NEET 2023

Some Basic Concepts

of Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of chemical elements and compounds, and
how these work together. It is the study of the materials that make up
our bodies and everything around us.
MATTER Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter. Matter can
neither be created, nor destroyed, but it can change its form, thus total
quantity of matter of the universe is constant.
Physical Classification Matter can exist in three physical states :

\l \ 'l R l l‘

Physical Classification

The states of matter differ from each other in following aspects:

:
.

Solids have definite volume and definite shape. ‘

:: Liquids have definite volume but not definite shape.

a Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
These three states of matter can be interconverted by changing the
conditions of temperature and pressure.
The following terms are associated with the changes from one state to
other.

Solid—~———> Liquid Solid <———-—-—— Liquid

. .
Melting or fusron Freezing or
crystallization
Endothermic state changes Exothermie state changes

Chemical Classification The chemical classification of matter is based upon its composition. At the
macroscopic or bulk level matter can be categorised as mixtures or pure
substances.
\l\l'|l'R
Chemical Classification

Mixtures Pure Substances

(Constitutedby more than (Consists of single type
one kind of pure form of matter) of articles

\.
Elements
HomogeneousMixtures (Consists of only one Compounds
(Componentsare complete (Consists of two or more
type of particles) eg. Iron
mixed with each other and atoms of different elements)
composition remains same
‘

e. g. H20, C02
throughout)e.g. Plas u1'.

Metals Metalloids Organic

' '
- have characteristics
' Inorganic
HeterogeneousMixtures - solids .
(Obtained from (Obtained fi'om
~

(Compositiondoes not - hard common to both metals

livmg sources)
,

- conductors
I

and non-metals. non-livingsources)

remainuniform and components
' e.g. Hydrocarbon e.g. compounds of metalsand
are in two or more phases) e. g. Blood _ bnfiht l n-e Non-Metals non-metalslike NaOH.
' ma ea[:5e - poor conductors .
CaCO3
- ductile _ brittle
—
non-lustrous i

‘
G‘Un‘A ACADEMY
1
LAWS or CHEMICAL Law of Conservation of Mass
COMBINATIONS '
The law was first established by French chemist Lavoisier. This law states
“Inall chemical changes the total mass ofthe system remains constant” or
3

'
'
_

“In a chemical changemass is neither created nor destroyed”. This law was
verified by Landolt.
For example,
,
N2 + 3H2 —) 2NH3
28 g 6 g 2 x 17 = 34 g
Mass of reactants (28 + 6 = 34 g) = Mass of products (34 g)
Law of Definite Proportions
. This law was proposed by Proust. This law states “Elements always combine
in fixed ratio of their weights”, or “A pure chemical compound containsthe
same elements in the fixed proportion of their weights regardless of the
mode of preparation”.
For example, pure water (H20) always contains 1: 8 ratio of hydrogen and
oxygen by weight.
’
Law of Multiple Proportions
This law was established by Dalton. It states “If two elements form two or
more than two compounds, then the masses of one of the elements which
combine with a fixed mass of the other, bears a simple whole number
ratio”.
For example, weight of oxygen that combines with 12 g of carbon in CO and
CO2 are in the ratio of 1 2.
’
'
2

Law of Reciprocal Proportions

This law was given by Richter. This law states “The ratio of the masses of
two elements A and B which combine separately with a fixed mass of the
third element C is either the same or some simple multiple of the proportions
of the masses in which A and B combine directly with each other”.
0

H____.__.__._c
For example, carbon and hydrogen combine with oxygen separately to form
two oxides CO2 and H20. In 002, 12 g of carbon combines with
32 g of oxygen. In water 2 g of H2 combines with 16 g of oxygen. Thus here
12 g of carbon and 4 g of H2 combine with a definite weight 32 g of oxygen.
When carbon and hydrogen combine with each other they must have a
ratio of 12 : 4.
Gay-Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volume
This was proposed by Gay-Lussac in 1808 and is applicable only for gases.
This law states “When gases react together, they do so in simple ratio of
volumes to one another and to volume of products, if these are also gases
all volume being measured under similar conditions of temperature and
pressure”. This law is not accurate as gases deviate from ideal behaviour.
Illustration- 1: Carbon and oxygen are known to form two compounds. The carbon content1n one ofthese
of multiple proportions. ,
it
compounds1s 42.9% while1n the other, 15 27. 3%. Show that this data1s in the agreement with the law
Soln.: Compound I '
Compound II
Mass of carbon = 42.9 g Mass of carbon =-; 27.3 g
Mass of oxygen = 100 — 42.9 Mass of oxygen = 100 — 27.3
= 57.1 g = 72.7 g
Mass of carbon which Mass of carbon which
'

combines with 57 .1 g of oxygen combines with 72.7 g of

= 42.9 g oxygen = 27.3 g
Mass of C which combines with 1.0 g of O =§27:—?=075 g in compound I
Mass of carbon which combines with 1.0 g of oxyge = 7—2—7
= 0- 375 g in compound II
The ratio of mass of carbon combining with fixed mass of oxygen is 0.75. 0.375 or
This is a simple ratio and therefore explains law of multiple proportions.
2 1..

Illustration - 2 : What mass of barium chloride would be decomposed by 9.8 g of sulphuric acid, if 12 g
ofbarium sulphate and 2.75 g of hydrogen chloride were produced in a reaction assuming that the law of
conservation of mass is true? ,

Soln.: BaCl.2 + H2804 BaSO4 + 2HCI ——> '

According to law conservation mass,

of of Total masses of reactants: Total masses of products
Suppose the mass of BaCl2 decomposed be x g, so x + 9. 8: 12.0 + 2. 75: 14.75
x = 4 95 g
'

Illustration - 3 : Show that this datais in agreement with the law of reciprocal proportions : KClcontains
52.0% potassium, KI contains 23.6% potassium and 1C] contains 78.2% iodine.
Soln.: In KCI : % of Potassium (given) = 52.0% K

% of Chlorine = (100 — 52) = 48%

In KI : % of Potassium (given) = 23.6%; ~
KC KI
% of Iodine = (100 — 23.6) = 76.4%
In KI.' 23. 6 parts of potassium combine with 76. 4 parts of iodine Cl
Id
1

1 part of potassium combines with:—;—g—‘;parts of iodine = 3 237 parts of iodine

Now In KCl : 52.0 parts of potassium combine with 48 parts of chlorine.
4_8
part of potassium combines ‘with-
’

.24 1
5 parts of chlorine-= 0.92 part of chlorine
The proportion of masses of chlorine and iodine which combine with same mass of potassium
'

= 0.92 : 3.237 or 1 z 3.5

In ICl: % of Iodine (given): 78. 2% and
% 0f Chlorine-= (100— 78. 2)‘ 21. 8% -
The ratio of chlorine and iodinein 101-— 21.8: 78.2: 1: 3. 5. Hence, the data illustrates the law of
reciprocal proportions.
Illustration- 4. 0.7 g ofiron combines directly with 0.4 g of sulphur to form ferrous sulphide. If 2. 8 g
ofiron are dissolved1n dilute HCl and excess of sodium sulphide solutionis added, 4. 4 g of1ron sulphide
is precipitated. Does the data illustrate the law of constant composition?
Soln.: In the first sample of the compound the ratio of the weights of Iron and Sulphur1s:
Fe. S: .0 7: 0. 4 or 7: 4. .

Now, 2.8 g of iron gives 4.4 g ferrous sulphide precipitate.

Amount of sulphur combined with 2.8 g iron = 4.4 — 2.8 = 1.6 g.
The ratio of the weights of Fe .: S : : 2.8 : 1.6 or 7 4. ' :3

Since the ratio of two elements in both the compounds are same, hence it proves the law of constant
composition.
Illustration - 5 : Air contains 21% oxygen by volume; calculate the theoretical volume of air Which will
be require for burning completely 500 cubic ft. of acetylene gas (‘0sz)' All volumes are measured under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure. 4

Soln.: 2C2H2 + 502 -———>- 4002 + 2H20 (Steam)

2 vol. 5 vol. 4 vol. 2 vol.

3 GUNA ACADEMY
 According to the above equation :
2 vol.of acetylene require 5 vol. of 02 for combustion.
500 cubic ft. of acetylene will require 02 _5><500 = 1250 cum

zw
—
2
V

Therefore, the quantity of air required = 595238 wit,

2]
ATOM 0 Atom is the basic particle of an element which may or may not exist
independently.
0 Dalton used this term for those basic particles which take part in chemical
reactions.
0 Molecule was the name given by Avogadro to the ultimate
~

particle of a
chemical compound which is capable of independent existence.
0 Molecules are made
up of two or more atoms of either same element or
different elements and accordingly called, homoatomic or heteroatomic
molecule respectively.
0 If an element in the
gaseous state contains only one atom, it is called
monoatomic. For example, noble gases, such as helium, argon, krypton,
etc. are all monoatomic.
0 The gaseous elements, such as hydrogen,
‘

oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen

and fluorine contain diatomic molecules. Phosphorus and sulphur
molecules contain four (P4) and eight (83) atoms respectively.
0 The number of atoms present in the molecule of
an element or compound
is known as atomicity.
ag. atomicity of 02 = 2
atomicity of NH3 = 4
atomicity of ClZH22011 = 45
DALTON’S ATOMIC
THEORY
Dalton based his theory on two other scientific principles
o The law of conservation of mass
-
0 The law of definite proportion. , ,

An atom cannot be broken down further without changing the chemical

nature of the substance. The main postulates of his theory are —
,

(i) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called

atoms.
(ii) Atom is a hard, dense and smallest indivisible particle of matter.
(iii) Each element consists of a particular kind of atoms.
(iv) Atoms of a particular element are all alike. but differ from atoms of
another element.
(v) The properties of elements differ because of difference in the kinds of
atoms contained in them.
(vi) Atom is indestructible i.e. it cannot be destroyed or creawd.
,

(vii) Atoms of different elements take part in a chemical reaction to form

compound atom (now called molecule).
'

(viii) In a given compound, relative number and kinds of atoms are constant.
Drawbacks of Dalton’s (i) It failsmto explain why should atoms of an element differ in their
atomic theory masses.
(ii) Discovery of isotopes and isobars, proved that atoms of
same elements
may have different atomic masses (isotopes) and atoms of different
kinds may have same atomic masses (isobars).
(iii) The discovery of various sub atomic particles like electrons,
_

protons,
neutrons, etc‘. lead to the idea that the atom was no longer the smallest,
indivisible particle of the matter.
MOLE CONCEPT 0 This term was first used by Ostwald in 1896- for
giving counts or numbers
to atoms, molecules, ions, etc. '
 0 As these particles are microscopic and not easy to count, an easily
measurable quantity was preferred by scientists.
0 Mole is the amount of substance which contains the same number of
particles (atoms, molecules or ions) as the number of atoms in 12 g of
carbon (0”).
'
'
,

0 The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon was found to be 6.023 x 1023, this

is called Avogadro’s number.
0 Thus, a mole can be) defined as the amount ofsubstance having Avogadro
number or 6.023 x 1023 particles.
0‘ When using the term ‘mole’ it is essential to specify the kind of particle,
e.g. ion, atom, molecule, etc.
. 0 Mole and Gram Atomic Mass
One mole of atoms a 6.023 x 1023 atoms 2 1 gram atom
a gram atomic mass of element
0 Mole and Gram Molecular Mass
One mole of molecules 2 6.023 x 1023 molecules
_
E 1 gram molecule 5 gram molecular mass
V

0 Molar Volume
One mole ofgas at NTP E 6.023 x 1023 molecules (atom)
E 22.4‘1itres at NTP 2 gram molecular volume (molar volume)

mass in gram
0 Number of moles =
gram molecular weight
Illustration - 6 : Calculate the number of moles of water in 488 g BaCl2 . ZHZO.
Soln.: Based on Mole Concept, gram molecular mass = 1 Mole of molecules
Mol. weight of Ba012 . 2H2O = 244 g. '
244 g hydrated Ba012 has 36 g water = 2 mol
2x488
488 g will have moles H2O = 4 mol.

Illustration - 7 : The reaction 20 + 02 —> 200 is carried out by taking 24 g of carbon and 96 g of 02, find
the (a) reactant left in excess, (b) amount of reactant left; (c) number of moles of CO formed; (d) amount of
the other reactant which should be taken so that nothing is left (complete reaction occurs).
Soln.: For complete reaction number of moles are calculated.
20 + 02 -———> ZCO
no. of moles 24/12 96/32
before reaction 2 3 0
no. of moles
after reaction 0 2 (3 — 1) 2
(as per balanced equation ratio 2 : 1 : 2) .

(a) Reactant lefl: in excess is oxygen.

(b) 2 moles of oxygen is left as excess reactant.
(c) 2 moles of CO are formed = 56 g
(d) As per equation 24 g C reacts with 32 g OZ

'. for 96 g 02 to be used % x 96 = 72 g C is needed.

72 g C or 6 moles ofcarbon should be taken for no reactant to be left.

‘AVOGADRO’S 0 Equal volumes of gases or vapours obeying gas laws under similar
HYPOTHESIS conditions of pressure and temperature contain equal number of
molecules.
5 GUNA ACADEMY
 This statement leads to the following facts:
(i) One mole of all gases contains Avogadro number of molecules i.e.,
6.023 x 1023 molecules. p

(ii) The volume of one mole of gas at N.T.P. or S.T.P. is 224 litre.
(iii) Gram molecular weight may also be regarded as the weight of
22.4 litres at N.T.P. ingram:
(iv) N.T.P. or S.T.P. refers for P = 1 atm, T 0°C or 273 K.
(v) Avogadro’s number NA = the no. of atoms in 1 g atom of an element
:
or ion =~no. of molecules in 1 g molecule of a compound
= 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms

Applications of Atomicity
Avogadro’s law The number of atoms present in one molecule of the substanCe is
called its atomicity e.g. atomicity of O2 is two while that of O3 is 3.
i
If for an element . .

C
Y = 5’; = 1-66, then it is monoatomic.
V
y= 1.40, then it is diatomic.
y= 1.3, then it is triatomic.
where CP and CV are the specific heat of the gas or vapour at constant
pressure and constant volume respectively.
Relation between Molecular Mass and Vapour Density
According to, the definition of vapour density
'

weight of V volume of any gas

_
-
weight of V volume of hydrogen
(under similar conditions of pressure and temperature)
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, under same pressure and
temperature equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of
molecules. Therefore, if there are n molecules in volume V then, '

wt. of )2 molecules of the gas 11 Xwt. of a molecule of the gas

_ =
wt. of II molecules of hydrogen 12 X wt. ofa molecule of hydrogen

wt. of a molecule of the gas wt. of a molecule of the gas in

_ =
wt. of a molecule of hydrogen 2 x wt. of an atom of hydrogen
(since, hydrogen atom is diatomic, one of the conclusions of Av0gadro’s
hypothesis).
wt. of the gas
= Molecular 1‘1
2 2
2 xD =M
Molecular weight = 2 x V.D y »

Therefore the molecular weight of a gas is twice that of its vapour

7

density and it is the conclusion of Avogadro’s hypothesis.

Relation between Mass and Volume of :a gas
Vapour density of a gas 2 weight of l'litre of gas
’1

weight of litre of hydrogen1 ‘

At N.T.P. the weight of 1 litre hydrogen = vapour density of hydrogen

'

= 0.089 g

of_1_litre gas at N.T_.l:

Vapour density = weight
0.089
Again, according to Avogadro’s hypothesis,
 Molecular weight (11/)
Vapour density = 2

fl2 _" wt. of 1

.
litre gas (at N.T.P.)
0 089
wt ofl litre gas atN...TP =£X0089g
The volume of (MX0089)g gas-
— 1 litre (at N. T. P. )

or The volume ofMggas =1"2 0.089

=22.4 litre (at N...TP)

i.e., at N.T.P. the volume of 1 g—molecule gas = 22.4 litre.

Illustration - 8 : K—40 is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope having natural abundance of 0.012%
potassium isotopes. How many K-4O atoms do you ingest by drinking one cup of whole milk containing
370 mg K?
Soln.: To calculate weight of atoms
Given, abundance of K-40 = 0.012%

7
' . Amount of K—40 in 370 mg K =
40 g K-4O has 6.023 x 1023 atoms.
_—
370 x 0.012
100
mg =_0.0444 m.g

6.023 x1023 x 0.0444 x10—3

6.69 x 1017 atoms
0.0444 x 10‘3 g K—40 will have = =
40

ATOMIC MASS Atomic mass of an element is a number which indicates as to how

many times an atom of that element is heavier, on an average, as
compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 (6 G”).
Since the atomic mass is a ratio, it has no unit. However it is expressed
in amu or u (unified mass).
1 amu :-l~x massofC-lZatomv /,

i8._
12

112 x 6.022x 1023 =166x10‘24g

Gram atomic mass is the mass in gram of one mole of atoms in a
monoatomic element.
amu.
Itis numerically equal to the atomic mass in
Mass of an element in g
(i) No. ofgram atoms or mole atoms = Gram atomic mass ‘

f
(ii) Mass of an element in g = No. of gram atoms x Gram atomic mass
(iii) No. of atoms in 1 gram atomic mass = 6.02 x1023
-
No. of atoms in given substance
= No. of gram atoms x 6.02 x 1023
: __—__Mfi——— X 6.02 X1023

zm
Gram atomic mass
23
(vi) No. of atoms in 1 g of an element

=W
‘

I
At. mass

(v) Mass of one atom of the element (in g)

6.02X10
Ato'micMass Unit : One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly
equal to one twelfth the mass of one carbon-‘12 atom.
1 amu = 1.66056 x 10~24 g
Mass of an atom of hydrogen = 1.6736 x 10—24 g

_M
Thus, in terms of amu, the mass of hydrogen atom

1.66056x10‘24g ’ 10078
' amu" 10080
' amu

7 GUNA ACADEMY
 Average Atomic Mass: The average atomic mass of an element can
be calculated as
R.A.(1) ><
At. mass (1) + RA. (2) X At. mass (2)
Average atomic mass = RA. (1.) + RA. (2)
Here R.A. = Relative abundance
In the periodic table of elements, the atomic masses mentioned for
different elements actually represented their average atomic masses.
Methods of determining Dulong and Petit’s law
atomic mass or atomic According to Dulong and Petit’s law, At ordinary temperaturethe atomic
weight heat of a solid element i.e., the product of atomic weight and” specific
heat of an element is a constant and its value is nearly 6.4.
i.e., Atomic weight of an element x specific heat = 6.4 (approx)
6.4
or Atomic weight of an element = specific heat (approx).
So by obtaining the specific heat of an element its approximate atomic
weight can be determined.
Now, this approximate atomic weight is divided by the experimental
equivalent weight to obtain the valency of the element.
approximate atomic weight
Valency =
equivalent weight
The nearest whole number is taken as the valency.
Exact atomic weight of the element = Equivalentweight x Valency.
Isoriwrphism method
When two or more different chemical compounds exist in the same
crystalline structure, they are called as isomorphous and the
phenomenon is known as isomorphism.
e.g. Green vitriol (FeSO4-7H20) and white vitriol (ZnSO4~7H20) are
isomorphous.
The conditions for isomorphism are: '

(i) The formulae of the compounds must be similar.

(ii) Relative size of the ions must be similar.
(iii) Total number of atoms in the compounds must be same.
(iv) Nature of bonding must be similar in the compounds.
(v) Charge of the constituent ions must be same in the compounds.
According to Mitscherlich’s law of isomorphism : “When two compounds
are isomorphous with each other, then they are usually composed of
same number of similar atoms united in a similar manner giving
similar crystal structure”. ,

e.g. K0104 and KMnO4 ZnSO4-7H20 and MgSO4-7H20 ;

‘

K2SO4' A12(SO4)324H20 and K2804'CI‘2(SO4)3'24H20 etc. are

the isomorphous pairs.
Using the above law we can also find the atomic mass of an element.
Suppose a metal sulphate is isomorphous with MgSO4-7H20 and atomic
mass of the metal is ‘A’. Then the formula of the sulphate will be
similar to MgSO4-7H20. Now molecular weight ofthe metal sulphate
(MSO4-7H20) =A + 32 + 64 + 7 x 18 =A + 222

mx
A
:> % of the metal 1n the metal sulphate = 100

The % composition of the metal in the metal sulphate is again

determined experimentally. Let it be ‘x’. Then,

m
A
X100 = x
Solving the above equation we can find the value of ‘A’.

8
 0 Volatile chloride formation method
Suppose atomic weight of the element (M) is ‘A’, equivalent weight is
E and valency is ‘n’. Now molecular formula of the chloride is MCl".
As, A = E x n -

So molecular weight of the chloride = E x n + 35.5 x n

= n (E + 35.5)
Molecular weight of the chloride 2 x Vapour density
3 Valency (n) = Equivalent weight of chloride = E+35.5
By measuring vapour density of the chloride and equivalentweight of
the element, we can find the value of ‘n’.
Now exact atomic weight = n x equivalent weight.
0 Cannizzaro’s method .

This method is applicable to find atomic Weight of non-metals Only,‘

which form large number of volatile or gaseous compounds. i. e. for the
elements H, C, N, O, Si, P, S, etc.
First the vapour densities of the compounds are determined
experimentally.Then the molecular weight of each is calculated from
the relation, Molecular weight = 2 x vapour density. Now % composition
of the elementin each compound is determined experimentally.Then
the weight of the element in one mole of each compound
mol. wt. of the compound X % of the element in the compound
_— 1 00
The least weight of the element in one mole of any of the compounds
isthe atomic weight of the element.
MOLECULAR MASS 0 Molecular mass of a substance also called as molecular weight and is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass ofeach element by the number
of its atoms and then adding them together.
Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4(1.008 u)
’

= 16.043 u
0 GramMolecular Mass :The molecular mass of a substanceexpressed
in grams is called its gram molecular mass. The amount of the.
substance is also called one gram molecules.
e.g. Molecular mass of CaCO3 = 100 u
Gram molecular mass of CaCO3 = 100
Mass of substance in g
(i) of g molecules or mole molecules
No. =
gram molecular mass
(ii) Mass of substance in g
= No. of gram molecule x gram molecular maSs
FORMULA MASS - The smallest unit of an ionic compound is a formula unit. The mass
of this formula unit is called the formula mass.
or
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of
all atoms in a formula unit of the substance expressed in amu. For
example; the formula unit of sodium sulphide is NaZS. Formula mass
"of sodium sulphide = atomic mass of sodium x 2 + atomic mass of
sulphur = 23 x 2 + 32 = 78.0 u.'

EQUIVALENTWEIGHT D Equivalent weight of a substance is defined as that weight of the

substance which combines or displaces one part by mass of hydrogen;
' ’

or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine.

9 GUNA ACADEMY
 0 -
This depends on the nature of chemical reaction in which the substance
takes part.
0 Equivalent weight of an element in Redox reaction:
Equivalentweight of oxidant/reductant

m
Mol. wt.
_..
no. of e" lost/gained by one molecule
, 0 Equivalentweight of element/compound in non-redox change:
At. t. f t
’

1
Equivalent weight of element =
Valency

E'lt
»

qulva en weig o ompou 'htfc nd=——-—— Mol. wt. of compound

Total charge on cation/anion
0 Equivalentweight of an acid or base:
Mol. wt. M_ol.w_t.
Eand _
_

’ base _
—
Basicity Acidity
of acid salt
M01. wt.
0 Equivalentweight of acid salt =
Replaceable H atom
Formula wt. ofion
0 Equivalent weight of an ion = ,
Charge on Ion
Illustration-9: 1.8 g iron displaces 2 04 g Cu from CuSO4 solution, if equivalent weight of copper- —
31. 7, whatis the equivalent weight of Fe?
Soln.: According to law of Equivalents, Equivalent ofFe = Equivalent of Cu
1.8 2.04
_ Equivalentweight of Fe = 27,97
Eq. wt. ofF e -— —31.7

Illustration - 10 : 2 g of a metal in H2S04 gives 4.51 g ofthe metal sulphate. The specific heat of metal is
0.057 cal/g. Calculate the valency and atomic weight of metal.
Soln.: According to Dulong and Petit’s law, Atomic weight x specific heat = 6.4
Ax 0.057 = 6.4 A = 112.28
According to law ofEquivalents, Equivalent ofmetal = Equivalent of metal sulphate
Equivalent weight of SO2‘ = 48
‘

2 4.51
E = 38.24
‘

— =
E E + 48
Valency of metal =
“2'28 = 2.93 3
3 8 .24
z
Exact at. Weight ofmetal = Equivalent weight x valency = 38.24 x 3 = 114.72.
EMPIRICALAND - EmpiricalFormula
MOLECULARFORMULA It represents the simplestwhole number ratio of the atoms ofelements
constituting its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the
atoms representing empirical formula is called empirical formula
mass.
0 MolecularFormula
It represents the exact'number of the atoms of the elements present
in its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing
molecule, is called molecular mass.
0 Relationship between Empirical formula and Molecular
fimnula
Molecular formula = Empirical formula x n .

where n is simple whole number having value of 1, 2, 3, ............ etc,

andcan be calculated as n: Molecular
.
formula mass
formula
.
Empmcal mass

10
 0 Structural formula .

It represents the way in which atoms of various elements present in

the molecule are linked with each other. For example, methane is
represented as /
l
H / 1\
C

H H
The ‘formula indicates that four hydrogen atoms are linked to
one
carbon atom by four single covalent bonds.

percentage composition 0 Percentage composition of the elementis the relative mass of the each
ofelement ofthe constituent element in 100 parts of it. It can be calculated if we
know the molecular mass of compound.
Suppose the molecular mass of a compound be M and X be the mass
of an element in the molecule.
L

% Of element _ molecular mass of element 00 _ X 100

molecular mass of compound
—
fix
Illustration - 11 : Find out the percentage composition of the following compounds.
(a) Lead phosphate [Pb3(PO4)2], ..
'

/'
(b) Microcosmic salt — Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate, tetrahydrate
(NaNH4HPO4.4H20).
Soln.: (a) Lead phosphate : Pb3(PO4)2
3 atoms of Pb = 207 x 3 = 621.0 amu
2 atoms ofP = 31 x 2 = 62.0 amu
8 atoms ofO = 16 x 8 = 128.0 amu
Mol. wt. = 621.0 1- 62.0 + 128.0 = 811.0 amu
Hence, the % of Pb =62%:fl =76.57 %
the % of P =6zs"% =7.64 %, the % of 0
42:30" =15.78%
(b) MicrOcosmic salt — Sodium Ammonium hydrogen phosphate,
tetrahydrate; NaNH4HPO4- 4H20.
1atomofNa=23x1=23.0 amu ; 1atomofN=14x1=14.0amu
5atomsofH=1x5=5.0amu ;1atomofP=31x1=31.0amu
4 atomsofO = 16 x 4 = 64.0 amu ; 4 molecules of H20 = 18 ’x 4 = 72.0
Mol. wt. = 23.0 + 14.0 + 5.0 + 31.0 + 64.0 + 72.0 = 209.0
amu

Hence, % ofNa =232XT19°°=11.00*%; % ofN =$=67m

% of H __5x100=
— 2.39 %, % ofP =31x100= 14-83 %
209 209
% _64x100_
ofO _W_30'62 %,
,

% of H20 _72x100_
—W_34'45 %_
Illustration - 12 : The red colour of blood is due to a compound called haemoglobin. It contains 0.335%
of iron. Four atoms of iron are present in one molecule of haemoglobin. What is its
molecular weight?
(Fe = 55.84) '
’

Soln.: Mol.‘ wt. of Fe = 55.84

4 atoms of Fe are present in one molecule of haemoglobin.
Total amount of Fe = 4 x 55.84 = 223.36 Parts.
Now 0.335 parts of Fe is present in 100 parts of haemoglobin.

‘
Hence, 223.36 parts of Fe (4 atoms) will be present in parts

VALENCY
=W = 66674.63 s 66675
Valency is the number of electrons lost or gained or shared by one atom
of the element during formation of a compound in order to attain the
electronic configuration of nearest noble gases, e.g. valency of Al in A1013
is 3; P in P205 is 5, etc. -

11 GUNA ACADEMY
 1. Valency of an element is always a whole number and never zero
(except for noble gases).
2. Transition elements show variable valency due to involvement of bOth
ns and (n—1) d electrons.
3. For a radical the valency is equal to the magnitude of its charge,
e.g. valency of CO? is 2, AF" is 3, etc.
CHEMICALEQUATION , A chemical equation is the representation of a chemical reaction with the
help of symbols and formulae of the reactants and products. Qualitatively
it represents
0 The name of the reactants and products involved in the reaction.
0 The number of atoms and molecules of reactants and products involved
in the reaction.
0 The relative number of moles of reactants and products involved in
the reaction.
The relative weights of reactants and products involved in the reaction.
The relative volumes of reactants and products involved in case of
gaseous reaction.
Limitation of the chemical equation
0 It does not inform about actual concentration of the reactants and
products.
0 Rate of the reaction.
0 Mechanism of the reaction.
0 Time taken for the completion of the chemical change.

Balancing a chemical According to the law of conservation of mass, a balanced chemical equation
equation has the same number ofatoms ofeach element on both sides of the equation.
Many chemical equations can be balanced by trial and error. Let us take
the‘reactions of a few metals and non-metals with oxygen to give oxides
4Fe® + 302%) —> 2Fe203(s) (a) balanced equation
2Mg(s) + 02g) _’ 2MgO(s) (b) balanced equation
Pm) + 02(g) —’ P4010(g) _
(c) unbalanced equation
Equations (a) and (b) are balanced since there are same number of metal
and oxygen atoms on each side of equations. However equation (c) is not
a balanced. In this equation, phosphorus atoms are balanced but not the
oxygen atoms. To balance it, we must place the coefficient 5 on the lefi'. of
oxygen on the left side of the equation to balance the oxygen atoms appearing
on the right side of the equation.
Pug) + 502 (g) -) P4010 (s) balanced equation
Now let us take combustion of propane, C3H8. This equation can be balanced
in steps.
'

Step 1 : Write down the correct formulae of reactants and products. Here
'

propane and oxygen are the reactants, and carbon dioxide and water are
the products.
C3H8(g) + 02%) —> 0029;) + H200) unbalanced equation
Step 2 : Balance the number of C atoms : Since 3 carbon atoms are in the
reactant, therefore, three CO2 molecules are required on the right side.
02g) 300mg) + H200)
C3H8(g) + ——>

Step 3 : Balance the number of H atoms : On the left there are 8 hydrogen
atoms in the reactant however, each molecule of water has two hydrogen
atoms, so four molecules of water will be required for eight hydrogen atoms
,
on the right side.

12
 Cang) + 02%) —>
3002(g) + 4H20(l)
Step 4 : Balance the number of O atoms : There are ten oxygen atoms on
the right side (3 x 2 = 6 in CO2 and.4 x 1 = 4 in water). Therefore, five
02
molecules are needed to supply the required ten
oxygen atoms
Cang) + 502%) 300%,) + 4H20w ——>

Step 5 : Verify that the number of each element is balanced in the final
equation. The equation shows three carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms,
and ten oxygen atoms on each side.
All equations that have correct formulae for all reactants and
products can
be balanced. Always remember that subscriptsin formulae of
reactants and
products cannot be changed to balance an equation.
Illustration-13 : How many moles of methane are required to produce 22 CO2 after
g combustion?
Soln.: According to the chemical equation, (5,)

CH4® + 202%) --> 002(3) + 2H20®

44 g 00%,) is obtained from 16 g CH4(g). [-,- 1 mol C0209 is obtained from 1 mol of
CH4(g)]
1 mol COZ(g)
mole of 002%) in 22 g COZ<g> = = 0.5 mol COM)
44 g 002(g)
Hence, 0.5 mol 002%) would be obtained from 0.5 mol
CH4® or 0.5 mol of CH“) would be required to
produce 22 g 00%,).
_

Limiting Reagent
'
In a balanced chemical reaction the reactant which is present in the lesser
amount gets consumed after sometime and after that no further reaction
takes place whatever be the amount of the other reactants
present. Hence,
the reactant which gets consumed, limits the amount of product formed
and is, therefore,‘called the limiting reagent.
Illustration - l4 : If 1 g of H2(g) reacts with 1 g of 012%,) in a closed container, then how
HCl will be produced during the reaction? many grams of
Soln.: No. of moles of H2(g) taken :1 .
2 ’
No.‘ of moles of 012%,) taken
71
=i 3
1
:

Now H29) and 01205,) will react as follows. ' p

H2“) + 02(3) ——> 2HC1®

1 l
at t 20 —mo le
2
——
71
mo le 0

at timet
. 1_
2 71
1 1 71 2x7—1
1

Hence 012%,) is limiting reagent because it is completely consumed

Now molar ratio of Cl, : HCl = 1 : 2 up.

no. of moles of Cl2 consumed

no. of moles of HClproduced =%
—
i
71

weight of HCl produced = %x 36.5 g = 1.028 g

RELATIONS IN '
0 The concentration of a solution can be expressedin number
a of ways
SOLUTIONS as follows: .

Strength 0 The strength of a solution is defined as the amount ofsolute in "

grams
present in a litre of the solution.
/
Normality 0 Normality (N) of a solution is given as the number ofgram equivalents
of solute in a litre of solution. Its unit is
gram equivalent litre‘l.
0 If a solution is diluted x times, its normality will decrease x times.
Normality also changes with temperature. ‘

13 GUNA ACADEMY
 no. ofg.eq_. ofsolute
0 Normality (N) g

vol. of solution in litres

wt. of solute 1000
X
eq. wt. of solute vol. of solution in mL
% of solute x 10 strength of solution in gL‘1
_
—
eq. wt. of solute eq. wt. of solute
wt. of solut x
.. —-————e—_L , Where n 15 .
the valency factor.
-

molecular wt. of solute

. N1V1 = N2V2 _

—- if two solutions of same solute are mixe} then normality ofmixture

1s
1V1 V1 + IV2 V2 .

Nmix =
K+6 .

—- to determine volume of water to be added to change normality N1 to

N2

(2
V—V1) = M-M)
[ ———V
N2
1

—- if W g of acid (or base) is completely neutralised by VmL of base (or

acid) of Normality N
Wt- 0f add, (base) L/(base/acid) X Mbase/acid)
=
g. eq. wt. of acid (base) 1000
— if Va ml of Na acid is mixed with Vb mL of Nb base,
solution is neutral, if NaVa = Nbe

W
— solution is acidic. if NaVa > Nbe

' Normality of acidic mixture =

(Va + Vb)

M
—’—
solution is basic if Nbe > NaVa

Normality of basic mixture =

(K + ’3)
Illustration .- 15 : The formula weight of
an acid is 82.0. 100 cm3 of a solution of this acid containing
39.0 g of acid per litre were completely neutralized by 95.0'cm3 of
aqueous NaOH containing 40.0 g of NaOH
per litre. What is the basicity of the acid?
Soln.: Assume basicity as n

Normality of acid =
43—9—
x $99.
82/11 100
Normality of NaOH = 3% x 13%
Meq. of acid = Meq. of NaOH
391 x 1399:1302“ => ”=2.2z2
82 100 95
Acid is dibasic.
‘

Molarity 0 Molarity/(M) is the. number of moles of solute per litre of solution.

Its unit is me] L“1.
‘

0 If a solution is diluted x times, its molarity decreasesx times. Molarity

decreaseswith increase in temperature. '

no. ofmoles-ofsolute (/2)

. Molarity (IV) =
vol. ofsolution 1n litres

l4
 of solute wt. 1000
x
of solute vol. of solution in mL
mol. wt.
% of solute x 10 in gl'1 of solution
_ strength
mol. wt. of solute mol. wt. of solute
'

wt. % of solute x sp. gravity of solution x 10

mol. wt. of solute
. MIVI = M2V2 (Dilution LaW)

_
T'T
11/1 V1 M2 72
_
— if two solutions of same solute are mixed then:

Mm. = W ++ M216
(71 V2)
— to determine volume of water to be added to change molarity M1 to
M2

- =
[7.)11/1 ‘ M2
Mol. wt.
0 '
N ormality =Ml 't
oanyx Eq.wt.
Illustration - 16 : Calculate the molarity and normality of a 96% H2804 solution having a density of
1.83 g/mL. (g mol. wt. of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol.)

Soln.: H2804 is dibasic, hence its Eq. weight = 2; = 49

Weight of 1 litre solution = 1.83 x 1000 = 1830 g
9
Weight of H2804 in 1 litre = $0 1756.8 g
.

x 1830 =

Weight of water in 1 litre solution = 1830 — 1756.8 = 73.2 g

1 756.8
Molarity of H2804 = = 17.93 M
98

Normality of H2804 = ”56-8 = 35.85 N

Molality 0 Molality (m) of a solution is the number of moles or gram molecules of

solute per 1000 g (1 kg) of solvent. Its unit is mol kg‘l.
0 It is the most convenient method to express concentration as it involves
measurement of weights. ‘

0 Molality does not change with temperature because it does not involve
volume of solution.

. M 0131.lty (m) = —_-—_—

no. of gram moles of solute
wt. of solvent in kg

wt. of solute 1000

_ solubility x
10
wt of solvent in g - mol. wt. of solute
_ mol. wt. of solute x

Mole Fraction 0 Mole Fraction (x) is the ratio of the number of moles of one component
(i.e. solute or solvent) to the total number of moles of the solution (i.e.
both components). I

GUNA ACADEMY
15
 0 For a solution containing n1 moles of solute and n2 moles of solvent, the
mole fraction of each is:
”1
mole fraction of solute (x1) =
’11 + ’12

mole fraction of solvent (x2) = ”2

”1 + ’12
- Sum of mole fractions is always unity.
x1 + x2 + ... = 1
0 Mole fraction is also independent of temperature variation.

Illustration - 17 : Mole fraction of 12 in C6H6 is 0.2. Calculatethe molality of 12 in C6H6.

Soln.: Mole fraction of 12 = 0.2
”
= 0.2 ...(i)
II + [V
Mole fraction of CGHG will be = 1 — 0.2 = 0.8

N”
I: +
= 0.8 ...(.ii) ( n and N are no. of moles of I2 and C6H6 respectively)
From equations (i) and (ii) we get

1N "_ fl
0.8 ' 4
_
1_
or '
3412626. _ L
Wows 4 .

” 1
” 1000
=, or x1000 = —— (Mol. wt. ofCGHs = 78)
”661.16 4 x 78 IVC6H6 4 x 78
.

1———
Molality = = 3.205.
4 X 8

Illustration - 18 : For the reaction:

N205(g) _—‘ 2N02(g) + 0'502(g)
Calculate the mole fraction of N205(g) decomposed at a constant volume and temperature, if the initial
pressure is 600 mm Hg and the pressure at any time is 960 mm Hg. Assume ideal gas behaviour.
l
Soln.: The decomposition equation,
,

N205 2NO(g) + :2—

02(8)
given Initial pressure 600 0 0
Final pressure 600—P 2P P/2
If V and T are constant, P oc moles
final pressure = 960 mm (given)
Thus, 960 = 600-P+ 2P+P/2 => P = 240 mm
Mole fraction of N205 decomposed = ég—g = 0.4

16
 Key Notes
Types of chemical reaction
Depending upon the nature of reaction, the reactions can be classified into following categories:-
Synthesis reaction : Which involves the formation of a compound by chemical union of two or more
elements. e.g. N2 + 3H2 2NH3 ——)

Decomposition reaction : Which involves splitting of a compound giving two or more elements or
simpler compounds and it is the reverse of synthesis reaction. e.g. CaCO3 —> Ca0 + CO2
Double decomposition reaction : Which involves mutual exchange of radicals between two reacting
substances and also known as metathesis reaction e.g.,
AgN03(aq)_ + KCIW ——> AgCll + KNOW!)

Substitution reaction : Which involves replacement of one or more atoms of a compound by another
atom or group. e.g., CH4 + Cl2 -—> CH3C1 + HCl
Rearrangement reaction : Which involves rearrangement of atoms within the molecule of the
compound giving a new compound or isomer and also known as isomer-isation reaction. e.g.,
CIH3

CH3 - CH2- CHZ—CH3 —> CH3 - CH—CH3

(n-butane) (iso-butane)
Neutralisation reaction : Which involves the reaction between acid and base in their aqueous
solution, giving salt and water. e.g.,
NaOHW + HCl (m1) NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l)
——>

Hydrolysis reaction : Which involves reaction of water with a substance or salt giving acid and base.
This is the reverse of neutralisation reaction. e.g.,
FeCl3 + 3H20 —+ Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
Polymerisation reaction : Which involves addition reaction of three or more molecules of same or
differentsubstances giving a plastic like substance known as polymer. The starting material is known
as monomer. e.g.,
n(CH2' :- OH.) —-> —{- CH2 —-
CH2 4;
(Ethene) (Polyethene)
Relation between molality and molarity _

If M = Molarity = Moles of solute dissolved in 1000 mL of solution

and molecular mass of solute = M2
Then mass of solute = M M2
Mass of solution = 1000 p — MM2

As molality m = moles of solute P er 1000 gm of solvent =.___M.__ x1000

lOOOp—MMZ

:
fir
M .
Molanty(M)
mp
Molahty (m) _
.
or —
———~—
MM2
or mM2
+
1000
)
1000

:gw
Relation between molarity and density of solution
Molarity of the solution
.
volume of solution

17 GUNA ACADEMY
 II
M = w————1 '
(111/111 +n2M2){p
Here n1M1 mass of solute, n2M2 = mass of solvent, i.e. nlMl + n2M2 = mass of solution
=
0 Relation between molarity and mole fraction
If molarity = M = Moles of solute dissolved in 1000 mL of solution
M2 = Molecular mass of solution
Volume of solution = 1000 mL, density of solution = p
Mass of solute = MM2, Mass of solution = 1000p
Where M = Molarity.
Thus mass of solvent = Mass of solution — mass of solute = 1000p — MM2
1000p — MMZ
Now number of moles of solvent = M 1

Where M1 = Molecular mass of solvent

NOW mole fraction 0f solute 12 2 $32181: 41: smoiil:
of solute
= :2112
moles of I11

M MM MM.
- 10009—114442 “VA/1
Mir/V
_~
=
.
'1000p—MW2 4111)
M]

or x2 :1000p—M(M2 —Ml)
W
9 Relation between molality and mole fraction
Molality = moles of solute per 1000 g of solvent
Moles of solute = n2
=QO—O
Moles of solvent = ’71
M
where M1 = Molecular mass of solvent
”2 ”2 ”211/1
NOW 12 (mole fraction of solute) = = , x2 =
”1 +122 +1000 122/111 +1000
”2
Ml
”21111

0 r W e c an W r1te
'
”’2 =
___1000
”2114+1000
1000
m M
: mflll+l 1

because moles of solute dissolved in 1000 g of solvent is called molality i.e. 152% = m

IMPORTANT FORMULAE .

G” Conversion Factors
1 angstrom (A) = 10‘8 em = 10'10 m = 10‘1 mm = 102 pm
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 cm = 0.3937inch
1 metre = 39.37 inch
1 km = 0.621 mile
1kg = 2.20 pounds (lb)
1g =0.0353 ounce
1 pound =453.6 g
1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.6605 x 10‘24 g = 1.6605 x 10‘27 kg
5 1.492 x 10’3 erg: 1.492 x 10‘10J
= 3.564 x 1011 cal = 9.310 x 108 eV
= 931.48 MeV
1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 76 cm Hg
= 1.01325 x 105 Pa
1 calorie (cal) = 4.18 x 107 erg = 4.18 J
= 2.613 x 1019 eV

18
 1 erg = 10’7J= 2.389 x 10‘scal=6.242 x 1011eV
1 faraday (F) =9.6487 x 104 coulomb
1 dyne (dyne) = 10‘5 N
1 joule = 107 erg = 0.2390 cal
1 litre = 1000 cc = 1000 mL = 1 dm3
1 coulomb (coul) = 10‘3 m3
1 curie (Ci) =2.9979 x 109 esu
1 electron volt (eV) = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations s—1
= 1.6021 x 10‘12 erg = 1.6021 x 10‘19J
= 3.827 x 10’20 cal = 23.06 kcal mol‘1
electrostatic unit (esu)
1 =3.33564 x 10‘10coul
G" Mole Concept
D Molar mass = mass of 1 mole
1 Mole = 6.023 x 1023 particles (atom/molecule)
1 Mole atoms =
gram atomic mass
UDDDD
1g atom = N atoms = 6.023 x 1023 atoms
1Mole molecules = Gram molecular mass (or 1 g molecule)
1g molecule = N molecules = 6.023 x 1023 molecules = gram molecular mass
= 22.4 L of any gas at STP
1 Mole ionic compound = Gram formula
El
mass = 6.023 x 1023 formula units
El 22.4 L of gas at S.T.P. = 6.023 x 1023 molecules of gas.
G” Calculation of Formula Mass
It can be explained With the help of following example. The chemical formula (i.e. the formula unit) of
ammonium sulphate is (N H4)ZSO 4.
Step 1 : Figure out how many atoms of each element are there in one formula unit.
Step 2 : Use the periodic table to figure out the atomic mass of each element in the formula unit.
Step 3 : Multiply the number of atoms (from step 1) of each element by its atomic mass (from step 2)
to obtain the mass of that particular element in one formula unit. '

Step 4 : Add up the masses of each element (from step 3) to get the formula mass of the compound.
Types of Atoms Number of atoms Atomic Mass Mass of each type of
(Step 1) (Step 2) atoms (Step 3)
N
H
r 5‘i 82 14.007 amu 28.014 amu
1.008 amu '

8.064 amu
S 1 32.06 amu '

32.06 amu
O '
4 15.999 amu 63.996 amu
Formula Mass of (NH 4)ZSO 4(Step 4) 132.134 amu
:7” Calculation of Molecular weight
Cl Molecular mass = 2 x Vapour density
D Molecular mass = mass of 22.4 L of vapour at STP
E] Dulong and Petit law = At. weight x specific heat = 6.4 (for metals only)
6’ Calculation of Equivalent weight

W
:1 Equivalent weight of an element'in a redox reaction
: No. of electrons lost orAtomic weight
gained by one atom of that element
Atomic weight of element
Equivalent weight
,
of an element
_
El =

Molecular weight of compound

Equlvalent weight
,
Of a compound 2
_
D
Total charge on its cation or anion

Fin—2W
=W
a Equivalent weight of anion =

u Equivalent Weight of an acid salt

Molecular weight of the acid
CI Equivalent weight of an acid =
Basicity
19 GUNA ACADEMY
 E! Equivalent weight of a base = Mil/101601113“
weight Of the base
A01d1ty
Molecular weight of the salt
El Equivalent weight of a base =
Total positive valency of the metal atoms
Molecular weight of the substance
D Equivalent weight of oxidizing /reducing agent = No. of electrons gained/lost by one molecule

6’ Calculation of concentration of solutions

No. of Moles of the solute &
El Molarlty _
=,
Vol. of solution in litre V
Mass of the solute in g
Where mOIeS (n2) 0f solute = __ “Q
Molecular mass of the solute 9‘72
W2
_
—M2><l/

.
No. of moles of solute :1; _ w;
MOIahty = Mass of the solvent in kg = 1% 11/2 x ”f
of formula mass of solute
Formallty : Number
Volume of the solution in litre

No. of g. eq. of the solute

N ormal't ‘
1 y _
Vol. of solution in litre
Mass of the solute in g w
N: EXwV
‘

wh e r e g eq . = —————.—=—
.'
E
=>
Eq. mass of the solute

W
Mol. mass
Normality of a solution = Molarity X

Normality of an acid = Molarity x Basicity

Normality of a base = Molarity x Acidity
Mole fraction of solute in solution (x2) = —”2—
”. + ”2
M—
: WM + wz/Mz
Mole fraction of solvent in solution (/13)
”i/M + Wz/Mz
=
n,
n1

+ ”2
where wl, M1 are mass and molecular mass of solvent and w2, M2 for the solute.
W—
_
—
WM.

x1 + x2 = 1.
w”
Mass fraction of component 14(14):
WA + "’5
w”
Mass fraction of component 803):WA + ”’5
. (xA + x3 = 1)
Wt. of the solute in g
% by welght = Wt. the solution in X100
of g
Vol. of solute in
cc
% by volume = ——-———-——-x 100
Vol. of solution in cc
Wt. of solute in g
% by wt./vol = x 100
Vol. of solution in cc
, Wt. of the solute in g
Strength solution
Of a .‘
Vol. of solution in litres
Parts per million (ppm) of substance A
Mass of/I Vol. of A
———* 6
ppm = Mass solution X 10 or ————.—
of Vol. of solution
x106

Normality equation : N1V1 = N2V2.

El Molarity equation : M1V1 = M2V2.
If two non-reacting solutions of different normalities are mixed, the normality of the resulting
solution can be calculated :
val + N2V2 = N3V3.
20