
For each of the types of intelligence listed below, name and describe a person you know (or know of) who embodies
that kind of intelligence to you.
Linguistic intelligence:
Musical intelligence:
Logical-mathematical intelligence:
Spatial intelligence:
Bodily intelligence:
Interpersonal intelligence:
Intrapersonal intelligence:

Handout B: Measuring Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence involves understanding others—how they feel, what motivates them, and how they interact
with another.
List two people you believe are high in interpersonal intelligence:
Person 1:
Person 2:
Describe two behaviors you have observed in each person that lead you to believe that they are high in interpersonal
intelligence:
Person 1: Behavior 1
Behavior 2
Person 2: Behavior 1
Behavior 2
Create a test item (using either true-false or an agree-disagree continuum) that reflects the interpersonal intelligence
exhibited in each of the above behaviors:
Item 1 (Person 1; Behavior 1):
► Return to Activity: Multiple Intelligences


Handout Master 5.9

Emotional Intelligence Test
Check one response for each item.
1. I'm always aware of even subtle feelings as I have them.
____ Always ____ Usually ____ Sometimes ____ Rarely ____ Never
2. I can delay gratification in pursuit of my goals instead of getting carried away by impulse.
3. Instead of giving up in the face of setbacks or disappointments, I stay hopeful and optimistic.
4. My keen sense of others' feelings makes me compassionate about their plight.
5. I can sense the pulse of a group or relationship and state unspoken feelings.
6. I can soothe or contain distressing feelings, so that they don't keep me from doing things I need to do.
Score your responses as follows: Always = 4 points, Usually = 3 points, Sometimes = 2 points, Rarely = 1 point,
Never = 0 points. Add your scores for each item to derive a total score.
► Return to Activity: EQ Test


Handout Master 6.10

The Chitling Intelligence Test
[Adrian Dove]
1. A "handkerchief head" is:
(a) a cool cat (b) a porter (c) an Uncle Tom (d) a hoddi (e) a preacher.
2. Which word is most out of place here?
(a) splib (b) blood (c) gray (d) spook (e) black.
3. A "gas head" is a person who has a:
(a) fast-moving car (b) stable of "lace" (c) "process" (d) habit of stealing cars (e) long jail record for arson.
4. "Bo Diddley" is a:
(a) game for children (b) down-home cheap wine (c) down-home singer (d) new dance (e) Moejoe call.
5. "Hully Gully" came from:
(a) East Oakland (b) Fillmore (c) Watts (d) Harlem (e) Motor City.
6. Cheap chitlings (not the kind you purchase at a frozen food counter) will taste rubbery unless they are
cooked long enough. How soon can you quit cooking them to eat and enjoy them?
(a) 45 minutes (b) 2 hours (c) 24 hours (d) 1 week (on a low flame) (e) 1 hour.
7. What are the "Dixie Hummingbirds?"
(a) part of the KKK (b) a swamp disease (c) a modern gospel group (d) a Mississippi Negro paramilitary
group (e) Deacons.
8. If you throw the dice and 7 is showing on the top, what is facing down?
(a) 7 (b) snake eyes (c) boxcars (d) little Joes (e) 11.
9. "Jet" is:
(a) an East Oakland motorcycle club (b) one of the gangs in "West Side Story " (c) a news and gossip
magazine (d) a way of life for the very rich.

10. T-Bone Walker got famous for playing what?
(a) trombone (b) piano (c) "T-flute " (d) guitar (e) "hambone."
11. "Bird" or "Yardbird" was the "jacket" that jazz lovers from coast to coast hung on:
(a) Lester Young (b) Peggy Lee (c) Benny Goodman (d) Charlie Parker (e) "Birdman of Alcatraz."
12. Hattie Mae Johnson is on the County. She has four children and her husband is now in jail for non-support,
as he was unemployed and was not able to give her any money. Her welfare check is now $286 per month.
Last night she went out with the highest player in town. If she got pregnant, then nine months from now
how much more will her welfare check be?
(a) $80 (b) $2 (c) $35 (d) $150 (e) $100.
13. "Money don't get everything it's true."
(a) but I don't have none and I'm so blue, (b) but what it don't get I can't use, (c) so make do with what
you've got, (d) but I don't know that and neither do you.
14. How much does a short dog cost?
(a) $0.15 (b) $2.00 (c) $0.35 (d) $0.05 (e) $0.86 plus tax.
15. Many people say that "Juneteenth" (June 19) should be made a legal holiday because this was the day
when:
(a) the slaves were freed in the USA (b) the slaves were freed in Texas (c) the slaves were freed in Jamaica
(d) the slaves were freed in California (e) Martin Luther King was born (f) Booker T. Washington died.
► Return to Activity: Cultural Bias in IQ Testing


Handout Master 6.11

Crossword Puzzle activity
Thinking and Intelligence

Across
4. the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

5. aspects of language involving the practical aspects of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of
language.
7. type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities
based on that point.
11. the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems.
13. ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
14. a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others.
15. concepts that are defined by specific rules or features.
16. an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
Down
1. the smallest units of meaning within a language.

2. the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.
3. very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.
4. the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those
beliefs.
6. the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences.
8. the two percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of
130 or above.
9. the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.
10. the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
12. the system of rules by which the symbols of language are arranged.
► Return to Activity: Crossword Puzzle


Handout Master 6.12

Thinking and Intelligence
Fill in the Blank
1. _____________ a mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to
understand information and communicating information to others.
2. _____________ _______________ are mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a
picture-like quality.
3. __________________ are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
4. The most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit” is known as the -
___________________ ________________.
5. Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features are known as _________________________
_____________.
6. A concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world is known as a _______________
_____________.
7. A _____________ is an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
8. __________________ _____________ is the process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached
by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
9. The problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is
found often takes much time and is called _____________________ __________________.
10. __________________ are very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.
11. A ___________________ an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the
possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.”
12. The sudden perception of a solution to a problem is called ______________ and is often expressed in
cartoons as a light bulb turning on over someone’s head.
13. A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions
and not what else they can be utilized to do is called ____________________________
__________________.
14. _______________ ________ is the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that
have worked for them in the past.
15. ______________ __________ is the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring
any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
16. ___________________ ________________ is a number that represents a measure of intelligence,
resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that
quotient by 100.
17. The ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting
to new situations or solving problems is known as _________________.
18. All tests go through a process where the test is given to a large group of people that represents the kind of
people for whom the test is designed. This is part of the ___________________ process.
19. The degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure is known as the
____________________.
20. The ___________________ is the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time
it is given to the same people.
21. _______________ _________________ is a condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills
exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more
acceptable term for mental retardation.
22. _________________ is the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.
23. ___________________ __________________ is a type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having
only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous
knowledge and logic.
24. ____________________ ______________________ is the type of thinking in which a person starts from
one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (kind of creativity).
25. According to ________________ ___________________ there are many types of intelligences and he
developed a theory known as multiple intelligences.
26. The ability to use information to get along in life and become successful is known as
____________________ ____________________.
27. _______________________ ___________________ is the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own
emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled.
Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life.
28. The system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements
can be made for the purpose of communicating with others is known as ____________________.
29. The basic units of sound in a language are known as ______________.
30. __________________ are aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others,
or the social “niceties” of language.
Words to use for fill in the blanks:
Algorithms
Concepts
Confirmation Bias
Convergent Thinking
Creativity
Developmentally Delayed
Divergent Thinking
Emotional Intelligence
Formal Concepts
Functional Fixedness
Heuristic
Howard Gardner
Insight
Intelligence
Intelligence Quotient
Language
Mental Images
Mental Set
Natural Concept
Phonemes
Practical Intelligence
Pragmatics
Problem Solving
Prototype
Reliability
Standardization
Superordinate Concept
Thinking or Cognition
Trial and Error
Validity
► Return to Activity: Fill in the Blank



WEB RESOURCES
Intelligence
Barbarian’s Online Tests: http://www.wizardrealm.com/tests/

A variety of tests that are meant for “fun,” and are not based in psychometrics at all. Good for getting students to
think critically about the validity of online tests.
Darwin Awards: http://www.darwinawards.com

“Darwin Awards commemorate those who improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it in really stupid
ways.”
Intelligence: http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/intell.html
Discussion and explanation of theories of intelligence, by Bill Huitt, Valdosta College, Georgia.
Intelligence of Dogs: http://petrix.com/dogint/intelligence.html

Provides ranking of “brightness” by breed of dog. The Boarder Collie tops the list as the brightest dog, while the
Afghan Hound is at the bottom of the list. Woof.
Interview with Robert Sternberg on The Bell Curve: http://www.skeptic.com/03.3.fm-sternberg-interview.html

Great interview by Skeptic Magazine with Robert Sternberg on his view of intelligence and opinions of The Bell
Curve.
IQ Tests Online: http://www.2h.com/Tests/iq.phtml

Various online IQ tests. Good for stimulating critical thinking regarding validity of online tests.
Mensa International: http://www.mensa.org

Organization for high-IQ-scoring individuals. See how the top 2% spend their time in this organization.
Multiple Intelligences: http://tip.psychology.org/gardner.html

Overview of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Why IQ Scores are Rising: http://www.npr.org/ramfiles/970917.atc.14.ram

This audio file from National Public Radio requires the RealPlayer plug-in.
BIAS
An encyclopedia/dictionary of important terms: http://skepdic.com/confirmbias.html
HERITABILITY
Stanford University’s site for the discussion of important ideas: http://Plato.stanford.edu/entries/heredity

Chapter Summary
Problem-Solving
Anagram Server: http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html

Find anagrams for any word.

Chapter Summary

VIDEO RESOURCES:
NEW MyPsychLab Video Series
Episode 11: Intelligence
1. The Big Picture: What is Intelligence?
2. The Basics: Theories of Intelligence
3. Special Topics: Intelligence Testing, Then and Now
4. Thinking Like a Psychologist: Intelligence Tests and Success
5. In the Real World Application: Intelligence Tests and Stereotypes
6. What’s In It For Me?: How Resilient Are You?
This new video series offers instructors and students the most current and cutting edge
introductory psychology video content available anywhere. These exclusive videos take the
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Development and Review team, a diverse group of introductory psychology professors, this
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The MyPsychLab video series was designed with flexibility in mind. Each half-hour episode in
the MyPsychLab video series is made up of several five-minute clips, which can be viewed
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• The Basics uses the power of video to present foundational topics, especially those that
students find difficult to understand.
• Special Topics dives deeper into high-interest and often cutting-edge topics, showing
research in action.
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• In the Real World focuses on applications of psychological research.
• What’s In It for Me? These clips show students the relevance of psychological research to
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MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES
On-line Resources: MyPsychLab www.mypsychlab.com
See/Hear/Learn/Explore More Icons integrated in the text lead to web-based expansions on

topics, allowing instructors and students access to extra information, videos, podcasts, and
simulations. The in-text icons are not exhaustive—there are many more resources available to
instructors and students on-line at www.MyPsychLab.com.
What Is MyPsychLab? MyPsychLab is a learning and assessment tool that enables instructors
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Instructors and students have been using MyPsychLab for over 10 years. To date, over 600,000
students have used MyPsychLab. During that time, three white papers on the efficacy of
MyPsychLab were published. Both the white papers and user feedback show compelling results:
MyPsychLab helps students succeed and improve their test scores. One of the key ways
MyPsychLab improves student outcomes is by providing continuous assessment as part of the
learning process. Over the years, both instructor and student feedback have guided numerous
improvements, making MyPsychLab even more flexible and effective.
Pearson is committed to helping instructors and students succeed with MyPsychLab.

To that end, we offer a Psychology Faculty Advisor Program designed to provide peer to-peer
support for new users of MyPsychLab. Experienced Faculty Advisors help instructors understand
how MyPsychLab can improve student performance. To learn more about the Faculty Advisor
Program, please contact your local Pearson representative.
In addition to the eText and complete audio files, the New MyPsychLab video series,
MyPsychLab offers these valuable and unique tools:
MyPsychLab assessment questions: over 3,000 questions, distinct from the test bank, but
designed to help instructors easily assign additional quizzes and tests, all that can be graded
automatically and loaded into an instructor’s grade book.
MyPsychLab study plan: students have access to a personalized study plan, based on
Bloom’s Taxonomy, arranges content from less complex thinking–like remembering and
understanding–to more complex critical thinking–like applying and analyzing. This layered
approach promotes better critical-thinking skills, and helps students succeed in the course and
beyond.

NEW Experiments Tool – On-line experiments help students understand scientific principles
and practice through active learning – fifty new experiments, inventories, and surveys are
available through MyPsychLab.
APA assessments: A unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to assess student
progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals and Outcomes.
These assessments have been keyed to the APA’s latest progressive Learning Outcomes (basic,
developing, advanced).
ClassPrep available in MyPsychLab. Finding, sorting, organizing, and presenting your instructor
resources is faster and easier than ever before with ClassPrep. This fully searchable database
contains hundreds and hundreds of our best teacher resources, such as lecture launchers and
discussion topics, in-class and out-of-class activities and assignments, handouts, as well as video
clips, photos, illustrations, charts, graphs, and animations. Instructors can search or browse by
topic, and it is easy to sort your results by type, such as photo, document, or animation. You can
create personalized folders to organize and store what you like, or you can download resources.
You can also upload your own content and present directly from ClassPrep, or make it available
on-line directly to your students.
MyPsychLab Highlights for Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence
NEW Experiments Tool to promote active learning

Survey: What is Intelligence?
Audio File of the Chapter

A helpful study tool for students—they can listen to a complete audio file of the chapter. Suggest
they listen while they read, or use the audio file as a review of key material.
Chapter Summary

CLASSROOM or PERSONAL RESPONSE SYSTEM (“CLICKER” QUESTIONS)
Pearson Education has partnerships with leading classroom response systems on the market. For more
information about Classroom Response Systems and our partnerships, please go to
http://www.pearsonhighered.com/crs.
Written by Cathleen Campbell-Raufer of Illinois State University, the classroom response questions
(ISBN 020525330X) are designed to complement the critical thinking theme of the
Zimbado/Johnson/McCann Psychology: Core Concepts, Seventh Edition textbook. Students become
active learners and the immediate feedback provides you with insight into their learning. Clicker
questions are available for download at the instructor’s resource center at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc,
as well as on the Instructor’s Resource DVD (ISBN 0205854397).
NEW INTERACTIVE POWERPOINT SLIDES

These slides, available on the Instructor’s Resource DVD (ISBN 0205854397), bring the Psychology:
Core Concepts design right into the classroom, drawing students into the lecture and providing wonderful
interactive activities, visuals, and videos. A video walk-through is available and provides clear guidelines
on using and customizing the slides. The slides are built around the text’s learning objectives and offer
many links across content areas. Icons integrated throughout the slides indicate interactive exercise,
simulations, and activities that can be accessed directly from the slides if instructors want to use these
resources in the classroom.
A SET OF STANDARD LECTURE POWERPOINT SLIDES written by Beth M. Schwartz,

Randolph College, is also offered and includes detailed outlines of key points for each chapter supported
by selected visuals from the textbook. A separate Art and Figure version of these presentations contains
all art from the textbook for which Pearson has been granted electronic permissions.
Both sets of PowerPoint slides are available for download at the instructor’s resource center at
www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, as well as on the Instructor’s Resource DVD (ISBN 0205854397).
ACCESSING ALL RESOURCES for Zimbardo/Johnson/McCann, Seventh Edition:
For a list of all student resources available with Zimbardo/Johnson/McCann, go to

www.mypearsonstore.com, enter the text ISBN (0205183468) and check out the “Everything That Goes
With It” section under the book cover.
For access to the instructor supplements for Zimbardo/Johnson/McCann, Psychology: Core

Concepts, Seventh Edition, simply go to http://pearsonhighered.com/irc and follow the directions to
register (or log in if you already have a Pearson user name and password).
Once you have registered and your status as an instructor is verified, you will be e-mailed a login name
and password. Use your login name and password to access the catalogue. Click on the “online catalogue”
link, click on “psychology” followed by “introductory psychology” and then the

Zimbardo/Johnson/McCann Psychology: Core Concepts, Seventh Edition text. Under the description of
each supplement is a link that allows you to download and save the supplement to your desktop.
For technical support for any of your Pearson products, you and your students can contact
http://247.pearsoned.com.

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Instructor’s Manual for Zimbardo/Johnson/McCann, Psychology: Core Concepts, 7th Edition

Psychology Core Concepts 7th Edition

Full download at link:

Solution Manual: https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-

Test Bank: https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-for-psychology-

▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES

➢ Core Concepts (p. 330)

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 310

6.1 WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THOUGHT? (text p. 215)

A. Two Kinds of Concepts

C. Culture, Concepts and Thought

II. Imagery and Cognitive Maps

III. Thought and the Brain

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 312

6.2 WHAT ABILITIES DO GOOD THINKERS POSSESS? (text p. 223)

6.2 LECTURE OUTLINE: What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess? (text p.

What Abilities Do Good thinkers Possess?

A. Identifying the Problem

4. Searching for Analogies

5. Breaking a Big Problem into Smaller Problems

C. Obstacles to Problem Solving

II. Judging and Making Decisions

F. The Tyranny of Choice

G. Decision Making and Critical Thinking

III. Becoming a Creative Genius

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 316

A. Creative Genius as Not So Superhuman

B. Knowledge and Understanding

C. Aptitudes, Personality Characteristics and Creativity

D. The Role of Intelligence in Creativity

PSYCHOLOGY MATTERS: Using Psychology to Learn Psychology (text p. 232)

6.3 HOW IS INTELLIGENCE MEASURED? (text p. 233)

6.3 LECTURE OUTLINE: How Is Intelligence Measured? (text p. 233)

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 318

6.3 CORE CONCEPT

I. Binet and Simon Invent a School Abilities Test

II. American Psychologists Borrow Binet and Simon’s Idea

A. The Appeal of Intelligence Testing in America

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 319

B. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

III. Problems with the IQ Formula

IV. Calculating IQs “on the Curve”

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 320

6.4 IS INTELLIGENCE ONE OR MANY ABILITIES? (text p. 242)

6.4 LECTURE OUTLINE: Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? (text p. 242)

I. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence

B. Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

II. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence

A. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

B. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

o Intrapersonal intelligence – the ability to know oneself, to develop a satisfactory sense

C. Assessing Cognitive Theories of Intelligence

III. Cultural Definitions of Intelligence

A. African Concepts of Intelligence

B. A Native American Concept of Intelligence

IV. The Question of Animal Intelligence

A. What Abilities Make Humans Unique?

Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence Page 324

B. Language of the Apes

C. What Are the Lessons of Research on Animal Language and Intelligence?

6.5 HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS EXPLAIN IQ DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS?

➢ Multimedia Resources in MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com):

6.5 LECTURE OUTLINE: How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among