Unit2-2 Mwe

Chapter-4 Waveguides Components and Ferrite Devices
CHAPTER - 4
WAVEGUIDES COMPONENTS AND FERRITE DEVICES
4.1 Waveguide Coupler
There are a number of ways in which a signal can be fed into the waveguide. The
most commonly used method is a small probe which penetrates a small distance into
the centre of the waveguide itself as shown in Fig 4.1. Often this probe may be the
centre conductor of the coaxial cable connected to the waveguide. The probe is
orientated in such a wary that it is parallel to the lines of the electric field in the
waveguide. Another method is to have a loop which is connected to the wall of the
waveguide with certain length. This induces the magnetic field lines and sets up the
electromagnetic wave in the waveguide. However for most applications it is more
convenient to use the open circuit probe. These couplers can be used for transmitting
signals into the waveguide as well as receiving them from the waveguide.
Fig 4.1: Waveguide Coupler
4.2 Coupling Probes and Loops
Probes and loops are metallic wires used to couple coaxial line to a waveguide or
resonator to feed or extract microwave signal. They are also used to extract power
from microwave tube oscillators and amplifiers which will be covered in subsequent
chapters.
Microwave Engineering Page 1

Probes: probe is an extension of the centre conductor of the coaxial line at the
midpoint or any selected point of one of the broader walls of the waveguide, where
the electric field is maximum and normal to the conducting wall. Usually, the
waveguide is terminated in a short and the probe is placed approximately λ g/4 from
the termination. The probe must be matched to the waveguide by proper choice of
the length and position of the probe relative to the closed end of the wave guide so
as to minimize the reflections at the junction. The centre conductor of the coaxial line
may extend completely across the waveguide or it may project an appreciable
distance into the waveguide. In that case the magnetic as well as electric coupling is
effective.
One or more of the following methods may be used for matching over an
appropriate frequency band.
 The centre conductor may be flared at the point at which it enters the
waveguide.
 Height of the terminating section of the waveguide can be increased.
 A tapered section or some other type of impedance transformer can be used.
To excite a particular mode, the probe or probes should be placed parallel to the
E-field at a position where the field has its largest value. When several probes are
used, then they must be excited with appropriate phasing relation.
Loops: Loop coupling is principally magnetic, so the loop must be placed at or near a
point of high H-field strength and turned in such a way that its plane is normal to the
flux lines.
Fig 4.2: Coupling Loop
Loops can be mounted in the end wall of a shorted waveguide or in the middle of the
top or bottom wall at a distance of nλg/2 from the shorted end, where n is an integer.
The plane of the loop should be normal to the H-field lines for maximum coupling.
The amount of coupling obtainable with the loop depends upon its size and shape in
general and increases with the area of the loop.
Selection of appropriate coupling: The selection of loop and probe coupling is

dictated by mechanical and electrical considerations. The important factors are as
follows.
 Likelihood of voltage breakdown in the vicinity of voltage antinode.
 Ease of adjusting the coupling
 Constancy of coupling when mechanical changes are made.
 Avoidance of interference with electron streams.
In microwave oscillators loops rather than probes are preferred because a probe in
proper position for adequate coupling may interfere with electron movement within
the tube.
4.3. Excitation
The mode of propagation of the wave is determined by the type and location of the
excitation probe. Although either probes or loops may be used as excitation sources,
the probes are normally preferred due to their simplicity. Different types of excitations
are shown below in the fig 4.3 below.

Fig 4.3: Methods of exciting various modes in rectangular waveguides.
The guide is closed at one end by a conducting wall and an appropriate exciting
probe is inserted through the end or side of the guide. The end of the guide serves as
a reflector and if the distance between the probe and the wall is correctly adjusted,
the reflected waves arrive in phase with the emitted wave, and the two synchronous
waves propagate down the guide as single wave.
4.3.1. Suppression of unwanted higher modes:
The inherent problem is that the sources excite not only the desired modes but also
higher order modes which are undesirable. By choosing the appropriate cut-off
frequency of the waveguide, it is possible to have only the desired wave mode above
cut-off frequency, the other waves then are not propagated.
4.4 Tuning Screws and Posts
Turing Screws: Tuning screws are also used in the waveguides for impedance
matching purposes. Sometimes they are also used to create a large in SWR over the
line to facilitate measurement of high SWR in the laboratory. Unlike waveguide
windows, turning screws are amenable to adjustment in waveguide.
Turning screw is basically a metallic threaded rod and when inserted into the
rectangular guide either from the top or bottom parallel to the E-field lines can give
variable amount of susceptance.

The susceptance depends upon the depth of penetration as shown in Figure

4.4.A screw with insertion distances less than λg/4 produces capacitive susceptance
which increases with depth of insertion or penetration. When the depth of penetration
is λg/4 the screw produces series resonance and more than λg/4 insertion produces
inductive susceptance.
Fig 4.4 (a) and (b): Turing Screw

In most of the cases the impedance matching is achieved with a matched screw,
adjustable both in length and position along the waveguide. But the disadvantage is
that it requires a slot in the waveguide. Double or triple screw units spaced at eighth
wavelength λg/8 or quarter wavelength λg /4 is also used as alternative.
Posts: A metal post or screw extending completely across the waveguide parallel to
E-field adds an inductive susceptance in parallel with the waveguide. A post
extending across the waveguide at right angles to the E-field produces an effective
capacitive susceptance in shunt with the waveguide at the position of the post.
Susceptance can be varied by varying the diameter of the post.
Fig 4.4(c): Waveguide posts
4.5. Wave guide Windows

Waveguide windows are conducting plates inserted through the walls into the guide-
section. its susceptance can be varied by varying the alignment and size. they are
widely used for impedance matching purpose at microwave frequencies. The only

disadvantage is that once they are inserted the susceptance is fixed and cannot be
varied.
4.5.1. Inductive windows: The conducting diaphragms extending into the

waveguide from either one or both of the sidewalls produce the effect of adding an
inductive susceptance across the waveguide at the point at which the diaphragm is
place. These are called inductive diaphragms and are depicted in figure 4.5 (a).
The amount of normalized susceptance produced by the window depends upon the
window insertion depth. The susceptance increases with the depth. If the insertion is
from both the side walls with tow diaphragms, then the resultant window is called
symmetrical one. If the insertion is from either one wall only then it is called
unsymmetrical window.
Fig 4.5 (a): Inductive windows
4.5.2. Capacitive Windows
The conducting metal diaphragms extending into a rectangular waveguide either from
top or bottom or both walls produce capacitive susceptance shunted across the
waveguide at that point. Therefore they are called capacitive windows and shown in
Figure 4.5 (b)
Fig 4.5 (b): Capacitive windows

The window insertion depth decides the amount of normalized susceptance. The
susceptance in general increases with the depth. The disadvantage in using the
capacitive windows is that they may cause lowering of the breakdown voltage and
the consequent reduction in the maximum power transmission through the
waveguide. The variation of susceptance with insertion is given Figure 4.5 (b).
4.5.3. Resonant windows
A conducting diaphragm with a rectangular opening inside produces parallel circuit

shunted across the guide at that point. This window is called resonant window and
shown in Figure 4.5 (c).
Fig 4.5 (c): Resonant windows
If can give zero susceptance at a chosen frequency whose value depends

upon the dimensions of diaphragm opening. It acts as a band-pass filter centered
around this frequency. On either side of this center frequency it produces inductive
susceptance on one side and capacitive susceptance on the other side. The Q
values obtainable are of the order of 10.
Limitations: The windows have two major disadvantages; one is that they are not
readily adjustable and provide only fixed amount of susceptance. The second is the
difficulty in maintaining the perfect contact with our any discontinuities between the
diaphragm and walls of the waveguide.
4.6. Waveguide Attenuators

Attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of signal in a medium.

Any transmission line including a waveguide causes attenuation of the signal.
Though attenuation is undesirable, Attenuators are used in the industry as well as in
the laboratory for certain applications. The attenuator is usually placed immediately
after the source in the chain of the microwave measurement system.
Attenuation in dB of a device is defined as
Attenuation in dB = 10 log
Where Pi is input power to the device and Po is the output power. If the input
circuit is not matched, Pi assumes the net value of incident and reflected power.
Similarly P0 becomes equal to the power consumed in the output circuit plus the
power reflected back into the device.
Broadly the attenuators are two types, i.e. Resistive card attenuators which
are of low cost and not very accurate and Rotary vane type attenuators which are
very accurate and of frequency independent readings. We discuss a little more in
detail both the devices.
4.6.1. Resistive Card Attenuator
Resistive card is basically a glass coated with carbon or Aquadag. Resistive

card attenuator type has two versions, one can provide fixed amount of attenuation
and the second provides variable amount of attenuation. Resistive attenuators are
not highly accurate and cheaper, but frequency dependent.
In the fixed version as shown in Figure 4.8(a), the resistance card is tapered at
both ends. The tapering of the card helps in reducing the reflections so as to keep
the SWR low at the input as well as at the output ports over the useful waveguide
frequencies. For the dominant mode, the card is placed parallel to the electric field
and at the centre of the waveguide so as to achieve maximum attenuation per unit
guide length. In this type of attenuators the attenuation provided is a function of
frequency. The attenuation increases with the frequency.

(a) Fixed Resistive Card (b) Variable Resistive Card
Fig 4.8: Resistive Card attenuators
Flap attenuator which is a variable version is shown in Figure 4.8(b.) In Flap

Attenuator, the resistance card enters into the waveguide through the slot provided in
the broader wall thereby intercepting and absorbing a portion of the wave. Depth of
penetration of the resistance card is varied with the help of a hinge arrangement.
Typically the attenuation is changed from 0 dB to 30 dB.
The biggest disadvantage with Flap Attenuators is their attenuation is

frequency sensitive and also the phase of the output signal is the function of
attenuation.
4.6.2 Rotary Vane Attenuator
Rotary vane type attenuators are very accurate and frequency independent
but relative expensive. The structural details of Rotary vane attenuator are shown in
Figure 4.9.
Structure : It consists of two fixed circular waveguide sections are identical in all
respects on either sides. Each of the waveguide sections are attached to a circular
waveguide fixed section transition with a lossy dielectric plat lying horizontal in it. In
the middle a rotatable circular waveguide section exists with a dielectric plate which
can be placed at any angle by rotating the waveguide section. The plates are
normally thing with εr>1, μr =1 and conductivity of nonzero value.

Fig 4.9: Structural details of Rotary Vane Attenuator
The plates attenuates the wave travelling, the amount of attenuation being
dependent upon the properties of the material of plate, the dimensions of the slab
and most importantly the angle between the plane of the plate and E vector of the
wave.
The plate does not attenuate the wave in any significant manner while the E
vector of the wave is perpendicular to it, where as it attenuates the wave
considerably when E vector is parallel. The length of the plate is determined to get
the significant amount of attenuation.
Analysis: the amount of attenuation ‘A’ undergone by the wave in dB is given by
A = 10 log
Where θm is the angular rotation of rotatable section. The wave does not get
attenuated when it’s electric vector E is vertical and crosses the input fixed section of
the plate, because the plate is horizontal.
The un-attenuated wave at the input of the rotatable section with rotation
angel θm can be resolved into two components one parallel to the rotatable plate and
another perpendicular to it. The parallel component gets absorbed and attenuated
almost completely by this plate whereas the perpendicular component Ecosθm
crosses without much of attenuation.

Now it is the only perpendicular to rotatable plate component E cos θm that exists at
the input of the fixed output section this component. This component again can be
resolved into two, one horizontal and the other vertical. The horizontal component is
parallel to the fixed section plate and hence gets absorbed whereas the vertical one
comes out without much of attenuation which is E cos2 θm. Therefore, the attenuation
provided by the device in dB is A = 10 log (1/ cos2 θm).
The advantage of the rotary wane attenuator is that the attenuation provided
by this device depends only on the rotation angle θm and not upon the frequency.
Thus this device is very accurate, frequency independent and is of calibration
standard.
4.7. Waveguide Phase Shifters
Phase Shifters are used to shift the phase of an electromagnetic wave of a given
frequency propagating through a transmission line. In several applications of
electronics it is often necessary to change the phase of signals. RF and microwave
Phase Shifters have several applications in equipments such as phase
discriminators, beam forming circuits, power dividers, linearization of power
amplifiers, and phase array antennas. The phase shifters which use ferrites in their
construction are non-reciprocal whereas others in general are reciprocal. The phase
shift that can be given to a wave of dominant mode by a waveguide section of length
L and with a hollow region of non-magnetic dielectric with a dielectric constant εr is
given by βL where β = and. = We can observe from the above
relation that the phase of the wave can be varied either by varying εr i.e. the dielectric
material or the guide width a thus changing the guide wavelength. There are many
types of shifters are designed to suit the accuracy requirements of the application.
We discuss some of the important type of phase shifters, their principle of working,
relative advantages and disadvantages.

4.7.1. Dielectric phase shifters

The dielectric phase shifters employ a low-loss dielectric insertion into the air filled
guide at a point of max electric field to increase its effective dielectric constant and
thereby causing the guide wavelength  g to decrease, as shown in Figure 4.10.
Thus, the insertion of the dielectric increases the phase shift in the wave passing
through the fixed length waveguide section. To reduce the reflections dielectric slab
is tapered at the ends.
Fig 4.10: Dielectric Phase Shifter
4.7.2. Squeeze type phase shifters:
We have seen that the guide wavelength is a function of guide width ‘a’. A clamping
arrangement is used to reduce the guide width so as to increase the guide
wavelength  g resulting in a decreased phase shift in the wave through the
waveguide section. It is also called line stretcher as shown in Fig 4.11.
Fig 4.11: Squeeze type Phase Shifter

4.7.3. Rotary phase shifters
The rotary type phase shifter has three waveguide sections, two fixed and one rotary.
The two fixed sections are quarter wave plates and the rotary section is half wave
plate and all the three plates are made up of dielectric material. The two fixed quarter
wave sections identical and the rotatable half wave section is just the double the
length of quarter wave section as shown in Figure 4.12. Each of the two fixed
sections, attached to a transition, consists of a piece circular waveguide with a
dielectric plate making an angle of 450 with the horizontal. The dielectric plate
material has εr >1, μr =1 and σ = 0. When E vector of the wave enters normal to
waveguide as shown in the figure, the plate does not affect the wave in any way as it
is perpendicular, however it adds an additional phase lag for any component of E
vector that is parallel. The additional phase lag depends upon the properties of the
material from which the slab is cut and the dimensions of the slab. The length of the
plate is selected in such a way that this additional phase lag is 90 0 (βL) in case of
quarter wave plate and 1800 (2βL) in case of half wave plate.
Fig4.12: Structural details of rotary phase shifter
It can be seen that the output wave experiences a total phase shift of 4βL+ 2 θm
when the half wave plate is rotated by an angle equal to θm.
When the wave with its E vector vertical enters the rotary phase shifter and crosses
over the quarter wave plate which is making an angle of 45 0 with the horizontal, the

component of the wave parallel to the plate undergoes a phase shift of 90 0 in addition
to the regular phase shift of βL, whereas the component normal to the plate
undergoes only the regular phase shift of βL The above two components with phase
difference of 900 can be resolved into further two components making total of four,
one pair parallel to the half wave plate and another pair normal to the plate. The
resultant of the pair normal to the half wave plate will have lagging phase angle of
βL+ θm whereas the pair parallel to the half wave plate results in a lagging phase
angle of βL+900+ θm.
The two components, one normal and the other parallel to the half wave plate
while crossing undergoes a phase change 2 βL and 2 βL+1800, resulting in a net
phase lag of 3 βL + θm and 3 βL +2700+ θm, respectively. These two components are
available at the output of the half wave plate. Each of them can now be resolved into
two components each, one along the quarter wave plate having a phase lag equal to
3 βL +2 θm and the other component parallel to quarter wave plate with phase lag 3
βL+2700+2 θm. These two components, one is normal and the other is parallel to the
quarter wave plate, while travelling through the output quarter wave plate undergoes
phase delays βL and 3 βL +900 resulting in a net phase lag of 4 βL+2 θm and 4 βL
+3600+2 θm = 4 βL +2 θm, respectively. These two equi-phase components whose
magnitudes are E/ , can be combined into one equal to E 4 βL+2 θm.
In the absence of the plates the magnitude and phase of the output would
have been E 4 βL. The presence of the plates makes the output to have an
additional phase equal to 2 θm when the half wave plate is rotated by an angle equal
to θm.
Table 4.1: Phase relations at the output of each block of rotary phase
shifter
Resultant
Components
Components at Components at phase shift
Input to the at the output
the output of the output of 2nd at the output
Phase shifter of 1st Quarter
Half wave Plate Quarter Plate of the phase
Plate
shifter
Normal
Component βL+ θm 3 βL +2 θm 4 βL+2 θm
4 βL+2 θm
of E vector
Parallel βL+900+ θm βL+2700+2 θm. 4 βL +3600+2 θm

Component
of E vector
The output remains vertically polarized. It can be concluded that the phase shifter is
loss less and reflections- less for any position of the rotary section. Rotary phase
shifter is of calibration standard because of its high accuracy.
4.8. Waveguide Tees
There are several types of waveguide tees such as E-plane tee, H-plane tee, magic
tee, hybrid rings, corners, bends, and twists. They are 2 port, 3 port or 4 port
junction devices used for various applications in microwaves.
4.8.1. E-plane Tee

An E-plane tee is a 3-port waveguide junction which is also called ‘series
junction’ or ‘voltage junction’. The arm which is in line consisting of port 1 and
port 2 is called collinear arm. The arm consisting of port 3 is called series arm as
shown in fig 4.12. If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are
two different transmission characteristics (see Fig.4.13). It can be seen from
Fig.4.13 that if the E-plane tee is perfectly matched the diagonal components of the
scattering matrix, S11, S22, and S33, are zero. When the waves are fed into the side
arm (port 3), the waves appearing at port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in
the same magnitude but opposite in phase as shown in Fig 4.14. Important
properties of H-plane tee are
 If the amplitude of the input wave at port 3 is E then the amplitude of waves
at port1 and port 2 are equal to ..
 If the power fed to port 1 is P then the power output at port 3 is P/2, and
power output at port 1 and port 2 will be P/4 each.
 If the length of the collinear arms is equal then the output power at port 3 will
be (P1 + P2) sum of powers fed at port 1(P 1) and port 2(P2) respectively.

Fig 4.12 : E-Plane Tee schematic diagram
Fig4. 13: Input through main arm

Fig 4.14: E-Plane Tee Input in Port 3
4.8.2. H-Plane Tee
An H-plane tee is a 3-port waveguide junction which is also called ‘shunt

junction’ or ‘current junction’. The arm which is in line consisting of port 1 and
port 2 is called collinear arm. Important properties of H-plane tee are
 The arm consisting of port 3 is called shunt arm as shown in fig 4.15. It
can be seen that if two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the
collinear arm, the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive.
 On the other hand, if the input is fed into port 3, the wave will split equally into
port 1 and port 2 in phase and in the same magnitude.
 Port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction.
 Port 1 and Port 2 are electrically symmetrical with respect to port 3 provided
collinear arms length are equal.
Fig 4.15: H-Plane Tee
The H-plane tee also acts as power divider as described below:
 If the wave is fed with an amplitude of E at port 3, then the amplitude of waves
at port 1 and port 2 are equal to .
 If the wave is fed with a power of P at port 3, then the output power available
at port 1 and port 2 are equal to P/2. Therefore it is called a 3 dB splitter.
 If the power fed to port 1 /port 2 is P then the power output at port 3 is P/2,
and power output at port 1 and port 2 will be P/4 each.

Applications of E-plane and H-plane tees:
 Tuners
 Power dividers
 Adders
 Duplexer assemblies
4.8.4. Magic Tee
Magic Tee is a four port, four arm junction, formed by attaching side arms to the slots
cut in the narrow wall and braoad wall of wavegide. It is a combination of E-plane tee
and H-plane tee. The arm connected to the slot in the broader wall is called E-arm or
Difference arm and the arm connected to the slot in the narrow wall is called H-arm
or Sum arm. The collinear arm ports are usaually named as port 1 and 2 and side
arm ports as 3 and 4. It is also known as antisymmetric coupler, 3-dB hybrid and 3
dB coupler.
Fig 4.16: Magic Tee
Magic Tee is basically a hybrid in which the power is divided equally between the
output ports. The outputs can exhibit either 0o or 180o phase difference. One of the
main advantages of magic tee, in fact any hybrid is that the power delivered at one
outputport is independent of the termination at the other ouput port, provided the
remaining port isperfectly matched.
The salient feature of Magic Tee are
 If two waves of equal amplitude and same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2,
the output at port 3 is zero and additive at port 4.

 If a wave is fed into port 4, it will be divided equally between port 1 and 2 of
the main waveguide and power in port 3 will be zero. Therefore port 3 and 4
are isolated.
 The wave fed into port 3 will produce an output of equal amplitude and
opposite phase at ports 1 and 2, while the power coupled to port 4 is zero, as
port 3 and 4 are isolated.
 If wave is fed into port 1 of main waveguide, it will not be available at port 2
and vice versa, since E arm causes a phase dely while H arm causes phase
advance. Therefore port 1 and 2 are isolated.
Applictions of Magic Tee: The Magic / Hybrid Tee is used in
1. E-H Tuner
2. Duplexer
3. Mixer
4. Impedance measurement
5. Circulator
4.9. Rat race junction (Hybrid ring)
Rat race junction is a four port device which acts as a hybrid junction. The
construction of the device is of annular type as shown at fig 4.17. The four ports are
connected in the form of an angular ring at specific intervals by means of series or
parallel junctions. The mean circumference of the rat race is 1.5 λ g . The ports are
separated as shown in the figure. A rat-race coupler (also known as a hybrid ring
coupler) is a type of coupler used in Microwave systems. In its simplest form it is a 3
dB coupler and is thus an alternative to a magic tee. Its advantage over magic tee is
that it can be easily realized using microstrip line technology.

Fig 4.17: Rat-race schematic diagram
The functioning of rat-race device as circulator is explain with help of the table
below.
Table 4.1: Phase difference of signals flow in CW and ACW directions
Input Output Clock Anti Resultant Output

Port Port wise clock availability
wise
Port 1 Port 2 90o 360o +90o Additive Output available
Port 1 Port 3 180o 360o Cancellation No output

Port 1 Port 4 270o 270o Additive Output available
Port 2 Port 1 360o +90o 90o Additive Output available
Port 4 Port 1 270o 270o Additive Output available

From the above table it may be observed that Port 1 and Port 3 are isolated. Similarly
Port 2 and Port 4 are isolated. The S-Matrix for the Rat race coupler is as given
below:
Applications
1. To sum two in phase signals

2. 180 degree phase-shifted output divider
3. To sum two signals with 180o out of phase signals
4. To split a signal into two in phase signals
4.10. Directional Coupler
A directional coupler is a 4-port waveguide junction. Directional couplers are

reciprocal, lossless and matched with a facility to have portions of the forward and
reverse waves on a line at two of its ports separately. Directional coupler is also
called symmetric coupler and quadrature coupler. The directional coupler consists of
a primary waveguide 1-2 and a secondary waveguide 3-4. When all ports are
terminated with matching impedances, there is free transimission of power, without
reflection, between port 1 and port 2, and there is no transmission of power between
port 1 and port 3 or between port 2 and port 4 because no coupling exists between
these two pairs of ports. The degree of coupling between port 1 and port 4 and
between port 2 and port 3 depends on the structure of the coupler.

Fig 4.18: Directional Coupler
The two important characterics of a directional coupler are its coupling factor and its
directivity. Assuming that the wave is propagating from port 1 to port 2 in the primary
line, the coupling factor and the directivity are defined respectively.
Coupling factor in dB = 10 log10
Directivity in dB = 10 log10
Isolation = Coupling Factor + Directivity
Where
P1= Power input to port 1

P3 = Power output from port 3
P4 = Power output from port 4
The coupling factor is a measurement of the ratio of power levels in the primary and
secondary lines. Hence if the coupling factor is known, a fraction of power measured
at port 4 can be used to determine the power input at port 1. This is desirable for
microwave power measurements because it facilitate measurement of microwave
power in the main line without disturbing the line. The directivity is a measure of how
well the forward travelling wave in the primary waveguide coupler only to a specific
port of the secondary waveguide. An ideal directional coupler will have infinite
directivity. Practically well designed directional coupler has directivity of 25-35 dB.

There are several types of directional couplers, such as a two hole directional
coupler, four hole directional coupler, reverse coupling directional coupler (Schwinger
coupler) and Bethe hole directional coupler.
4.10.1. Two hole directional Coupler
Fig 4.19: A Two hole directional coupler
A two hole directional coupler with traveling wves propagating in it is illustrated in the
figure 4.19 above. The spacing between the centres of two holes must be
L = (2n + 1) λg/4 Where is n is an integer.
A fraction of the wave energy fed into port 1 passes through the holes and is radiated
into the secondary guide as the holes act as slot antennas. The forward waves in the
secondary guide are in the same phase, regardless of the hole space, and are added
at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves progressing from right
to left are out of phase by 180o and are cancelled at port 4.
4.10.2. Bethe hole directional coupler
There are primarily two types of bethe hole directional couplers. One is parallel guide
coupler (Fig 4.20a) and the scond one is skewed guide coupler (Fig 4.20b) as shown
below. In parallel guide coupler version the two gides are parallel, one lying over the

broad wall of the other with a small hole aperture in the common broad wall shose
offset s from the side wall of the guide controls the coupling.
Fig 4.20(a) Bethe hole Directional coupler (parallel waveguides)
Fig 4.20(b) Bethe hole Directional coupler ( skewed guides)
In skewed guide directional coupler version, one guide is over the other at an angle
‘θ’ which controls the coupling factor. The skewed Bethe hole coupler is slightly
difficult to fabricate and also to use. The Bethe hole directional coupler is designed
for a specific frequency and any deviation in the frequency could alter coupling
values.

In this coupler one waveguide is coupled to another through a single small hole in the
common broad wall between the two guides. According to small aperture coupling
theory, an aperture can be replaced with equivalent sources consisting of electric and
magnetic dipole moments. The normal electric dipole moment and the axial magnetic
dipole moment radiate with even symmetry in the coupled guide, while the transverse
magnetic dipole moment radiates with odd symmetry. Thus by adjusting the relative
strengths of these two equivalent sources, we can cancel the radiation in the
direction of the isolated port, while enhanced the radiation in the direction of the
coupled port.
In case of parallel guide coupler, the coupling is controlled by the aperture offset s
from the side wall where as the angle θ between the guides controls the coupling in
case of skewed waveguide coupler.
Applications: The directional coupler is used in

1. Power monitor
2. Reflecto-meter
4.11. Ferrites
Ferrites are non-metallic insulators but with magnetic properties similar to those of
ferrous metals. They are a subgroup of ferromagnetic materials and ferrites that are
widely used in microwave devices are manganese ferrite MnFe2O3 and Zinc ferrite
ZnFe2O4. In addition to the above mentioned ferrites, one more compound called
Yttrium-Iron Garnet Y3Fe2(FeO4)3 or YIG in short which is actually a ferromagnetic
material is also used in the design of non reciprocal microwave devices.
The magnetic anisotropy is an important property of ferromagnetic materials and it is

exhibited only upon the application of a dc magnetic field as bias. This field aligns the
magnetic dipoles in the ferrite to produce a net non-zero magnetic dipole moment
and causes these dipoles to precess at a frequency which depends upon the
strength of the bias field. A microwave signal, circularly polarized, rotating in the
direction same as this precession interacts strongly, while an oppositely rotating
signal interacts lesser with the dipole moments. Since for a given direction of rotation,

the sense of polarization changes with the direction of propagation, a microwave

signal propagates differently in different directions through ferrite. This effect is
utilized in the fabrication of directional devices such as isolators, circulators and
gyrators.
Another useful characteristic is that the interaction with the applied microwave signal
can be controlled by adjusting the strength of the bias magnetic field. This property is
used in the design of phase shifters, switches, tunable resonators and filters.
B = μH
As the ferrites are anisotroic, their permeability is a tensor given by
μ=
Note that the tensor is an asymmetric one. A material having a permeability tensor of
this form is called ‘gyrotropic’.
The two significant properties of the ferrites which are relevant to microwave
engineer are Faraday rotation and gyro-magnetic resonance.
4.11.1. Faraday Rotation
A linearly polarized wave when propagates through the ferrite in the direction of bias,
the polarization undergoes rotation proportional to the length of the ferrite. This
phenomenon is called Faraday rotation. Faraday rotation is a non-reciprocal effect.
This property of ferrites is used in microwave engineering in the devices such as
isolator and gyrator which are discussed below.

Fig 4.21: Faraday rotation
4.11.2. Isolator
Isolator is a two port non-reciprocal lossy device having unidirectional transmission

characteristics.
Isolator
Port 1 Port 2
The important aspects of this passive device are
1. When the wave propages from port 1 to port 2 there is no attenuation.

2. When the wave propages from port 2 to port 1 the attenuation is infinity.
The scattering matrix of isolator is
[S] =

Fig 4.22: Isolator
Propagation of em wave from left to right: The input resistive vane card is in y-z
plane¸ the dominant mode wave wherin the E-field vector is vertical travelling from
left to right passes through resisitive vane with out attenuation and enters the ferrite
rod where it undergoes faraday rotation of 450 clockwise. The wave again undergoes
a rotation 450 in the anti-clockwise direction due to twisted waveguide and E-field
vector at the output is vertical. The horizontal resistive vane has no effect on the E-
field as the same is vertical to its plane. Therefore the wave travelling from left to right
pass though without any attenuation and without any phase shift.
Propagation of em wave from right to left: Where as the dominant mode wave
entering from right and travelling to left undergoes a rotation 45 0 in the anti-clockwise
direction due to the twisted waveguide. As it passes though the ferrite rod it again
undergoes a rotation 450 in the anti-clockwise direction and E-field vector becomes
horizontal. The resistive vane at the output which is in the horizontal plane obsorbes
the enegy as E-filed vector is parallel to it. Therefore there is no output.
4.11.3. Gyrator
A gyrator is defined as a two-port device that has a relative difference in phase shift
of 180o for transmission from port 1 to port 2 as compared with phase shift for
transmission from port 2 to port 1. A gyrator may be obtained by employing the
nonreciprocal property of Faraday rotation. Figure 4.23 given below illustrates a

typical microwave gyrator. It consists of a rectangular guide with a 90 o twist

connected to a circular guide. This in turn is connected to another rectangular guide
at the other end. The two rectangular guides have the same orientation at the input
ports. The circular guide contains a thin cylindrical rod of ferrite with the ends tapered
to reduce reflections. A static axial magnetic field is applied so as to produce 90 o
Faraday rotation to the TE11 dominant mode in the circular guide.
Fig 4.23: Gyrator
Propagation of em wave from left to right: In passing through the twist the plane of
polarization is rotated by 90o in a counter clockwise direction. If the ferrite produced
an additional 90o of rotation, the total angle of rotation will be 180o, as indicated in the
figure above.
Propagation of em wave from right to left: For a wave propagating from right to left,
the Faraday rotation is still 90o in the same sense. However, in passing through the
twist, the next 90o of rotation is in a direction to cancel the Faraday rotation. Thus for
transmission from port 2 to port 1, there is no phase shift.
4.11.4. Circulator
A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow
only from nth port to (n+1)th port in one direction. Please refer the figure given below.
Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, a four port microwave
circulator is shown in the figure below.
Fig 4.24: Four port Microwave Circulator
4.11.4.1. Circulator using Magic Tees
Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their principles of
operation remain the same. Figure given below shows a four port circulator
constructed of two magic tees and a phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a
phase shift of 180o.
Fig 4.25: Circulator using 2 magic tees and one gyrator
Input from port 1: Gets splitted in two H-arms with equal phase and enters the
second magic Tee from right side path and left side path in phase, both gets
cancelled in port 4 and gets added in port 2. Port 3 is isolated from Port 1. Therefore
output is available only from port 2.

Input from port 2: Gets splitted in two H-arms with equal phase and enters the
second magic Tee from right side path with 180 o phase shift and left side path with
zero phase shift. Both the signals gets cancelled in port 1 and gets added in port 4.
Port 4 is isolated from Port 2. Therefore output is available only from port 4.
Input from port 3: Gets splitted in two E-arms with 1800 out of phase and enters the
second magic Tee from right side path with zero phase shift and also left side path
with zero phase shift. Both the signals gets cancelled in port 2 and gets added in port
4. Port 1 is isolated from Port 4. Therefore output is available only from port 4.
Input from port 4: Gets splitted in two E-arms with 1800 out of phase and enters the
second magic Tee from both the sides with in phase due to the gyrator. the signals
gets cancelled in port 3 and gets added in port 1. Port 2 is isolated from Port 4.
Therefore output is available only from port 1.
4.11.4.2. Circulator using ferrite
Circulator can also be constructed using a ferrite device. Faraday rotation circulator
consists of a piece of circular waveguide capable of carrying wave in the dominant
mode TE11 with transitions to a standard rectangular guide which can carry TE 10 at
both the ends. The transition ports 1, 2 and two rectangular side ports 3 and 4 place
with their broader wall along the length of the waveguide are twisted through 45o. A
thin ferrite rod is placed inside the circular waveguide supported by polyfoam and the
waveguide is surrounded by a permanent magnet which produce dc magnetic field in
the ferrite rod as shown in Fig 4.6 below.
Fig 4.26: Circulator using Ferrite

Power fed from port 1: The wave travelling from port 1 passes port 3 unaffected as
its electric field is not cut significantly gets rotated 45 o by the ferrite rod, continues
past the port 4 unaffected reaching and emerging from the port 2 only.
Power fed from port 2: The wave travelling from port 2 passes port 4 unaffected as
its electric field is not cut significantly gets rotated 45o by the ferrite rod reaching and
emerging from the port 3 only. In this case the wave cannot come out from port 1
because of shape and dimensions.
Power fed from port 3: It gets rotated 45o and enters port 4 only. In this case the
wave cannot come out from port 2 because of shape and dimensions.
Power fed from port 4: It gets rotated 45o and enters port 1 only. In this case the
wave cannot come out from port 1 because of shape and dimensions.
Solved Numericals
4.1.: The input of a coupler is connected to a 10 W source and the output is

terminated on a matched load. The auxiliary output is found to be 10 mW. When
10 W is applied to the output end of the coupler and the input is terminated in a
matched load the auxiliary output is found to be 10 μW. Find be the coupling
and directivity.
Solution: P1 = 10 W, P4 = 10 mW and P3 = 10 μW, Then the coupling C in dBs is
Coupling factor = 10 log = 10 log = 30 dB
Directivity = 10 log = 10 log = 30 dB
4.2. A 20 dB coupler has a directivity of 30 dB. Calculate the value of isolation

defining all terms involved.
Isolation in dBs = Coupling in DB + Directivity in dB = 20 + 30 = 50 dB

Descriptive Questions
1. What is Faraday rotation? Explain the working of a ferrite circulator with neat
sketches. How can it be used as an isolator?
2. Describe in detail about linear phase changer.
3. What is the magic associated with a Magic tee? Illustrate its applications.
4. Draw E - plane Tee diagram and state its properties.
5. Explain the principle of Ferrite phase shifter.
6. Explain the operation of a directional coupler with the help of a sketch, showing the
field lines at the junction.
9. Sketch a 4 port hybrid junction and justify that it is a basically a 3 dB directional

coupler.
10. Write short notes on:
(a) Wave guide Irises
(b) 4- port circulator
(c) Dielectric phase shifters
11. State the properties of E plane Tee and H plane Tee.
12. Show that a symmetrical magic Tee is a 3dB directional coupler.
13. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Directional coupler.
(b) Wave guide windows.
(c) Flap attenuator.
14. Explain the working of two hole directional coupler with a neat diagram.
15. Explain about E plane Tee junction with a neat sketch. Why it is called a series
Tee?
16. What are the different types of matching elements normally used in wave guide
system?
17. What is magic Tee? Describe the properties of magic Tee, giving its S-Matrix.

18. Show a wave-guide with cylindrical post and describe its behavior. How can it be
used, when it is inserted half way into the wave-guide?
19. Draw the H-plane Tee junction and explain its properties.
20. What are ferrites? What property do they have different from ordinary conductors
and insulators?
21. What are the properties of ferrite material for applications at microwave
frequencies?
22. Explain the principle of ferrite phase shifter.
23. Explain Faraday rotation with a neat diagram?
24. Explain the working of ferrite isolator.
25. Explain the principle of operation of an isolator? What is the significance of using
isolator in microwave circuits?
26. Explain the characteristics of ferrite materials.
27. Describe any one microwave component which makes use of Faraday rotation
principle, with neat sketches.
28. What is Faraday’s Rotation? What are its applications in microwaves? Explain in
detail.
29. Explain the principle of operation of an isolator. What is the significance of using
isolator in microwave circuits?
30. Write short notes on “Ferrite Devices”.
Exercises
1. A 20 dB coupler has a directivity of 30 dB. Calculate the value of isolation.
2. There are two identical directional couplers connected back to back to sample
incident and reflected powers. The outputs of the couplers are 12 mw and 0.12
mw respectively. What is the VSWR in the guide?
3. Show the attenuation produced by rotary vane attenuator is given by- 40 log(sin θ).

4. Find the three lowest resonant frequencies and the TE modes of oscillations in
the air filled rectangular cavity resonator with dimensions ɑ = 5 cm, b = 2.5 cm
and d = 4 cm.
5. A rectangular air filled cavity if fr = 10 GHz, a = 3 cm and b = 1.5 cm, find d to
resonance with TE101 mode.
6. Determine the cut-off frequencies and first four propagating modes in case of
circular waveguide with radius 1.5 cm
7. An air filled resonant cavity with dimensions a = 4 cm, b = 2 cm and c = 5 cm is
made of copper σc = 5.8 × 107 Ʊ/m. It is filled with a lossless material µr = 1, ɛr =8.
Find the resonant frequency and quality factor for TE101 mode.
Objective type questions
Multiple Choice questions

1. In a directional coupler
(a) Isolation equals coupling + directivity in dB
(b) Coupling equals isolation plus directivity in dB
(c) Directivity equals isolation + coupling in dB
(d) Isolation equals coupling X directivity in dB
2. Which of the following is wrong for a magic tee?

(a) E and H arms are decoupled
(b) coplanar arms are coupled
(c) all ports are perfectly matched
(d) A signal into coplanar arm splits equally between E and H arms
3. The significant parameters of directional coupler are

(a) Coupling and directivity (b) Gain and coupling
(c) Gain and directivity (d) Gain and isolation
4. The most convenient coupling method for the waveguide is

(a) Probe (b)Loop
(c) Dipole (d) All of these
5. Resistive card attenuator of variable version suffers with

(a) Frequency dependent attenuation (b) Frequency dependent phase

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
6. In rotary vane attenuator, fixed sections have plates
(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical
(c) At 450 (d) None of these
7. Phase shift due to a waveguide section of length ‘L is
(a) βL (b) λg L
(b) 2πL (d) f L
8. In dielectric phase shifters, dielectric slabs are used to
(a) Increase in phase shift (b) Decrease in guide wavelength
(c) Decrease in phase velocity (d) All of these
9. In line stretcher, reduction of guide with ‘a’ results in
(a) Decrease in phase shift (b) Increase in guide wavelength
(c) Increase in phase velocity (d) All of these
10. In rotary phase shifter, fixed section plates are
(a)Half wavelength (b) 450 from vertical
(c) Horizontal (d) All of these
11. In rotary phase shifter, rotatable section plate is
(a) Vertical (b) Half wavelength
(c) Horizontal (d) 450 from vertical
12. Following are useful in coupling coaxial line to waveguide
(a) Probes (b) Loops
(c) Screws (d) both a & b
13. Probe is placed on the waveguide at a point of
(a) Max E field (b) perpendicular to E field
(c) λg/2 distance from a short (d) All of these
14. Loop is placed on the waveguide at a point
(a) Loop plane parallel to H (b) Max H field
(c) n λg/4 distance from a short (d) All of these
15. Following is used to achieve broadband matching
(a) Paint the wall with insulator (b) reduce width of waveguide
(c) Use of tapered section (d) All of these
16. A screw of length less than λg/4 produces

(a) Capacitive susceptance (b) Inductive susceptance

(c) Resonance (d) None of these
17. A screw of length more than λg/4 produces
18. A metal post parallel to E field is equivalent to
19. Insertion of conducting plates from side walls of waveguide results in
20. Insertion of conducting plates from broad walls of waveguide results in
21. Bends are useful to change
(a) Direction of propagation (b) Orientation of E vector
(c) Orientation of H vector (d) None of these
22. Twists are useful to change
(a) Direction of propagation (b) Orientation of E vector
(c) Wave impedance (d) None of these
23. A probe in waveguide is placed from short at a distance of

(a) λg/4 (b) λg/2
(c) λg (d) None of these
24. E-plane tee is also called

(a) Shunt junction (b) Series junction
(c) Hybrid junction (d) None of these
Fill in the blanks

1. Usually, the waveguide is terminated in a short and the probe is placed
approximately at a distance of __________from the termination.
2. A microwave junction is used for ___________or _________of power.

3. Probes and loops are metallic wires used to couple coaxial line to a waveguide to
______________microwave signal.
4. To excite a particular mode, the probe or probes should be placed parallel to the
E-field at a position where the field has ______________.
5. ____________________are the components used to couple coaxial cable to
waveguide.
6. Probe in waveguide is always placed at distance of λg /4 from __________.
7. Flaring of the probe is meant for__________________.
8. H-plane tee is also called __________ junction.
9. E- plane tee is also called _________junction.
10. Loop in a waveguide is always placed at distance of _________from short.
11. A screw of length ______________ produces capacitive susceptance.
12. E-plane arm is known as ___________arm whereas the H-plane arm is known as
________arm.
13. A screw of length ____________λg /4 produces inductive susceptance.
14. A metal post aligned __________ to E field produces capacitive susceptance.
15. A metal post aligned __________to E field produces inductive susceptance.
16. Conducting plates inserted from sidewalls in a waveguide produces ___________
17. Conducting plates inserted from broader walls in a waveguide produces
_________________.
18. Power at the output port of tees is ________of the incident power at the side arm
port.
19. Coupling factor is the ratio of _______ to_______ power.
20. Three port junctions suffer with the disadvantage of __________between the
output ports.
21. Insertion of plates from all the four walls produces __________circuit.
22. The outputs of the E-plane tee are _______phase whereas the outputs of the H-
plane tee are relatively ______ phase.
23. In an ideal magic tee coplanar arm ports as well as E- and H- plane arm ports are
______________isolated.
24. Waveguide bends are used to change_________________.
25. Waveguide twist are used to change the orientation of the _______ in the wave.

26. The mean circumference of hybrid ring (rat race) is _______times the guide
wavelength.
27. The permeability of the ferrites is an ____________tensor.
28. Gyrator is a passive device which produces ______ phase shift and ______phase
shift in either direction to the signal.
29. Directivity is the ratio of ___________to __________power.
30. Variable version resistive card attenuator suffers with the drawback of
_______________attenuation and phase.
31. When gyro magnetic resonance occurs, the permeability tensor elements
become ___________.
32. Circulator is non-reciprocal multiport device with each port connected to
_________________only.
33. Faraday Effect is about rotation of_______________.
34. All ports of the hybrid ring are ___________matched to the junction.
35. In rotary vane attenuator, the fixed section plates are always _________.
36. Phase shift due to a waveguide section of length L is _______
37. In dielectric phase shifters, insertion of dielectric results in _________ of the
phase shift.
38. In line stretcher, reduction of guide width results in ___________of the phase
shift.
39. In rotary phase shifter, fixed section plates are of________ wavelength.
40. In rotary phase shifter, rotatable section plates are of ________wavelength.
Answers to multiple choice questions
Q. No. A Q. No. A Q. No. A

1 a 8 d 15 c
2 b 9 d 16 a
3 a 10 b 17 b
4 a 11 b 18 b
5 c 12 d 19 a
6 a 13 a 20 b
7 a 14 b
Answers to fill in the blanks

Q. No. Answer Q. No. Answer

1 λg/4 21 resonance circuit
2 combining, splitting 22 out of, in
3 feed, extract 23 completely isolated
4 Its largest value 24 direction of propagation
5 Loops and probes 25 E vector
6 short 26 1.5
7 Impedance matching 27 asymmetric
8 shunt 28 zero, 180 o
9 series 29 coupled, decoupled
10 n λg/2 30 frequency dependent
11 less than λg /4 31 infinite
12 sum 32 next port
13 more than 33 E field vector
14 normal 34 perfectly
15 parallel 35 horizontal
16 inductive susceptance 36 βL
17 capacitive susceptance 37 increases
18 half 38 decreases
19 incident, coupled 39 quarter
20 lack of isolation 40 Half

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Chapter-4 Waveguides Components and Ferrite Devices

WAVEGUIDES COMPONENTS AND FERRITE DEVICES

4.1 Waveguide Coupler

Fig 4.1: Waveguide Coupler

4.2 Coupling Probes and Loops

Microwave Engineering Page 1

Fig 4.2: Coupling Loop

Selection of appropriate coupling: The selection of loop and probe coupling is

Microwave Engineering Page 3

Fig 4.3: Methods of exciting various modes in rectangular waveguides.

4.3.1. Suppression of unwanted higher modes:

4.4 Tuning Screws and Posts

Microwave Engineering Page 4

The susceptance depends upon the depth of penetration as shown in Figure

Fig 4.4 (a) and (b): Turing Screw

Fig 4.4(c): Waveguide posts

4.5. Wave guide Windows

Microwave Engineering Page 5

4.5.1. Inductive windows: The conducting diaphragms extending into the

Fig 4.5 (a): Inductive windows

4.5.2. Capacitive Windows

Fig 4.5 (b): Capacitive windows

Microwave Engineering Page 6

4.5.3. Resonant windows

A conducting diaphragm with a rectangular opening inside produces parallel circuit

Fig 4.5 (c): Resonant windows

If can give zero susceptance at a chosen frequency whose value depends

4.6. Waveguide Attenuators

Microwave Engineering Page 7

Attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of signal in a medium.

Attenuation in dB of a device is defined as

4.6.1. Resistive Card Attenuator

Resistive card is basically a glass coated with carbon or Aquadag. Resistive

Microwave Engineering Page 8

(a) Fixed Resistive Card (b) Variable Resistive Card

Fig 4.8: Resistive Card attenuators

Flap attenuator which is a variable version is shown in Figure 4.8(b.) In Flap

The biggest disadvantage with Flap Attenuators is their attenuation is

4.6.2 Rotary Vane Attenuator

Microwave Engineering Page 9

Fig 4.9: Structural details of Rotary Vane Attenuator

Analysis: the amount of attenuation ‘A’ undergone by the wave in dB is given by

Microwave Engineering Page 10

provided by the device in dB is A = 10 log (1/ cos2 θm).

4.7. Waveguide Phase Shifters

L and with a hollow region of non-magnetic dielectric with a dielectric constant εr is

given by βL where β = and. = We can observe from the above

Microwave Engineering Page 11

4.7.1. Dielectric phase shifters

Fig 4.10: Dielectric Phase Shifter

4.7.2. Squeeze type phase shifters:

waveguide section. It is also called line stretcher as shown in Fig 4.11.

Fig 4.11: Squeeze type Phase Shifter

4.7.3. Rotary phase shifters

Fig4.12: Structural details of rotary phase shifter

Microwave Engineering Page 13

Microwave Engineering Page 14

4.8. Waveguide Tees

4.8.1. E-plane Tee

at port1 and port 2 are equal to ..

Microwave Engineering Page 15

Fig 4.12 : E-Plane Tee schematic diagram

Fig4. 13: Input through main arm