S 7 Microwave

ECE Department, VAST Communication Systems Lab
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
FAMILIARAZATION OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS
AIM:-
To familiarize with the important microwave components and equipments used in the laboratory.
Set up for microwave measurement
THEORY:-
At microwave frequencies, the amplitudes of voltages and currents on a transmission line are
functions of distance and not easily measurable. All the measurements that are made at
microwave frequencies are relative and hence it is not necessary to know the absolute values of
the measurable quantities. These microwave measurements are done through slotted line
technique or using the network analysis. In labs these measurements are carried out-using (1-2)
kHz square wave modulating signal which modulates the microwave test signal. The
transmitted and reflected signals are then demodulated and measured using low frequency
instruments such as an oscilloscope (CRO) and a low frequency (1 kHz) tuned receiver, called
VSWR meter. The amplitude and phase information of the microwave test-signals
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are available in the detected low frequency signal for calculating the desired parameters. The test
set-up used in the laboratories is usually referred by the name, "microwave bench".
DESCRIPTION OF MICROWAVE BENCH:-
The general setup for microwave measurement is shown in Fig. 1. This is the basic block
diagram. Each block is described below.
Klystron Power Supply
It is an equipment used to energize die klystron tube. It provides very much stabilized bias
voltages to the electrodes of the tube since the variation in the bias voltages will affect the
frequency of operation.
Microwave Source – Klystron
The source of microwave can be either reflex klystron or gunn oscillator. The reflex
klystron is an oscillator or low power generator of 10 to 50 MW. Its operating frequency range is 1 to
25 GHz with an efficiency of 20 to 30%.
Working: - Electron beam injected from the cathode is first velocity modulated by cavity gap
voltage. Those electrons entering with zero RF field are moving with dc electron velocity and
enter into repeller region. When they are entering during (+ve) half cycle, they are accelerated and
those at (-ve) half cycle are decelerated. These electrons are reflected back by repeller voltage. On
their return path, they pass through cavity gap in bunches which occur once per cycle. These
bunched electrons pass through the gap during the retarding phase of field impart their kinetic
energy to RF field. Oscillator output is taken from the cavity and finally electrons are collected by
anode
Isolator
The isolators or padding attenuators are used to direct the signal from the source towards the
other end and avoids reaching the reflected signal to the source. An isolator is a two-port non-
reciprocal device which produces a minimum attenuation to wave propagation in one direction and
very high attenuation in the opposite direction. Thus when inserted between a signal source and
load almost all the signal power can be transmitted to the load and any reflected power from the
load is not fed back to the generator output port. This eliminated variations of source power output
and frequency pulling due to changing loads.
Frequency Meter or Wave Meter
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Frequency meters are used to measure the frequency directly which is generally of resonant
type and is slot coupled to the waveguide. Circular Frequency Meter cavities are often used for
microwave frequency meters. It is typically constructed of a cylindrical cavity resonator with a
movable top wall to allow mechanical tuning of the resonant frequency, and cavity is loosely
coupled to a waveguide with a small aperture. The length of the cavity is changed by shorting
plunger which changes the resonant frequency. The axis of the wave meter is perpendicular to the
broad side of the waveguide. Corresponding to various positions of the plunger, there will be
different resonant frequencies of the cavity. The power will be absorbed by the cavity as it is
tuned to the operating frequency. This absorption is monitored with a power meter/CRO/micro
ammeter. Tuning of the frequency meter is done in unique direction till the dip in the meter is
observed i.e. when the incoming signal frequency becomes equal to the resonant frequency of the
cavity, then the dip will be observed.
Variable attenuator
Variable attenuator is used to provide attenuation above its insertion loss. They are
passive devices used to control power levels in a microwave system by partially absorbing the
transmitted signal wave. Both fixed and variable attenuators are designed using resistive films
(aquadag).
A variable type attenuator can be constructed by moving the resistive vane by means of
micrometer screw from one side of the narrow wall to the centre where the E-field is maximum
or by changing the depth of insertion of a resistive vane at an E-field maximum through a
longitudinal slot at the middle of the broad wall as shown in figure. A maximum of 90 dB
attenuation is possible with VSWR of 1.05. The resistance card can be shaped to give a linear
variation of attenuation with the depth of insertion
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Slotted line Carriage
Slotted line consists of a coupling probe moving along the wavelength which is used to
detect standing wave (SW) pattern inside the waveguide, [t consists of slotted section of a
waveguide, a travelling probe carriage and arrangements for connecting the measuring and
terminating instruments. The slot is made in the centre of the broad side of the waveguide and is
parallel to the axis of the guide. It does not radiate power for the dominant mode. A small probe
is inserted through the slot which is used to sense the field strength in the guide. This is in the
moving carriage which usually moves on the top surface of the waveguide. The movement is
through screw or plunger. The probe is connected to the crystal detector so that-output from the
Diagram of a slotted line: (P) probe, (H) dial gauge head (carriage), (D) detector, (I)
indicator, (S) reference scale for movement of dial gauge head, (G) SHF generator, (A)
attenuator, (Zt) load
detector is proportional to the square of the input voltage. As the position of the probe can be
moved along the waveguide slot, it gives an output proportional to the standing wave pattern
inside the guide. Thus the slotted line with a tunable detector can be used to obtain low frequency
modulating signal on an oscilloscope.
The probe is made to move longitudinally at a constant small depth to achieve a
uniform coupling coefficient between the electric field inside the line and the probe current at all
positions. The probe samples the electric field which is proportional to the probe voltage. This unit is
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primarily used for the determination of locations of voltage standing wave maxima and minima along
die line. The probe carriage contains a stub tunable coaxial probe detector to obtain a low frequency
modulating signal output to a scope or VSWR meter. The probe should be very thin compared to the
wavelength and the depth also should be small enough to avoid any field distortion. The slotted line
with tunable probe detector is used to measure.
1. VSWR and standing wave pattern .
2. Wavelength
3. Impedance, reflection coefficient and return loss measurements by the minima shift method.
Tunable Probe Detector Tunable Waveguide Detector
Matched load/termination
Tunable detector
Tunable detector is used to detect the low frequency square wave modulated microwave
signal. This is made possible by the use of detector diode mounted in the transmission line. The
detectors used in this range are Schottky barrier diode and point contact diode. A tunable stub
is used to match the detector to the microwave transmission system. The various tunable
detectors are shown in figure
Matched Loads
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The matched loads/terminations are used to absorb ail the power falling/incident power
without appreciable reflection and radiation. These consist of waveguide sections of definite length
having tapered resistive power absorbing materials placed at the end of a shorted line. The length of the
tapered section is kept about one to two guide wavelengths at the lowest frequency of operation for
effective absorption of power. Typical matched loads are shown in figure.
Short-circuit Terminations
Waveguide short-circuit terminations provide standard reflection at any desired, precisely
measurable positions (needed in load measurements). The basic idea behind it
Waveguide short-circuit termination
Detector Diode Mounts
VSWR met
is to provide short-circuit by changing reactance of the terminations. Typical short-circuit

terminations are shown in figure.
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Detector Diode Mounts

The detector diodes are usually available in the type of package as shown in Fig. The
detector may be mounted on a co-axial line or waveguide. But the diode is mounted across the
transmission line and the other end is shorted. The distance between the shorted end and the
diode can be adjusted by tuning plunger and hence it is useful for various frequencies.
VSWR Meter
This basically consists of high gain, high ‘Q’, low noise voltage amplifier tuned at I KHz. This
meter used the detected output from the tunable detector as its input, amplifier it and produces
an output on calibrated voltmeter. The strength of the signal detected by the detector is
adjusted for full scale deflection in VSWR meter by the variable attenuator. But this meter is
useful for the measurements of VSWR up to 10. VSWR meter is shown in Figure.
RESULT:-
Familiarized with important components and equipments used in laboratory.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.Explain the microwave test bench with its components?

Equipment Required: Power supply for the Klystron microwave source, Isolator, A
detector mount, A VSWR meter (which monitors the detector output),Variable Attenuator,
CRO.
Klystron Tube- It makes use of velocity modulation to transfer a continuous beam into
microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the
positive resonator towards negative refractor, which retards and finally reflects the electrons;
and the electrons turn back through the resonator.
Klystron Power Supply- It basically generates the necessary frequency which is to be
transmitted through waveguide. It provides the beam voltage (anode) and repel voltage
(cathode) to the klystron mount.
The mod switch is kept to CW position.
Keep the beam voltage control knob to fully anticlockwise and reflector voltage control knob
to clockwise direction. The ranges for beam voltage 240v- 400v and repel voltage 25v-247v.
Isolator- The function of isolator is to remove present signal which are not required from
output section/ detector mount to reach klystron mount. It allows sirgnal to pass through
waveguide only in one direction, Klystron supply to detector mount.
Frequency meter- It helps to read the frequency of signal passing through the waveguide setup.
It is read at the intersection of horizontal and vertical red lines.
Variable attenuator- It sets the amount of attenuation to be provided to the signal passing
through the waveguide. It can be adjusted through screw gauge filled over it.
Slotted section- in this section the waveguide is slotted by a gap and it is done so as to adjust
the amount or clock cycles of signal so that wavelength with respect to which it can be
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measured using vernier scale.

Detector mount- The signals transmitted by the waveguide is forwarded through the BNC to
VSWR or CRO so as to measure its characteristics.
2. What you mean by tunable detector?

It is used to detect the low frequency square wave modulated microwave signal
3. What is ment by matched termination?

Used to absorb the power with out appreciable reflection and radiation.
4. Where the detector is mounted?

Detector is mounted on the coaxial line or wave guide.
5. How the length of the cavity is changed in Frequency meter?

Using shorting plunges
6. What is the function of variable attenuator?

It is used to provide attenuation above insertion loss
7. The main component of variable attenuator is?

Resistive vane
8. What do you mean by Isolator?

An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in one
direction only. It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of conditions on
its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched
load.
9. Diffferent modes of propagation and what is TE01?

Different modes are TE mode and TM mode.
10. What is TWT?

A traveling-wave tube (TWT) is an electronic device used to amplify radio frequency signals
to high power.
11. Frequency range of the TWT?

300MHZ to 50 GHZ
12. Uses of TWT amplifiers.

It is used as satellite transponder,used in electromagnetic compatibility testing for immunity
testing of electronic devices.
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EXPERIMENT NO: 2
REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:-
To study mode characteristics of reflex klystron.
EQUIPMENTS REQURIED:-
Klystron tube, Klystron power supply, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator,
Detector mount, V.S.W.R. Meter, CRO and Cooling Fan.]
THEORY:-
The Reflex Klystron is a microwave tube used as a microwave source in the lab. It makes use
of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into microwave power. Its
oscillation frequency can be varied over a wide band and it can be pulse and frequency modulated.
Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated by and pass through the positive resonator
grids towards the reflector. The reflector is at a negative voltage with respect to cathode, and
consequently it retards and finally reflects (reflex klystron) the electrons, which then turn back
through the resonator grids. In case klystron starts to oscillate, a hi-field exists between the
resonator grids. The
electron traveling through the grid will be either accelerated or retarded as the voltage changes in
amplitude. Accelerated electrons leave the grids at an increased velocity and retarded electrons
leave at a reduced velocity. Because of the difference in velocity, the electrons leaving the grids
will need different time to return (i.e., have different transit times). As a result the returning
electron group together in bunches. This variation in velocity of the electrons is called velocity
modulation.
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As the electron bunches pass through the resonator grids, they interact with the voltage
between the grids. If the bunches pass through the grids at a time such that the electrons are
slowed down by the grid voltage, energy will be delivered to the resonator and the klystron will
oscillate. Strongest oscillation will occur when the transit time in the reflector resonator region n +
3/4 cycles of the resonator frequency, where 'n' is an integer, including zero. If the bunches pass
through the grids at a time such that the electrons are accelerated by the grid voltage, energy will
be removed from the resonator and no oscillations will occur.
PROCEDURE:-
Mode studies
1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in Fig. A
2. Keep the control knob of Klystron power supply as below:
Mode switch: AM
Beam voltage knob: Fully Anti-clockwise
Repeller voltage knob: Fully clockwise
Meter switch: Cathode voltage position
Rotate frequency meter at one side.
3. Switch on klystron power supply, meter and cooling fan of the klystron tube. Wait for 1-2
minutes for the klystron to respond.
4. Cathode voltage knob at minimum position gives a beam voltage of 235 V. Observe beam
current on the meter by changing meter switch to beam current position. "The beam
current should not be more than 30mA".
5. Now change the meter switch to repeller voltage position.
6. Select proper range for the power meter so that outputs of maximum mode will not exceed the
meter range.
7. Decreasing the reflector voltage, record output power and frequency.
8. To measure frequency, switch the Mode-switch of Klystron to AM mode and observe
output on CRO display. matching the detector with tuning posts adjust for maximum output.
Use AM amplitude, frequency controls on Oscilloscope front panel try to get clear display on
C.R.O. By rotating the frequency meter, observe for dip in the output and note corresponding
frequency.
9. Plot power/relative frequency versus repeller voltage to get mode curves.
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OBSERVATION:-
Beam Voltage=280V
Repeller
Modes Voltage Detector Frequency
Voltage
241 0.32 8.951
237 0.6 8.941
Mode1 221 0.4 8.92
218 0.2 8.914
155 0.4 8.947
145 0.7 8.932
Mode2
137 0.56 8.922
133 0.32 8.916
95 0.2 8.937
91 0.52 8.932
Mode3
84 0.36 8.920
80 0.18 8.914
EXPECTED GRAPH:-
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RESULT:-
The mode characteristics of reflex klystron is studied and plotted.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What element of the reflex klystron replaces the output cavity of a normal klystron?
The reflector or repeller
2. When the repeller potential is constant, what property of the electron determines how long
it will remain in the drift space of the reflex klystron?
Velocity.
3. The constant-speed electrons of an electron bunch in a reflex klystron must remain in the
repeller field for what minimum time?
Three-quarter cycle
4. If the constant-speed electrons in a reflex klystron remain in the repeller field for 1 3/4
cycles, what is the mode of operation?
Mode 2. Three-quarter cycle
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5. Debunching of the electron bunches in the higher modes of a reflex klystron has what effect
on output power?
Power is reduced.
6. What limits the tuning range around the center frequency of a reflex klystron in a particular
mode of operation?
The half-power points of the mode.
Reflex Klystron
7. Explain the applications of klystron?

Klystrons are used as amplifiers at microwave and radio frequencies to produce both low-
power reference signals for super heterodyne radar receivers and to produce high-power carrier
waves for communications and the driving force for modern particle accelerators.
8. Explain the advantage of klystron amplifiers?

Klystron amplifiers have the advantage (over the magnetron) of coherently amplifying a
reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and phase.
9. What is the efficiency of a reflex klystron?

20% to 30%
10. What is multi cavity klystron?

In all modern klystrons, the number of cavities exceeds two. A larger number of cavities
may be used to increase the gain of the klystron, or to increase the bandwidth.
11. What limits the tuning range around the center frequency of a reflex klystron in a
particular mode of operation?
12. What is the operating principle of reflex klystron?

It works on the principle of velocity modulation and current modulation.
13. Give the drawbacks of klystron amplifiers.

As the oscillator frequency changes then resonator frequency also changes and the feedback
path phase shift must be readjusted for a positive feedback.
The multicavity klystron amplifiers suffer from the noise caused because bunching is never
complete and electrons arrive at random at catcher cavity. Hence it is not used in receivers.
14. What is mechanical tuning and electronic tuning in a reflex klystron?
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Variation in frequency of resonance of cavity by varying its dimension by a mechanical

method like adjusting screws is called mechanical tuning. Variation of frequency by
adjusting repeller voltage is called electronic tuning.
15. How does bunching occur in a reflex klystron?

A reference electron passing the gap when the gap voltage is zero travels with no
change in velocity. An electron leaving the gap earlier during slightly positive voltage
would travel further into repeller space and hence would take longer time then the reference
electron to return to the gap. An electron leaving the gap later will face slightly negative
voltage and gets retarded. So it returns back after a shorter travel in the repeller space. Thus
all the electrons would arrive back to the gap in bunches. Bunching around reference
electron takes place once per cycle of RF oscillations.
16. What limits the tuning range around the center frequency of a reflex klystron in a particular
mode of operation?
17. Why do different modes of operation exist for a reflex klystron?

There are several combinations of repeller voltage and anode voltage that provide
favorable conditions for bunching. Accordingly there are several modes of operation,
expressed by N + ¾ where N is an integer.
18. What modes are generally used in a reflex klystron?

1 ¾ and 2 ¾ are the most commonly used modes ina practical reflex klystron.
19. What is the operating frequency and power output of a reflex klystron?
Frequency range: 4GHz – 200GHz
Output power: maximum 3W in X-band to 10mW at 220GHz
20. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the reflex klystron?

22.7% for 1 ¾ mode.
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EXPERIMENT NO: 3
MEASUREMENTOF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
AIM:-
To measure the frequency and wavelength
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:-
Klystron Power Supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, Variable attenuator, Frequency meter,
Slotted line, Detector mount, CRO
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Klystron
Power Supply
Klystron Frequency
Isolator Meter Attenuator
Mount
Terminator
Slotted Line
Movable
short
VSWR Meter
THEORY:-
The following relationships are important for rectangular waveguide.
C = fλ
1 1 1
= + λ2
λ20 λ2𝑔 𝑐
𝜆0
𝜆𝑔 = 𝜆
√1−( 0 )2
𝜆𝑐
2
𝜆𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑛
for 𝐸10 mode,
√( )2 +( )2
𝑎 𝑏
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By substituting the values of m and n, we get,

2
𝜆𝑐 = 1 0
= 2a
√( )2 +( )2
𝑎 𝑏
𝜆0 1
𝜆𝑔 = 1 2
== 1 1
√1−( ) √(𝜆 )2 −(2𝑎)2
2𝑎 0
1
𝜆0 = 1 1
√(𝜆 )2 +(2𝑎)2
𝑔
𝑐
f=𝜆
0
1 1
f = c√( )2 + ( )2
𝜆𝑔 2𝑎
PROCEDURE:-
1) Set up the microwave bench as shown in block diagram.
2) Setup the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3) Switch on the klystron power supply with maximum reflected voltage modulated 1KHz
square wave.
4) Adjust the reflector voltage to get a deflection on CRO.
5) Adjust the reflection voltage to get maximum voltage level.Frequency measurement
using frequency meter
6) Tune the frequency meter until a dip in observed in the voltage level in CRO. Note the
frequency from frequency meter.
Wavelength measurement
7) Replace the termination with movable short.Define the frequency meter.
8) Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in CRO varies.
9) Move the probe to the maximum voltage position. Note and record the probe position
from vernier scale.
10) Move the probe to the next minimum position for d2.
1 1
11) Calculate guide wavelength 𝜆𝑔 and f = c√(𝜆 )2 + (𝜆𝑐)2
𝑔
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OBSERVATIONS:-
d1 d2 f0
MSR VS MSR
Repeller M V
MSR+VSR R +
Voltage S S
(LC) VSR
R R
(LC)
1
107 3 12.03 14.2 2 14.22 8.94
2
1
134 8 12.08 14.1 10 14.11 8.92
2
2
140 2 12.12 14.4 4 14.44 8.93
.
CALCULATION:-
For 107V,
𝜆𝑔 /2 = d2 – d1 = 0.0219m
𝜆𝑔 = 2 (d2 – d1) = 0.0438 m
𝜆𝑐 = 2a = 0 .457 m
1 1 1
= + λ2
λ20 λ2𝑔 𝑐
∴ 𝜆0 = 7.025m
For 134 V,
𝜆𝑔 /2 = d2 – d1 = 0.0212m
𝜆𝑔 = 2 (d2 – d1) = 0.04357 m
∴ 𝜆0 = .0422m
For 140 V,
𝜆𝑔 /2 = d2 – d1 = 0.0232m
𝜆𝑔 = 2 (d2 – d1) = 0.0464 m
𝜆𝑐 = 2a = 0 .457 m
∴ 𝜆0 = 0.045m
∴ f = c/𝝀𝟎 = 7.10 G Hz
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RESULT:-
Setup the circuit and determined the frequency and wavelength of rectangular waveguide.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How do you measure the frequency from a frequency meter?

To measure the frequency at a particular output voltage, rotate the frequency meter till a dip is
observed in the output. Take down the reading at the point where dip occurs.
2. When is the dip observed in the output while measuring the frequency?
When the incoming signal frequency becomes equal to the resonant frequency of the cavity,
the dip will be observed,
3. At what condition do we find no oscillation to occur in a reflex klystron?

If the bunches pass through the grid at the same time the electrons are accelerated by the grid
voltage, energy will be removed from the resonator and no oscillations occur.
4. What are frequency meters?

Frequency meter, device for measuring the repetitions per unit of time (customarily, a second)
of a complete electromagnetic waveform. Various types of frequency meters are used. Many
are instruments of the deflection type, ordinarily used for measuring low frequencies but
capable of being used for frequencies as high as 900 Hz. These operate by balancing two
opposing forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured cause a change in this balance that
can be measured by the deflection of a pointer on a scale. Deflection-type meters are of two
types, electrically resonant circuits and ratiometers
5. When is dip detected?

This indicates resonant frequency of the cavity. By tuning the klystron frequency, cavity
response is maximised and cavity peak response and peak of the klystron mode is made
constant.
The dip is obtained at the peak of the cavity response
6. How are wavelength measured?

By an equation. E=MC^2, or energy of a particle equals its mass times the speed of light
squared. V=C/(lambda), or frequency equals the speed of light divided by wavelength.
7. How do you measure wavelength in a compression wave?

In longitudinal (compression) waves, it is measured from compression to compression or from
rarefaction to rarefaction.
8. What is the units of measure for wavelength?

First, the wavelength is usually measured from crest to crest or from trough to trough.
Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda, the character for length.
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Wavelengths vary from kilometers to Angstroms. The Angstrom is represented by the symbol
(A with a small circle atop))
9. What is frequency and how is it measured?

Frequency is number of cycles per second.Measured in hertz
10. How is a sound's frequency measured?

Velocity of light is taken standard as 3X10^3 m/s
11. What is the frequency of waves measure in?

Hertz
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EXPERIMENT NO: 4
VSWR MEASUREMENTS
AIM:-
To become familiarize with the basic technique for measure voltage standing wave ratio.
Klystron power supply, Klystron mount, Klystron tube. Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
attenuator, Slotted section, Tunable probe, wave guide stands, Movable short Load, BNC cable,
VSWR meter etc.
VSWR Measurement Setup
THEORY:-
Standing waves are an indication of the quality of transmission. A well matched
transmission line has no reflection and consequently the VSWR is unity. The slotted line is the
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basic instrument. A probe is moved along the line to sample the voltage; the output of the probe is
detected and read on the VSWR meter. The ratio between maximum voltage and minimum voltage is
of course, the VSWR.
The output meter can be any kind of voltmeter, in practice; however, a standing wave
ratio meter is used. This is an audio amplifier peaked at a modulation frequency with a meter
calibrated especially for reading VSWR. The probe is set at a voltage maximum, so that the VSWR
meter reads full scale. The probe is then moved to a minimum point and assuming there is a
square law detector, the scale on the VSWR meter reads VSWR directly. The standing wave ratio is
decibel is expressed as
SWR (db) = 20 log VSWR
Reflection co- efficient (R)
When a signal is sent down a transmission line, it travel smoothly until it reaches a
discontinuity Then same of the energy is reflected, the size of the reflection depending on the size
and nature of the discontinuity. The size of the reflection is called the reflection co efficient: The
simplest standing wave occurs when the refection co-efficient is unity, this occurs when the load
impedance is a short circuit, an open circuit. It does not occur if the
load has resistive components which will absorb some the incident power. If the
transmission line is terminated in a short or open circuit, the reflected voltage (Er) is equa
to the incident voltage (Ei) & the reflection co-efficient i^ 1.0 and (the VSWR is infinite. If a
matched termination is connected to the transmission line, thee reflected wave is zero, the reflection
co-efficient is also zero, and the VSWR is 1.0. It should be noted that reflection co efficient must lie
between zero and one. Reflection co-efficient (R) = the ratio of voltage reflected to the voltage
incident. However the same information could be presented by
referring to the loss in decibels between incident and reflected signals. This is called the return loss
and is designated LR the relationship are ;*?
LR = 20 log 10( Ei /Er ) = 201og 10 ( l/R) ,
= 20 log 10 [VSWR + (1 /( VSWR-1.))]
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the sum of
two traveling waves die incident wave, which propagate from the source to the load and the reflected
wave which propagate towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident
wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance. The superposition of the two
traveling wave gives rise to a standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found
where the waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase. The
distance between two successive minimum or maximum is half the guide wavelength on the line.
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The ratio of electrical field strength of reflected and incident wave is called reflection co-efficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio is defined as ratio between maximum and minimum field strength
along the line.
VSWR = Emax/Emin
= (Ei + Er ) / (Ei- Er) ----------- (1) , where Ei = incident voltage and Er = reflected voltage
= (1 + reflection co-efficient ) / (1-reflection co-efficient)
Reflection Co-efficient(R) the size of reflection
R= Er / Ei
= ZI- ZO / ZI + ZO --------- (2)
where Zl is load impedance, ZO is characteristics impedance the above equation following
equations.
R= (VSWR-1) / (VSWR + 1) ------------ (3)
Note:-The reflection co-efficient is expressed as a dimension less, the ratio of the voltage
reflected to the voltage incident. It must be noted that reflection co-efficient must lie
between zero and one. If reflection co-efficient is zero there is no reflection, if reflection
co-efficient is one, there is total reflection. The value of VSWR is determined by the
reflection co-efficient as indication in equation 1.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set the equipments as figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below
Range db = 40db to 50db
Low impedance = Input switch
Meter switch = Normal
Gain=Midposition
4. Keep the control knob of Klystron power supply
Beam voltage - Off
Mod-switch - Am
Beam voltage knob - Full anti-clockwise
Reflector voltage knob - Full clockwise
AM-amplitude knob - Full clockwise
AM frequency & amplitude knob - Mid position
1. Switch On the klystron power supply, VSWR meter & cooling fan.
26
2. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.

3. Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of am modulation.
4. Move the probe along with slotted line until maximum deflection is indicated and note the voltage
level from CRO (Vmax).
5. Move the probe along with slotted line until minimum deflection is indicated and note the voltage
level from CRO (Vmin)
6. VSWR = (Vmax / Vmin )
OBSERVATION:-
VSWR = Vmax / Vmin
1. Movable Short:
Beam Voltage = 250V
Repeller Voltage = 235V
Vmax = 44mV
Vmin = 1m V
VSWR = 44
2. Matched Load
Beam Voltage= 250V
Repeller Voltage= 236V
Vmax = 160 mV
Vmin = 100 mV
VSWR = 1.6
3. Open End
Beam Voltage= 250 V
Repeller Voltage= 236 V
Vmax = 60 mV
Vmin = 0 mV
VSWR = ∞
4. Short End
Beam Voltage= 250 V
Repeller Voltage= 175 V
27
Vmax = 65 mV
Vmin = 0 mV
VSWR = ∞
RESULT:-
The basic technique for measuring VSWR is familiarized with open end, matched
termination and movable short.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Explain matched loads?

They are used to absorb all the power falling/incident power without appreciate reflection
and radiation.
2. What is the use of matched load?

Matched load is used to absorb all the incident power without any reflection.

It attenuates the energy of electromagnetic waves.
4. What is meant by VSWR?

VSWR is voltage standing wave ratio which is the ratio of maximum voltage to minimum
voltage.
5. What is meant by reflection coefficient?

𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅−1
R=𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅+1
6. What are short circuit terminations?

Waveguide short-circuit terminations provide standard reflection at any desired, precisely measurable
positions (needed in load measurements).
7 . What is meant by VSWR? Tell its significance ?

VSWR means Voltage standing wave ratio. Standing waves are an indication of the quality of
transmission. VSWR indicates the reflections in the line.
8 . What is the ideal value of VSWR?

A well matched transmission line has no reflection and consequently the VSWR is unity
9. What is standing wave ratio?

The standing wave ratio is decibel is expressed as
SWR (db) = 20 log VSWR
28
10. What is reflection co-efficient?

It is the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage on standing waves.
LR = 20 log 10( Ei /Er ) = 201og 10 ( l/R) ,
= 20 log 10 [VSWR + (1 /( VSWR-1.))]
R= (VSWR-1) / (VSWR + 1)
11. Define reflection coefficient in terms of characteristic impedance and VSWR?

(Z-Zo)/(Z+Zo) = (s-1)/(s+1)
Where Z is the impedance at a point on line,Zo is the characteristic impedance and S is VSWR
12. Write the values of VSWR for open circuit, short circuit & matched load.
Open/closed circuit: VSWR = ∞
Matched load: VSWR = 1
13. What is a matched load?

A load that offers the characteristic impedance to a transmission line is called a matched
load.
29
EXPERIMENT NO: 5
MEASUREMENT OF IMPEDENCE
AIM:-
To measure an unknown Impedance with Smith chart
Gunn oscillator, Gunn power supply, Isolator, PIN modulator, Frequency meter, Variable
attenuator, Slotted Line,
THEORY:-
The impedance at any point of a transmission line can be written in the form R + jX. For
comparison SWR
can be calculated as
1+│R│
S=
1-│R│
Reflection Coefficient
Z - Z0
R=
Z + Z0
Where
Z0 = Characteristics impedance of w/g at operating frequency
Z = Load impedance at any point.
The measurement is performed in following way:
The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the SWR = S0 and the position of one
minima is
determined. Then unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line. Two
successive minima
positions are noted. The twice of the difference between minima position will be guide-wave
length. One
of the minima is used as reference for Impedance measurement. Find the difference of
reference minima
and minima position obtained from unknown load. Let it be'd'. Take a Smith chart taking '1' as
center;
draw a circle of radius equal to So. Mark a point on circumference of chart towards load side
at a distance
equal to d/A.g. Join the center with this point. Find the point where it cut the drawn circle. The
coordination
of this point this will show the normalized impedance of load.
30
Setup for Impedance measurement
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the above figure.
2. Set the variable attenuator at no attenuation position.
3. Connect S.S tuner after slotted line.
4. Connect matched termination after S.S tuner.
5. Keep the control knobs of SWR meter as below.
• Range dB : 40dB/50 dB position
• Crystal : 200 ohm
• Mode Switch : Normal Position
• Gain (Coarse & fine) : Mid Position.
• SWR/dB switch : dB Position
6. Keep the Control knobs of Gunn power supply as below
• Gunn bias : Fully anticlockwise
• PIN bias supply : Fully anticlockwise
• PIN Mod frequency : Mid position
• Mod Switch : Internal mod position
7. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator at 10mm position.
8. Switch "ON' the Gunn Power Supply, SWR meter and cooling Fan.
31
9. Observe the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various voltage controlled by
Gunn bias
voltage.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get dip on the SWR scale, and note down the
frequency directly
from frequency meter. Now you can detune the meter from dip position.
11. Measure the guide wavelength >tg as previous experiment
Xg = 2 (d,- d2)
12. Keep the depth of pin of S.S. Tuner to around 3-4mm and lock it.
13. Move the probe along with slotted line to get maximum reading.
14. Adjust SWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator unit such that the meter
indicates 1.0 on
the normal upper SWR scale.
15. Move the probe to next minima point.
16. Select SWR/dB switch to SWR position. Record the SWR reading.
17. At this maximum position of the meter record the probe position from slotted line as Xi.
18. Replace the load by fixed short/movable short & measure the new standing wave
position i.e. shift in
minima. Record it as X2.
19. Calculate X2-X1, it will be positive if the minima shift is towards load & negative if it
has shifted
towards generator.
20. Calculate shift in wavelength
(d) = X2 – X1
21. Use normalized chart (Smith Chart) & draw a circle with radius = 1/VSWR & take center
of circle =
0.00 on the smith chart.
22. Locate a point at a distance d (shift in minima) from the 0.0 moving in clockwise or anti-
clockwise
direction (depends on getting minima towards generator or load).
23. Join the above point to the centre of smith chart. The intersection of VSWR circle & this
line gives
load, reactive component or reactive circle & resistive component on real circle.
24. Normalized impedance a+ib where a & b are the real and reactive components.
25. The multiplication with characteristic impedance will give you the load impedance
'"V
ss
32
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.What device is used to produce a gradual change in impedance at the end of a waveguide?
Horn
2 When a waveguide is terminated in a resistive load, the load must be matched to what
property of the waveguide?
Characteristic impedance
3 What is the primary purpose of a dummy load?

Absorb all energy without producing standing waves
4 The energy dissipated by a resistive load is most often in what form?

Heat
5.What is the result of an abrupt change in the size, shape, or dielectric of a waveguide?
Reflections
6 A waveguide bend must have what minimum radius?

Greater than 2 wavelengths
7 What is the most common type of waveguide joint?

Choke joint
8 What is the most likely cause of losses in waveguide systems?

Choke joint
33
EXPERIMENT NO: 6
HORN ANTENNA RADIATION CHARATERISTICS
AIM:-
To obtain the radiation pattern of a horn antenna.
Klystron Power Supply, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable Attenuator, CRO, Cooling
Fan.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
THEORY:-
The open ended waveguide is capable of radiating like an antenna into open space; it suffers
from many deficiencies such as reflected waves existing due to poor matching of impedance
34
and non-directional radiation pattern. These are overcome if the walls of the waveguide at the
mouth flared so that it takes the shape of a horn.
Many horn configurations are possible by flaring out the walls in E-plane or H-plane or in both
the planes.
The radiation pattern is the graph of the field strength versus aspect angle at a constant distance
from the radiating antenna. Though the antenna radiation pattern is three dimensional it is
presented in 2 dimension in a graph practically. An antenna pattern consists of major lobes and
minor lobes.
Gain of the antenna is defined as the ratio of the power intensity of the maximum of the
major lobe to the power. Intensity achieved from an imaginary omnidirectional antenna at that
point.
Beam width of the main lobe is the angle between 2 points on a main lobe where the
power intensity is half the maximum intensity.
To measure the required pattern, the receiving antenna must be kept at minimum
distance of 2D where D is the dimension of the broader wall of the horn aperture.
The received power, P r=(Pt.λo.G1.G2)/((4Π δ)^2)
Pt=transmitted power
λ0= free space wavelength
G1 = gain of transmitting antenna
G2= gain of receiving antenna
Δ= distance between 2 antennas
PROCEDURE:-
1. Switch a klystron power supply.
2. Keep the switch front panel in beam off position.
3. Wait for few minutes and change switch to beam on position.
4. Set the beam voltage 300 V by varying beam voltage control knob.
5. Set the beam current whether it is less than 30 mA.
6. Set the variable attenuator to maximum attenuation level.
7. Change the modulating voltage control knob to maximum.Change the repeller voltage
and measure output.
8. Adjust the two horn antennas to be exactly in the line with each other.ie perfectly
aligned condition of angular difference = 0.
9. Now rotate the receiver antenna in steps of 10 deg in clockwise and anticlockwise.
35
OBSERVATION:-
Beam Voltage = 285V

Repeller voltage = 240V Normalised Vo/Vin
Angle Vo(mV)
value
-10 80 .8
-20 60 .6
-30 40 .4
-40 20 .2
0 100 1
40 80 .2
30 60 .4
20 40 .6
10 20 .8
Graph:
RESULT:-
Obtained the radiation pattern of horn antenna.
36
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a horn antenna?

A horn antenna is used for the transmission and reception of microwave signals. It
derives its name from the characteristic flared appearance. The flared portion can be square,
rectangular, or conical. The maximum radiation and response corresponds with the axis of the
horn. In this respect, the antenna resembles an acoustic horn. It is usually fed with a wave
guide. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other type of antenna, at the focal
point of the dish minimizes loss of energy (leakage) around the edges of the dish reflector. It
also minimizes the response of the antenna to unwanted signals not in the favored direction of
the dish.
2. Explain the radiation characteristics observed from the horn antenna?

PLOT:
1.5
1
0.5
0
-20 -10 0 10 20
In the figure above, we plot the gain(dB) in y axis and angle in x-axis. From the figure
it is observed that the gain would be maximum while the transmitting and receiving antennas
are at an angle of 180 degrees between them.
The received power, P r=(Pt.λo.G1.G2)/((4Π δ)^2)

Pt=transmitted power
λ0= free space wavelength
G1 = gain of transmitting antenna
G2= gain of receiving antenna
Δ= distance between 2 antennas
3. What are antenna field regions?

Reactive Near Field Region - the region immediately surrounding the antenna where
the reactive field (stored energy – standing waves) is dominant.
Near-Field (Fresnel) Region - the region between the reactive nearfield and the far-field
where the radiation fields are dominant and the field distribution is dependent on the
distance from the antenna.
Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region - the region farthest away from the antenna where the
field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna
(propagating waves).
4. Explain the working of horn antenna?

If a simple open-ended waveguide were to be used as an antenna, without the horn, the sudden
end of the conductive walls causes an abrupt impedance change at the aperture. When radio
waves travelling through the waveguide hit the opening, it acts as a bottleneck, reflecting most
of the wave energy back down the guide toward the source, so only part of the power is
37
radiated.It acts similarly to an open-circuited transmission line, or to a boundary between

optical mediums with a high and low index of refraction, like a glass surface. The reflected
waves cause standing waves in the waveguide, increasing the VSWR, wasting energy and
possibly overheating the transmitter. In addition, the small aperture of the waveguide (around
one wavelength) causes severe diffraction of the waves issuing from it, resulting in a wide
radiation pattern without much directivity.
To improve these poor characteristics, the ends of the waveguide are flared out to form a horn.
The taper of the horn changes the impedance gradually along the horn's length.This acts like an
impedance matching transformer, allowing most of the wave energy to radiate out the end of
the horn into space, with minimal reflection. The taper functions similarly to a tapered
transmission line, or an optical medium with a smoothly-varying refractive index. In addition,
the wide aperture of the horn projects the waves in a narrow beam.The horn shape that gives
minimum reflected power is an exponential taper.
5. Mention different typesof horn antenna?

a)sectorial H plane b)Sectorial E plane c)Pyramidal plane d)Conical and biconical plane
6. What is the need of attenuator in the experimental setup?

To introduce desired attenuation so as to reduce the possibility of undesired frequency or
amplitude changes in the source itself as a result of interaction of oscillator or probe.
7. Explain the equation of received power in an antenna?

Received power, Pr = (Pt λo G1 G2) / (4ПS) 2
Where,
Pt : transmitted power
λo: free space wavelength
G1,G2: gains of transmitting and receiving antennas
S : distance between two antennas.
8. In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size .What is it?
In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size relative to the
wavelength of the incoming or outgoing electromagnetic field. If the horn is too small or the
wavelength is too large (the frequencies too low), the antenna will not work efficiently.
9. Where are Horn antennas commonly used ?

Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a dish antenna. The horn is pointed
toward the center of the dish reflector
10. Why we use horn, rather than a dipole antenna?

The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other type of antenna, atthe focal point of
the dish minimizes loss of energy (leakage) around the edges of thedish dipole antenna or any
other type of antenna, at the focal point of the dish ?reflector. It also minimizes the response of
the antenna to unwanted signalsnot in the favored direction of the dish.
38
EXPERIMENT NO:
CHARACTERISTICS OF ISOLATOR
AIM:-
To measure insertion loss and isolation loss of an isolator
Klystron Power Supply, Klystron mount, Isolator, Variable attenuator, Frequency meter,
Slotted line, Detector mount, CRO
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Measurement of Insertion loss
Klystron Isolator Attenuator Isolator
Detector
Klystron
Power
Supply
CRO
Measurement of Isolation loss
Klystron Isolator Attenuator Isolator
Klystron Detector
Power
Supply
CRO
39
THEORY:-
Isolator: An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little
attenuation
and from output to input with very high attenuation.
Input . ...... A ---- -

Output
Following are the basic parameters of isolator for study.

1. Insertion loss
The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected by a
detector in the
coupling arm, i.e. output arm with other port terminated in the matched load, is defined
as insertion
loss or forward loss. .
2. Isolation loss
It is the ratio of power fed to input ami to the power detected at not coupled port with
other port terminated in the matched load
Isolator is a reciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one component from
reflections of other components in the transmission line. An ideal isolator completely
absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and provides lossless transmission in the
opposite direction thus the isolator is usually called uniline isolator can be made by
terminating port 3 of 3 port circulator with matched load. If V1 is the input voltage to an
isolator V2 is the output voltage in forward direction and V3 is the output voltage in
reverse direction then insertion loss in forward direction is specified as 20 log (V1/V2) db
and that in reverse direction = 20 log (V1/V3)db.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set the equipments as figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below
Range db = 40db to 50db
Low impedance = Input switch
Meter switch = Normal
Gain=Mid position
4. Keep the control knob of Klystron power supply
Beam voltage - Off
Mod-switch - Am
Beam voltage knob - Full anti-clockwise
40
Reflector voltage knob - Full clockwise

AM-amplitude knob - Full clockwise
AM frequency & amplitude knob - Mid position
5. Switch On the klystron power supply, VSWR meter & cooling fan.
6. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
7. Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of am modulation.
8. Connect the as shown in the block diagram first to measure V1 the input to the isolator whose
parameter is to be measured.
9. Adjust the power supply voltage and note down the detector voltage at the end of attenuator as
seen in CRO.
10. Next connect the isolator to the end of attenuator in forward direction to measure V2.
11. Next measure V3 to get output voltage in the reverse direction
12. Calculate insertion loss and isolation loss of the isolator using the given formula.
OBSERVATION:-
Beam Voltage 250V
Repeller Voltage 220V
V1 = 1.2V
V2 = 1.2V
V3 = 0.8V
Insertion loss = 20 log (V1/V2) = 20 log (1.2/1.2) = 0 db
Isolation loss = 20 log (V1/V3) = 20 log (1.2/0.8) = 3.52 db
RESULT:-
Insertion loss and isolation loss of isolator is measured.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of frequency meter?

To measure frequency. It employs the function of a notch filter so as to obtain dip
.
It is used to provide attenuation above insertion loss
41
3. The main component of variable attenuator is?

Resistive vane
4. Difference between a circulator and isolator?

A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which microwave or radio
frequency power entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation only .
5. What is the function of frequency meter?

To measure frequency. It employs the function of a notch filter so as to obtain dip.
6. What is the function of isolator?

It is used to reduce loading effect. It is highly reflective in one direction and vice versa in the
other.
7. Ferrite devices are useful in microwave applications because they possess what properties?
Magnetic properties and high resistance.
8. Which of the two types of electron motion (orbital movement and electron spin) is more
important in the explanation of magnetism?
Electron spin
9. The interaction between an external field and the binding force of an atom causes electrons
to do what?
Wobble at a natural resonant frequency.
10. The resonant frequency of electron wobble can be changed by variation of what force?
The applied magnetic field.
11. Rotating the plane of polarization of a wave front by passing it through a ferrite device is
called what?
Faraday rotation
42
EXPERIMENT NO: 8
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
AIM:-
To measure insertion loss, coupling coefficient, coupling factor and directivity of the given
directional coupler.
Microwave bench using Gunn Source
Coaxial to wave guide adaptor
Power Sensor
Power Meter
Cable for connecting power sensor to power meter.
THEORY:-
Directional coupler is 4 port device in which the input port 1 gives the output at port 2
and port 4 and there is no output at port 3. Similar is the case with the input at the other ports.
Input Output No Output
Port 1 Port 2, Port 4 Port 3

Directivity is the measure of how well power ids directed towards a port. It is given as the
ratio of power at port 4 (P4) to the power at port 3 (P3) , if the input is at port 1 (P1). Coupling
factor is a measure of power coupled to the next port compared to the principal port (Port 2,
P2).
Directivity , D = 20 log(V4/V3) dB
Coupling factor = 20 log(V2/V4) dB Where V2, V3 and V4 are the detector voltages measured
at the corresponding ports.
Oscillator Isolator Variable Directional Matched

Attenuator Coupler Load
Power Detector
Supply
CRO
Set up for measuring Coupling factor and directivity
43
PROCEDURE:-
For finding the coupling factor, Gunn/Klystron oscillator set up, isolator, attenuator and
directional coupler are connected in series. Connect the matched load at Port 4 and the short
circuit detector at Port 2 and with the input at Port 1, measure P2. Now, with matched load at
Port 2 and short circuit detector at port 4, measure P4.
For finding the directivity, Gunn/Klystron oscillator setup,isolator, Attenuator and directional
coupler are connected in series. Then connect the matched load at Port 2 and connect the
detector at Port 4, with the input at Port 1, measure P4 .Now since the Port 3 is terminated by
matched load by the manufacturer, in order to find P3, connect the input at Port 2, matched
load at Port 1 and the detector at Port 4 and measure P4 .
Repeat the experiment with another coupler.
OBSERVATIONS:-
V2 = 1.4V, V3 = 1mV, V4 = 100mV
1. Coupling factor CF = 20 log V2/V4
= 20 log 1.4V/100mV
= 22.9 dB
2. Directivity (D) = 20 log V4/V3
= 20 log 0.1V/1mV
= 40 dB
RESULT:-
Coupling Factor and Directivity of directional coupler is measured.
1) Meaasurement of Insertion Loss
L:=10 log (P1/P2) dB

Where
P1 = Input power to main arm
P2= Output power of main arm with auxiliary arm terminated with matched load.
Procedure :-
1. Without connecting the directional coupler measure input power using the power
meter using the setup shown in Fig.1
Let it be P1 (dBm)
Fig.1
44
2. Without changing the gunn bias or any other settings connect the directional coupler as
shown in Fig.2 .
Fig.2
3. Connect matched load to auxiliary arm.

4. Measure main line output power . Let it be P2(dBm)
5. Then insertion loss L= P1-P2 dB
2. Meaasurement of Coupling Factor

Where
P1 = Input power to main arm
P3= Output power at auxiliary arm with main line output port terminated with matched load.
Procedure
1. Without connecting the directional coupler measure input power using the power meter
using the setup shown in Fig.3
Let it be P1 (dBm)
Fig.3
45
2. Without changing the gunn bias or any other settings connect the directional coupler as
shown in Fig.4.
Fig.4
3. Connect matched load to main line output port

4. Measure auxiliary line output power . Let it be P3(dBm)
5. Then Coupling Factor C = P1-P3 dB
3. Meaasurement of Directivity

Where
P3 = auxiliary line output power with main line output port matched with matched termination
P3= auxiliary line output power with direction of directional coupler reversed.
Procedure :-
1. Connect the directional coupler as shown in Fig.5
Fig.5
2. Connect matched load to auxiliary arm.
3. Measure main line output power . Let it be P3(dBm)
46
4. Now reverse the direction of directional coupler as shown in Fig.6 and measure main line
output power .
Let it be P4(dBm)
Fig.6
5. Then Directivity = P3-P4 dB
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary purpose of a directional coupler?

Sampling energy within a waveguide
2. How far apart are the two holes in a simple directional coupler?
1/4 wavelength.
3. What is the purpose of the absorbent material in a directional coupler?

Absorb the energy not directed at the pick-up probe and a portion of the overall energy
4. In a directional coupler that is designed to sample the incident energy, what happens to the
two portions of the wavefront when they arrive at the pickup probe?
The wavefront portions add
5. What happens to reflected energy that enters a directional coupler that is designed to
sample incident energy?
The reflected energy adds at the absorbent material and is absorbed

Directional Coupler
47
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE
AIM:-
To study V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode
Gunn oscillator, Gun power supply, PIN modulator, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
attenuator, Detector mount, Wave guide stands, SWR Meter, Cables and accessories.
THEORY:-
The Gunn Oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk
semiconductors,which has two conduction bands minima separated by an energy gap (greater
than thermal agitation energies). A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region,
which travels towards the anode. When this high field domain reaches the anode, it disappears
and another domain is formed at the cathode and starts moving towards anode and so on. The
time required for domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time) gives oscillation
frequency. In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the
Oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by diode itself. Although Gunn
oscillator can be amplitude modulated with the bias voltage. We have used separate PIN
modulator through PIN diode for square wave modulation. A measure of the square wave
modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output ratio between,'ON and 'OFF state.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Gunn
Power
Supply
Gunn Isolator PIN Variable Frequency Detector

Oscillator Modula Attenuator Meter mount
tor
1. Set the components and equipment as shown in the fig.

2. Initially set the variable attenuator for no attenuation.
3. Keep the control knob of Gunn Power Supply as shown:
• Gunn bias knob : fully anticlockwise
• PIN bias knob : fully anticlockwise
• PIN Mod frequency : mid position
48
• Mode switch : CW Mode

4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator at 10 mm position.
5. Switch ON the Gunn power supply and cooling fan.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various voltage controlled by Gunn
bias knob through the panel do not exceed the bias voltage above 10.5 volts.
Note: Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than10-15
seconds. Reading should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive
heating, gunn diode may burn.
OBSERVATION:-
Sr.No. V (v) I (mA)
1 0 0
2 1 0.03
3 2 0.1
4 3 0.15
5 4 0.18
6 4.5 0.19
7 5 0.18
8 6 0.16
9 7 0.15
GRAPH :-
0.20 (I)
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (V)
49
RESULT:-
The V-I characteristic of Gunn diode is studied and plotted. The

threshold voltage of Gunn diode = 4.5V.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why gunn diode and impatt diode are not common microwave devices?
These are a niche market, and the demand is not particularly high. Designing a Gunn or Impatt
oscillator is not a trivial exercise, and the biasing is a pain. These designs are generally built by
skilled craftsmen and are not suited to mass production. At 24 GHz or below, a GaAs
MESFET or PHEMT is much more practical as an active device.
2. Difference between gunn diode and pin diode?

Gunn diode acts as oscillator and has negative differential region which helps it to act as
microwave source.PIN diode acts as modulator and is used alongwith Gunn for square wave
modulation.
3. Why diode is called diode?
diode:= di+ iode
di means two,and iode means terminal,,,diode is two terminal device i.e anode and cathode
4. What are regions of operation in Gunn diode?

In the Gunn diode, three regions exist: two of them are heavily N-doped on each terminal, with
a thin layer of lightly doped material in between.
5. Explain regions of operation in Gunn diode.
VI characteristics of Gunn diode

When a voltage is applied to the device, the electrical gradient will be largest across the thin
middle layer. Conduction will take place as in any conductive material with current being
proportional to the applied voltage. Eventually, at higher field values, the conductive properties
of the middle layer will be altered, increasing its resistivity and reducing the gradient across it,
preventing further conduction and current actually starts to fall down. In practice, this means a
Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance
6. What is the Esaki diode ?

It is Tunnel diode.
50
7. What is the function of Tunnel diode?

It is a type of semiconductor that is capable of very fast operation, well into the microwave
frequency region, made possible by the use of the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling.
8.What is called MIM diode?

It is another type of tunnel diode called a metal–insulator–metal (MIM) diode.
9. What is varactor diode?

In electronics, a varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable reactance
diode or tuning diode is a type of diode whose capacitance varies as a function of the voltage
applied across its terminals.
10.What are the applications of varactor diode?

Varactors are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. They are commonly used in voltage-
controlled oscillators, parametric amplifiers, and frequency multipliers. Voltage-controlled
oscillators have many applications such as frequency modulation for FM transmitters and
phase-locked loops. Phase-locked loops are used for the frequency synthesizers that tune many
radios, television sets, and cellular telephones
51
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
STUDY OF ANALOG LINK AND DIGITAL LINK
AIM:-
To study about basic analog link and digital link using fiber cable.
 Advanced fiber optic communication
 Trainer (VOFT-06)
 Function generator
 Two channel 25MHz oscilloscope
 1 m Optical fiber cable
THEORY:-
ANALOG LINK
This equipment is designed to familiarize the users with this trainer kit. The basic
analog link can be established by both 660 nm and 950 nm wavelengths. So that we can study
the performance of a plastic fiber at both these wavelengths. The input to the analog
transmitter may be sinusoidal or AM signal or FM signal or any other type of analog signal,
with the maximum amplitude of 1Vpp. Trainer having on-board sinusoidal waveform
generator of variable frequency and amplitude to conduct the experiments. The analog optical
transmitter section having preamplifier and driver stage so as to modulate the electrical signal
into optical signal. The analog optical receiver section having current to voltage converter and
amplifiers to convert the optical signal to optical signal.
DIGITAL LINK
This is the basic experiment for digital signal transmission and reception and this also explains
how can make a digital multiplexer link over fiber. The link can be only established by 660 nm
wavelength source in our VOFT-06 band. This digital optical transmitter section having a
simple driver IC to convert the TTL signal into on-off optical signal. The digital optical
receiver section having current to voltage converter, an amplifier and TTL converter. Another
optical receiver SFH551 directly converts the optical signal into the TTL signal this is ready
made detector used for long distance communication.
52
PROCEDURE:-
ANALOG LINK
 Make the jumper connections for950 nm wavelength source as in the figure.
 Choose the input which give sine waveform and observe on the CRO.
 Adjust the input to 1 KHz and amplitude to 1 Vpp.
 Use 1 m fiber optical transmission links and make connections to the output.
 Observe the output waveform on CRO and note down amplitude.
 Vary the gain of amplifier at the receiver stage and observe the sine waveform with
necessary amplitude level analog link have been established.
 Now calculate the gain according to the formula, Gain= -20 log [Vo/Vin]
DIGITAL LINK
 Make the jumper and winding connections for 660 nm connections.
 Connect the input probe to TTL logic.
 Use fiber optic cable as transmission link and make necessary connections for output.
 Observe the input and output waveform separately.
OBSERVATIONS:-
ANALOG LINK:
 Input Voltage, Vin = 1 Vpp 1 KHz
 OPTICAL WAVELENGTH = 660 nm:
 OFC = 1 m;
Output voltage Gain(dB)
0.25 12.041
0.5 6.0205
0.75 2.4987
0.95 0.4455
OFC= 3 m
Vo(V) Gain(dB)
1 0
2 -6.02
3 -9.542
4 -12.04
53
5 -13.97
6 -15.56
6.7 -16.521
OPTICAL WAVELENGTH=990 nm
OFC = 1 m
VO(V) Gain(dB) OFC = 3 m
0.05 26.02 VO(V) Gain(dB)
0.1 20 0.05 26.02
0.15 16.478 0.1 20
0.2 13.979 0.14 17.077
0.22 13.1515
DIGITAL LINK:
 Input voltage = 4.7 V,6.25 KHz

 Optical wavelength= 660 nm
 OFC 1m, Output voltage= 4.7 V
 OFC 3m, Output voltage= 4.7 V
 Gain= 0dB
RESULT:-
Studied the basic analog link and digital link establishment using optical fiber cable.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are the important specifications of an optical fiber?

Numerical aperture
core diameter
54
V number
material of the fiber
attenuation
2. What is the need of cladding in optical fiber?

Cladding provides mechanical strength , reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric
discontinuities at the core surface and protects core from absorbing surface contaminants with
which it would come into contact.
3. What is meant by modes?

The propagation of light energy in an optical fiber takes place at a distant angles of
propagation called the modes.
4. What are the advantages offered by multimode fiber than a single mode fiber?
The advantages are
1-.LED can be used as a source
2- It is convenient for slicing
3- A larger core radii of multimode fibers makes launching optical power into the fiber easier.
5. Define 3db life?

This is the time required for the laser output to drop to one half of its initial value when
current passes through the device.
6. Define quantum effeciency of a detector?

Quantum efficiency is defined as the number of electron hole pairs generated per incident
photon energy and is given by = no of electron hole pair generated / no of incident photons
7. What is step index fiber?

If the refractive index of the core in a fiber is uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt
change at the cladding boundary, it is called step index fiber.
8. What is graded index fiber?

If the refractive index of the core in a fiber is made to vary as a function of the radial distance
from the center of the fiber, it is called graded index fiber.
9. How step index and graded index can generally be classified?

Single mode and Multimode
10. What are the noises that can be expected in an optical fiber?
Quantum Noise
Thermal Noise
Amplifier Noise
11. What are the main Causes of Attenuation in optical fibre?

Scattering -Due to interactions of photons with fiber medium.
Absorption (Intrinsic + Extrinsic) -By fiber itself (intrinsic) or due to impurities of water and
metal, such as iron, nickel and chromium (extrinsic).
Bending and Geometrical Imperfections
Due to physical stress on fibre.
Core-cladding interface irregularities, diameter variations etc.
55
12. What are the main advantages of optical fiber communication?

Higher bandwidth (extremely high data transfer rate).
Less signal degradation.
Less costly per meter.
Lighter and thinner than copper wire.
Lower transmitter launching power.
Less susceptible to electromagnetic interference.
Flexible use in mechanical and medical imaging systems.
56
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
STUDY OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE

ANGLE OF OPTIC FIBER CABLE.
AIM:-
To study with the basic technique for the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle of
an optic fiber cable.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED :-
Advanced fiber optic communication trainer (VOFT-06)
Function generator
Two channel 25MHz oscilloscope
1m optical fiber cable
Angle of acceptance set up.
THEORY:-
For light rays to be propagated along a fiber they must fall within the fiber’s acceptance
angle. The numerical aperture of a fiber is an indication of how much light a fiber can accept to
propagate through it. The light transmitted inside a fiber account the total internal reflection,
light travel not only along fibers central axis, but also various angles to centre line. The light
ray fallen out of acceptance angle deviates from the total internal reflection, they gets refracted
from core-cladding boundary provides losses to the information.
From the figure, at the air-fiber interference, the beam at an angle 𝜃a is the incident
beam and at an angle 𝜃c is launched one which is the reflected beamwith respected to core-
cladding interface respectively. Hence launched beam (critical angle) makes internal reflection
whenever the incident beam 𝜃𝑎 achieves an angle called acceptance angle.
PROCEDURE :-
1. Make jumper connections for the 660nm wavelength source, connect 1m fiber cable
between optical transmitter and angle of acceptance. Set up as in figure.
2. Insert the fiber cable in numerical aperture.
a. Unscrew the topside screw of numerical aperture set up.
b. Insert fiber through topside hole.
c. Make fiber cable end to 0.2cm above from the base of numerical aperture set up.
3. a circular red color spot is shown in graph attached with the base of numerical aperture
set up. Measure the circle in horizontally and vertically and find out mean radius of
circle spot as r = (DE + BC) /4.
57
4. Find out the numerical aperture for a distance as NA = r / (𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2 ) 1/2 ;where d is the
distance in cm, r is the mean radius of circle spot.
5. Measure the NA for other distances, and finally take an average of all readings of NA
which is numerical aperture for the given plastic fiber. Typical fiber’s NA is 0.55 to 0.6.
6. Find out the acceptance angle as 𝜃a = sin−1(𝑁𝐴).
OBSERVATIONS :-
𝟐
d Mean radius(r) in mm NA = = r / (𝒓 + 𝒅𝟐 ) 𝟏/𝟐
0.2 1.75 0.658

0.4 2.75 0.5665
0.8 4.25 0.469
1 5.25 0.464
1.5 5.5 0.344
Mean = 0.5003
∴ mean NA = 0.5003
∴ acceptance angle, 𝜃a = sin−1 (𝑁𝐴)
= 30.019.
RESULT :-
The basic technique for measuring numerical aperture is familiarized and the measured value
of
Numerical aperture = 0.5003
Angle of acceptance = 30.019
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is numerical aperture?

There is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will
propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical
aperture (NA) of the fiber.
2. What is meant by acceptance cone of the fiber?

Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light
must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the
fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range
of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber
58
3. What is the difference between multimode fiber and single mode fiber?
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) is called multi-mode fiber. Fiber
with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light is
called single mode fiber
4. What is an optical fiber?

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits
light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of
a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials.
5. What is total internal reflection?

Total internal reflection, or TIR as it is intimately called, is the reflection of the total amount
of incident light at the boundary between two media.
6. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?

TIR only takes place when both of the following two conditions are met:
the light is in the more dense medium and approaching the less dense medium.
the angle of incidence is greater than the so-called critical angle.
7. Define V number?
V number is defined by
V=(2*pi*a)/(lambda*N.A)]
8. What is Snell’s law?

A. Snell's Law states that the product of the refractive index and the sine of the angle of
incidence of a ray in one medium is equal to the product of the refractive index and the sine of
the angle of refraction in a successive medium. This can be represented algebraically by n1 sin
1 = n2 sin 2, where n1, n2 are the two values of refractive index and 1, 2 are the angles
of the incidence and refraction.
9. What is critical angle?

A. The angle of incidence of a ray increases in a medium with a higher refractive index, the ray
passing through to a medium with lower refractive index will bend away from the normal until
it meets 90 deg. with the normal, and on the boundary between the two mediums, which is then
referred to as the critical angle.
10. What is a graded index fiber?

A. In fiber optics, a graded-index or gradient-index fiber is an optical fiber whose core has
a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance from the fiber axis.
11. Relation between numerical aperture and acceptance angle?

The numerical aperture (NA) NA = n sinθ where n is the index of refraction of the medium
in which the lens is working (1.0 for air, 1.33 for pure water, and up to 1.56 for oils), and θ is
the half-angle of the maximum cone of light that can enter or exit the lens.
12. What is acceptance angle?

There is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will
propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical
aperture (NA) of the fiber.
𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃𝜃−1(NA)
59
EXPERIMENT NO: 3
STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER OPTIC LED
AIM:-
Plot V-I Characteristics of Photo LED ( E - O converter)
1. ST2502 techbook with power supply cord
2. Optical Fibre cable
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe
CONNECTION DIAGRAM:-
60
THEORY:-
LED's and LASER diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication
systems, whether the system transmits digital or analog signal. It is therefore^often
necessary to use linear electrical to optical converter to allow its use in intensity
modulation & high quality analog transmission systems. LED's have a linear optical
output with relation to the forward current over a certain region of operation.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switched faults are in OFF condition.
3. Put emitter 1 block in Digital Mode
4. Make connections as given below.
a. Connect the bias 1 preset on comparator to the emitter 1 input.
b. Adjust the bias 1 preset to its minimum setting fully counter clockwise.
Now look down the emitter 1 LED Socket and slowly advance the setting
of the bias 1 preset until in subdued lighting the light from LED is just
visible.
5. Connect the DMM between + 12V supply (Red Socket) and tp of Input of
Emitter LED. The DMM will now read the forward voltage (V f)
6. Measure the voltage drop across the lk (R9) current limiting resistors by
connecting DMM between tp of Input of Emitter LED and tp6 (tp38 if old kit).
The forward current is given by dividing the readings by lk. This If is known as
threshold current.
DVM reading
If =..........................mA1000
7. Vary the bias 1 preset so as to vary the forward voltage (as 1.0, 1.5...4.0), note
the corresponding If (forward current).
8. Record these values of Vf and If & plot the characteristic between these two.
OBSERVATIONS:-
VF (v) VR (v) If (mA)
0.5 0.0015 0.0015
0.85 0.0021 0.0021
1.13 0.0032 0.0032
1.72 0.0433 0.0433
61
2.19 0.91 0.91
2.96 2.74 2.74
3.5 4.17 4.17
4.08 5.47 5.47
4.74 7.1 7.1
Calculation: If = VR /1 KΩ = 7.1 /1* 103 = 7.1mA
V – I CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO LED
If(mA)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vf
62
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the use of Fiber Optic lighting?

Fiber Optic lighting is preferred for jobs such as wire bonding or soldering of fine-pitch
components.
2. What is the use of White LED light?

Pure white LED light is preferred for the detailed inspection of circuit boards, welds, solder
joints, flux residues and hairline stress cracks.
3. Explain briefly about the power consumption of LED?

LEDs typically consume between 9- and 18-watts of energy while producing 3600 footcandles
at 4.5’ working distance. While this undeniably makes LEDs the more energy-efficient lighting
solution (Fiber Optic lighting consumes approximately 150-watts), Fiber Optic lighting
produces 6450 footcandles at roughly 4.5” working distance.
4. How is an AV signal transmitted down a fiber?

A fiber optic transmitter converts the AV signal into an optical signal, using a VCSEL or laser
diode as a light source. A glass fiber guides the optical AV signal along its path. A
photodetector in a fiber optic receiver at the far end of the fiber converts the optical AV signal
back into an electrical AV signal.
5. What is a light-emitting diode?

A light-emitting diode — LED is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electrical
current passes through it. An LED that emits visible light is used in a variety of applications,
including signage, area lighting, numerical displays, and indicator lights on electrical
equipment. In fiber optics, an LED is used as a light source for low-speed signals such as,
TOSLINK or 100BASE-SX Ethernet, due to its low cost. An LED is not recommended for
transmitting high speed video signals over fiber.
6. What are the types of optical fibers?

Step index & graded index / single mode & multimode
7. What are the differences between step index and graded index fibers?
Step index fiber will have same refractive index throughout whereas graded index fiber will
have refractive index maximum at one point and varying refractive indices.
8. What are the differences between single mode and multimode fibers?
Single mode operates only in 1 mode of operation whereas multimode fibers more than one
mode.
9. What is the range of optical fiber communication?

1013 to 1016 Hz
10. What is Internal Quantum Efficiency of LED?

The internal quantum efficiency ηint is an important parameter of an LED. It is defined as the
fraction of the electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively. If the radiative recombination
63
rate is Rr and the non-radiative recombination rate isRnr, then the internal quantum efficiency is
the ratio is the ratio of the radaitive recombination rate to the total recombination rate. ηint is
typically 50% in homojunction LEDs, but ranges from 60 to 80% in double-heterostructure
LEDs.
11. What is External Quantum Efficiency?

The external quantum efficiency (ηext)of a LED is defined as the ratio of the photons emitted
from the LED to the number of internally generated photons. Due to reflection effects at the
surface of the LED typical values of ηout are < 10%.
12. What is Optical Power of LED?

If the current injected into the LED is I, then the total number of recombinations per second is
I/q, where q is the electron charge. Total number of radaiative recombinations is equal to (ηint
I/q). Since each photon has an energy hν, the optical power generated internally by the LED is:
Pint = (ηint I/q)(hν).
64
EXPERIMENT NO: 4
STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DETECTOR
AIM:-
Characteristics of Photo Detector (E - O converter)
The aim of this experiment is to plot the characteristic of Photo Detector.
ST2502 techbook with power supply cord
Optical Fibre cable
Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe
THEORY:-
Photo Transistors and Photo Diodes are the commonly used detectors in optical
communication systems, whether the system receives digital or analog signal. It is
therefore, often necessary to use linear optical to electrical converter to allow its use
in intensity demodulation & high quality analog receiving systems. Photo Diodes
have a linear electrical output with relation to the light intensity over a certain region
of operation.
65
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switched faults are in OFF condition.
3. Put emitter 1 block in Digital Mode
4. Make connections as given below.
a. Connect the bias 1 preset on comparator to the emitter 1 input.
b. Adjust the bias 1 preset to its minimum setting fully counter clockwise.
Now look down the emitter 1 LED Socket and slowly advance the setting
of the bias 1 preset until in subdued lighting the light from LED is just
visible.
c. Connect the fiber optic cable between emitter output and detectors input.
5. Connect the DMM between + 12V supply (Red Socket) and tp of Input of
Emitter LED. The DMM will now read the forward voltage (V f)
6. Measure the voltage drop across the 75E resistors by connecting DMM between
tp of output of Photo Transistor and Ground. The detector current is given by
dividing the readings by 75E.
1. DVM readingO
2. Id = ................. mA
a. 75
7. Vary the bias 1 preset so as to vary the forward voltage (as 1.0, 1.5...4.0), note
the corresponding If (forward current).
8. Record these values of Vf and Id & plot the characteristic between these two.
9.
OBSERVATIONS:-
VF (v) VR (mv) Id (mA)
0.5 0 0
0.85 0 0
1.13 0 0
1.72 0 0
2.19 0.91 0.91
2.96 2.74 2.74
3.5 4.17 4.17
4.08 5.47 5.47
4.74 7.1 7.1

Calculation
Id = VR/75 Ω = 150*10-3 = 2mA
66
GRAPH:-
If(mA)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vf
67
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a photodetector?
A photodetector is a semiconductor device that converts an optical signal into an electrical
signal. A photodetector is used in a fiber optic receiver to convert optical AV signals.
2. What is a laser diode?

A laser diode is a semiconductor device that emits a narrow beam of coherent light, such as the
beam of light from a laser pointer. In AV fiber optic transmitters, laser diodes are used as the
light source for transmitting video, audio, and control signals.
3. What is a VCSEL?
VCSEL stands for Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser. A VCSEL is a special type of laser
diode that has lower manufacturing costs than other types of laser diodes. It can be mass-
produced with high yield rates and has a smaller PCB footprint, making it ideal for use in fiber
optic transmitters to send high resolution video, audio, and control signals.
4. What is photo diode array?

A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as a position
sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor. One advantage of photodiode arrays (PDAs) is
that they allow for high speed parallel read out since the driving electronics may not be built in
like a traditional CMOS or CCD sensor.
5. What is the advantages compared to photomultipliers ?

1. Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light
2. Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
semiconductor materials
3. Low noise
4. Ruggedized to mechanical stress
5. Low cost
6. Compact and light weight
7. Long lifetime
8. High quantum efficiency, typically 80%[not in citation given]
9. No high voltage required
6. What are the disadvantages compared to photomultipliers ?

1. Small area
2. No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 102–103
compared to up to 108 for the photomultiplier)
3. Much lower overall sensitivity
4. Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes,
with special electronic circuits
5. Response time for many designs is slower
7. What are the materials commonly used to produce photodiodes ?

Silicon
Germanium
68
Indium gallium arsenide

Lead(II) sulfide
8.What is responsivity of a photo diode?

The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W when
used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a Quantum
efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photo generated carriers to incident photons and thus a
unitless quantity
9. What is dark current?

The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system
10. What is Photovoltaic mode?

When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is
restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the
basis for solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
11. What is Photoconductive mode?
the anode). Compared to forward bias, this dramatically reduces the response time at the
expense of increased noise, because it increases the width of the depletion layer, which
decreases the junction's capacitance. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current
(known as saturation or dark current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains
virtually the same. For a In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode driven
positive with respect to given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to
the illuminance (and to the irradiance).
69
EXPERIMENT NO.1
CYCLIC CODE GENERATOR
AIM:-
To generate a (7,4) cyclic code using a cyclic code generator circuit, and to verify the
properties.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
ICs 7474 (D- Flip Flop), 7486 (XOR),7408 (AND)
THEORY:-
Cyclic code is a type of linear block code in which every cyclic shift of a code – word
is also a code – word. The cyclic code generated hereis a systematic code with the data bits
shifted out first, followed by the parity bits. Every cyclic code has a generator polynomial
g(X).Here g(X) = 1 + X + X3
Is used to generate the (7,4) cyclic code.
The parity bits are generated as b(X) where b(X) is the remainder obtained from the
division of Xn-k D(X) by g(X).
The two main properties satisfied by a cyclic code are :
1. Linearity property
For any 2 code words Ci(X) and Cj(X), the sum is another codeword.
2. Cyclic property
The cyclic shift of any code word is another code word.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
70
OBSERVATIONS:-
1. Cyclic property
1100010
0110001 is again a cyclic code.
2. Linear property
0110001
1001110
1111111 is again a cyclic code.
Theoretical proof
r(x) = rem [xn-k d(x) ]
g(x)
3
g(x) = x + x +1 for a data 1100 .
r(x) = rem [ x7-4 (x3 +x2) ]
x3 + x +1
Therefore r2 r1 r0 x3 + x + 1 x6 + x5
x2 x x0 x6 + x4 + x3
0 1 0 x5 + x 4 +x3
x5 + x 3 +x2
x4 + x2
x4 + x2 + x
x
RESULT
(7,4) cyclic code was generated and the parity bits were checked with the observed
values. The linearity and cyclic properties are verified.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a Gold sequence?

A Gold code, also known as Gold sequence, is a type of binary sequence, used in
telecommunication and satellite navigation . Gold codes are named after Robert Gold. Gold
codes have bounded small cross-correlations within a set, which is useful when multiple
devices are broadcasting in the same frequency range. A set of Gold code sequences consists
of 2n − 1 sequences each one with a period of 2n − 1.
71
2. What is LFSR?
Linear-feedback shift register (LFSR) is a shift register whose input bit is a linear function of
its previous state.
The most commonly used linear function of single bits is XOR. Thus, an LFSR is most often a
shift register whose input bit is driven by the exclusive-or (XOR) of some bits of the overall
shift register value.
3. What is the applications of LFSR?

Applications of LFSRs include generating pseudo-random numbers, pseudo-noise sequences,
fast digital counters, and whitening sequences. Both hardware and software implementations of
LFSRs are common.The mathematics of a cyclic redundancy check, used to provide a quick
check against transmission errors, are closely related to those of an LFSR.
4. Explain briefly about Cyclic code?

In coding theory, cyclic codes are linear block error-correcting codes that have convenient
algebraic structures for efficient error detection and correction. Let be a linear code over a
finite field of block length n. is called a cyclic code if, for every codeword
c=(c1,...,cn) from C, the word (cn,c1,...,cn-1) in obtained by a cyclic right shift of
components is again a codeword. Because one cyclic right shift is equal to n − 1 cyclic left
shifts, a cyclic code may also be defined via cyclic left shifts. Therefore the linear code is
cyclic precisely when it is invariant under all cyclic shifts.
5. What is CDMA?
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio
communication technologies.
CDMA is an example of multiple access, which is where several transmitters can send
information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to
share a band of frequencies. To permit this to be achieved without undue interference between
the users CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where
each transmitter is assigned a code).
CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards such as cdmaOne,
CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne), and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM
carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA.
6. Define Hamming Code?

A code whose minimum distance is at least 3, have a check matrix all of whose columns are
distinct and non zero. If a check matrix for a binary code has rows, then each column is an
-bit binary number. There are possible columns. Therefore if a check matrix of a
binary code with at least 3 has rows, then it can only have columns, not more
than that. This defines a code, called Hamming code.
7. What is Scrambler?
In telecommunications, a scrambler is a device that transposes or inverts signals or otherwise
encodes a message at the transmitter to make the message unintelligible at a receiver not
equipped with an appropriately set descrambling device
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8. Define Two- Out-of-Five Code?

In telecommunication, a two-out-of-five code is an m of n code that provides exactly ten
possible combinations, and thus is popular for representing decimal digits using five bits.
There are ways to assign weights to each bit such that the set bits sum to the desired value,
with an exception for zero.
9. What is G and H?
The matrix is called a (Canonical) generator matrix of a linear (n,k) code,
and is called a parity-check matrix.
10. Explain briefly Binary Golay Code?

In mathematics and electronics engineering, a binary Golay code is a type of error-correcting
code used in digital communications. The binary Golay code, along with the ternary Golay
code, has a particularly deep and interesting connection to the theory of finite sporadic groups
in mathematics. These codes are named in honor of Marcel J. E. Golay.
There are two closely related binary Golay codes. The extended binary Golay code (sometimes
just called the "Golay code" in finite group theory) encodes 12 bits of data in a 24-bit word in
such a way that any 3-bit errors can be corrected or any 7-bit errors can be detected. The other,
the perfect binary Golay code, has codewords of length 23 and is obtained from the extended
binary Golay code by deleting one coordinate position (conversely, the extended binary Golay
code is obtained from the perfect binary Golay code by adding a parity bit). In standard code
notation the codes have parameters [24, 12, 8] and [23, 12, 7], corresponding to the length of
the codewords, the dimension of the code, and the minimum Hamming distance between two
codewords, respectively.
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EXPERIMENT NO: 2
PN SEQUENCE GENERATOR
AIM:-
To generate a Psuedo noise Sequence using shift register
CRO, IC 74164, IC 7486, IC 7404, Bread bpard, function generator
THEORY:-
A PN Sequence is a pseudo binary Sequence with a noise like waveform ie usually generated
by means of an ordinary shift register madeup of in flip flop s and a logic circuit that is
interconnected to form a logic multi trop circuit that is inter connected to form a multihop
feedback circuit. The Ff is shift register oneregulated by single tuning clock.
At each clock pulse of the clock ,the state of each ff is shiftedto the
next one down the time with each clock pulse . The logic circuit computes a Boolean
function of the state of the flipflop.The resolution this is then fed back as input to first flip
flop tmi by representing the shift register from employing.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
74
75
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PROCEDURE:-
1. Make the connections asshown in the figure.
2. Connect the 500 Hz clock pulse with each clock pulse state of flipflop will change.
3.Note down the value.
RESULT:-
Generated the PN Sequenceusing shift register 74164 and thus observed the output waveform.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a PN Sequence?
PN sequences or Pseudo Noise sequence is a periodic binary code which is random in nature
generated by the use of shift registers, but generated with taking into considerations some
generator polynomials.
2. What are the applications of a PN sequence?

They are used in spread spectrum systems, like CDMA, WCDMA, and Radar etc.
3. Properties of PN sequence?
1. The relative frequency of 0′s and 1′s are each ½
2. The run lengths of 0′s and 1′s are: ½ of all run lengths are of length 1; ¼ are of length 2;
1/8 are of length 3; and so on.
3. If a PN sequence is shifted by any non zero number of elements, the resulting sequence
will have an equal number of agreements and disagreements with respect to the original
sequence.
These properties are known also known as balance property, run property, and correlation
property respectively. This code is orthogonal in nature. PN sequence is also known as
Maximal Length Sequences.
4. What are the applications of the PN Sequence generaor?

These pn sequence generators are widely used in Cmos testing process as to generate
testpatterns.
And also used to generate spreading codes in CDMA,FDMA and PCM.
5. What are the advantages of PN Sequence generator?

The sequences generated by an LFSR can be nearly random with long periods, Which aids in
making thespread signal appear noiselike.
Easy of implementation.
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Output of lfsr is periodic.

For any given size of LFSR, a maximum of different unique m-sequences can be generated .
6. What are the disadvantages of generator?

Cross correlation properties are good for more than two users. That is why we go for
gold sequences.
7. What is a Gold sequence?

Gold sequences constructed by the XOR of two m-sequences with the same clocking.Codes
have well-defined cross correlation properties. Only simple circuitry needed to generate large
number of unique codes
8. Draw th block diagram of pn sequence generator?

The PN Sequence Generator block generates a sequence of pseudorandom binary numbers. A
pseudonoise sequence can be used in a pseudorandom scrambler and descrambler. It can also
be used in a direct-sequence spread-spectrum system.
The PN Sequence Generator block uses a shift register to generate sequences, as shown below.
9. what are the applications of PN sequence generator?

It is used for encryption.
10. What is CDMA?

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several protocols used in so-called
second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) wireless communications. As the term
implies, CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to occupy a single
transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. The technology is used in
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands.
11. What is spread spectrum?

Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic,
or acoustic signal) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency
domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety
of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to
natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g.
in satellite downlinks).
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12. What is FDMA?

-Meaning of FDMA - "Frequency Division Multiple Access", is the division of the frequency
band allocated for wireless cellular telephone communication into many channels, each of
which can carry a voice conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data. FDMA is a
basic technology in the analog Advanced Mobile Phone Service . With FDMA, each channel
can be assigned to only one user at a time.
13. What is balance property of PN sequence?

The relative frequency of 0′s and 1′s are each ½
14. What is run property of PN sequence?

The run lengths of 0′s and 1′s are: ½ of all run lengths are of length 1; ¼ are of length 2; 1/8
are of length 3; and so on.
15. What is correlation property of PN sequence?

If a PN sequence is shifted by any non zero number of elements, the resulting sequence will
have an equal number of agreements and disagreements with respect to the original sequence.
16. What is the another name for PN sequence?

PN sequence is also known as Maximal Length Sequences. This code is orthogonal in nature
Sample Questions
DESIGN AND SET UP A PN SEQUENCE GENERATOR BASED ON THE
POLYNOMIALS GIVEN BELOW AND VERIFY ALL THE PROPERTIES OF PN
SEQUENCE. A)1+X2+X5, B)1+X +X2 C)1+X+X6D) ANY PN SEQUENCE OF LENGTH ?
a) The given polynomial is 1+x2+x5,
therefore the sequence is 101001
Properties:
1)Balance property: number of ones is greater than the number of zeroes in the
sequence.here,the number of ones and zeros are equal.
2)Run property:
Total number of runs=(L+1)/2
=(6+1)/2=7/2
From the sequence,101001 there are 5 runs.1,0,1,00,1 are the runs in the sequence.
3)Autocorrelation property:
One period of the sequence :
{C0, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5} ={ 1,0,1,0,0,1}
R(τ) = ∑5𝑖=0 𝐶𝑖𝐶(𝑖 + 𝜏)𝑚𝑜𝑑 6
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DESIGN
A QA QB QC o/p
K map realization:
1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
1
then A = QAQC +QBQC
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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A QB QA PN sequence
Ans:1+x+x2
1 0 1 1
Q map design: A = QA + QB
1 1 0 0
QA
1 1 1 1 QB 0 1
1 1
0 1 1 1
0 1
VERIFICATION OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF PN SEQUENCE:

1)Balance property:
No of 0s=1
No of 1s=3
No of 1s is greater than no of 0s.Hence balance property is satisfied.
2)Run property:
L=4 sequence:1,0,11
One of the runs have length=2
Two of the runs length=1
Total run length=(L+1)÷2
Hence run property is satisfied
3)Auto correlation:
(C0,C1,C2,C3)=(1 0 1 1)
Let 0 be represented by +1V and 1 by -1V.
B y the equation of auto correlation,
R(0)=0.25(C02+C12+C22+C32)=0
R(1)=0.25(C0C1+C1C2+C2C3+C3C0)=0
R(2)=0.25(C0C2+C1C3+C0C2+C3C1)=0
R(3)=0.25(C0C3+C1C0+C1C2+C2C3)=0
Hence auto correlation is proved.
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Let us represent symbol 1 by -1 volts and symbol 0 by 1 volts

To compute R(0):
R(0)=1/6(12+12+ 12+12+ 12+12) =1
|To compute R(1):
Ci: 1 0 1 0 0 1
Ci+1 :0 1 0 0 1 1 ( Right shift the Ci by one)
R(1)=1/6(-1+-1+-1+1+-1+1)= -2/6 =-1/3
To compute R(2):
Ci: 1 0 1 0 0 1
Ci+2: 1 0 0 1 1 0 (Right shift the Ci by two indices)
R(2) =1/6(1+1+-1+-1+-1+-1)= -1/3
Similarly, R(3)=R(4)=R(5)= -1/3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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c) Let the given polynomial is 1+x+x6. The corresponding sequence is 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
A=QC
A QA QB QC O/P
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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Properties
1. Balance Property
In each period of a maximum length sequence ,the number of 1s is always more one by
number than the number of 0s.This property is called balance property.
Number of 1s=2n-1
Number of 0s=2n-1-1
In the given sequence
the number of 1s =3
the number of 0s =
2. Run Property
For an ML sequence generated by an n-stage linear feedback shift registers ,the total
number of runs is (L+1) /2 where L= 2n-1
In the given sequence this property is not satisfied .So we give circular shift to right and
get a new sequence. So the
total number of runs is
3. Autocorrelation Property
Let (C0,C1,C2……….CL-1) be an ML sequence of period L =2n-1,generated by an n-
stage linear feedback shift register.Then the normalized circular or cyclic
autocorrelation function of the sequence is defined as follows. L-1
Rc(T) =1/L ∑ Ci C(i+T) mod L where T=0,1,2
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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
SPREADER AND DESPREADER
AIM:-
To design and set up a circuit for spreading and despreading (the wave form) operations.
Digital trainer kit, function generator, CRO, IC 7486, IC 7404, IC 74164
THEORY:-
Spread spectrum is a technique by which a modulated waveform is modulated at second time
in such a way as to generate an expanded bandwidth wide signal that does not significantly
interface with other signals .One of the simplest form of spreader is an XOR operation or
modulo-2 adder.
Input message signal is XOR-ed with PN sequence and a spreader wave is obtained. This is at
transmitter side. At the receiver spreaded wave is again XOR-ed to get the original message
signal back. This is dispreading operation. The PN sequence should be used for this also.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Make the necessary connections as in figure for spreading and observe the waveform.
2. Make the connections for despreading the spectrum and observe the waveform.
3. A delay can be introduced in dispreading path if error occurs.
4. Note down the values.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
86
OBSERVATIONS:
WAVEFORMS:-
RESULT:-
Designed and set up circuit for spreading and dispreading operation and observe the output.
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VIVA QUESTIONS
1.What is spread spectrum?

Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic,
or acoustic signal) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency
domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. Spread spectrum is a form of wireless
communications in which the frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied. This
results in a much greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its frequency were not
varied.
2.What is frequency hopping?

Most spread-spectrum signals use a digital scheme called frequency hopping. The transmitter
frequency changes abruptly, many times each second. Between "hops," the transmitter
frequency is stable. The length of time that the transmitter remains on a given frequency
between "hops" is known as the dwell time. A few spread-spectrum circuits employ continuous
frequency variation, which is an analog scheme. Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency
channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized
as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-
CDMA) scheme.
3.What are the advantages of spread spectrum?

A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency
transmission:
a. Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The process of re-
collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the
background.
b. Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appears as an
increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be
able to intercept the transmission if the pseudorandom sequence was known.
c. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of conventional
transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the
narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more
efficiently.
4. Explain slow frequency hopping?

Slow frequency hopping in which symbol rate R of the MFSK signal is an integer multiple
of hope rate Rh. Several symbols are transmitted on each frequency hop.
5. Explain fast frequency hopping?

Fast frequency hopping in which Rh is an integer multiple of the MSFK symbol rate Rs (ie)
Carrier frequency will change or hop several time during transmission of one symbol.
6.What is MC-CDMA ?
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Multi-Carrier Code Division Multiple Access (MC-CDMA) is a multiple access scheme used
in OFDM-based telecommunication systems, allowing the system to support multiple users at
the same time.
7. What are the different types of spread spectams?

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-
hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these
techniques are forms of spread spectrum.
8. What is chirp spread spectrum ?

In digital communications, chirp spread spectrum (CSS) is a spread spectrum technique that
uses wideband linear frequency modulated chirp pulses to encode information A chirp is a
sinusoidal signal whose frequency increases or decreases over time (often with a polynomial
expression for the relationship between time and frequency).
9. What is Time-hopping?
Time-hopping (TH) is a communications signal technique which can be used to achieve anti-
jamming (AJ) or low probability of intercept (LPI). It can also refer to pulse-position
modulation, which in its simplest form employs 2k discrete pulses (referring to the unique
positions of the pulse within the transmission window) to transmit k bit(s) per pulse. To
achieve LPI, the transmission time is changed randomly by varying the period and duty cycle
of the pulse (carrier) using a pseudo-random sequence. The transmitted signal will then have
intermittent start and stop times. Although often used to form hybrid spread-spectrum (SS)
systems, TH is strictly speaking a non-SS technique. Spreading of the spectrum is caused by
other factors associated with TH, such as using pulses with low duty cycle having a wide
frequency response. An example of hybrid SS is TH-FHSS or hybrid TDMA (time division
multiple access).
10. What is Ultra Wide Band?

Ultra wideband (also known as UWB or as digital pulse wireless) is a wireless technology for
transmitting large amounts of digital data over a wide spectrum of frequency bands with very
low power for a short distance. Ultra wideband radio not only can carry a huge amount of data
over a distance up to 230 feet at very low power (less than 0.5 milliwatts), but has the ability to
carry signals through doors and other obstacles that tend to reflect signals at more limited
bandwidths and a higher power. Ultra wideband can be compared with another short-distance
wireless technology, Bluetooth, which is a standard for connecting handheld wireless devices
with other similar devices and with desktop computers.
11. What Are the two main types of application of Ultra wideband ?
1- Applications involving radar, in which the signal penetrates nearby surfaces but reflects
surfaces that are farther away, allowing objects to be detected behind walls or other coverings.
2- Voice and data transmission using digital pulses, allowing a very low powered and
relatively low cost signal to carry information at very high rates within a restricted range.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4
STUDY OF MANCHESTER CODING AND DECODING
AIM:-
To about Manchester coding and decoding using PN sequence.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED :-
ICs 74164, 7486, resistor 1K, op-amp, BY 126
THEORY:-
In this method a symbol 1 is represented by a zero pulse followed by a +5V pulse width
half symbol width. A symbol 0 is represented by a + 5V pulse followed by a zero pulse both
the pulse being half symbol width.
For symbol 1, x(t) = +A for 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb/2

-A for Tb/2 ≤ t ≤ Tb
For symbol 0, x(t) = -A for 0 ≤ t < Tb/2

+A for Tb/2 ≤ t < Tb
Where Tb is the clock pulse width.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Make the connections of Manchester coding as shown in fig.
2. Connect clock input to mono pulses and PN Sequence.
3. With each clock pulse, output corresponding to each sequence is obtained.
4. Note down the values.
5. Connect the circuit manchester decoder as shown in fig.
Decode the input sequence as given
.Note down the values.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
91
WAVEFORMS:-
RESULT :-
Studied the Manchester coding and decoding using PN Sequence.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Manchester Coding?

In telecommunication and data storage, Manchester coding (also known as Phase
Encoding, or PE) is a line code in which the encoding of each data bit has at least one
transition and occupies the same time. It therefore has no DC component, and is self-clocking,
which means that it may be inductively or capacitively coupled, and that a clock signal can be
recovered from the encoded data. As a result, electrical connections using a Manchester code
are easily galvanically isolated using a network isolator—a simple one-to-one isolation
transformer.
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2. What is PE Coding?
In Phase Encoding each bit is transmitted in a fixed time (the "period").A 0 is expressed by a
low-to-high transition, a 1 by high-to-low transition (according to G.E. Thomas' convention --
in the IEEE 802.3 convention, the reverse is true). The transitions which signify 0 or 1 occur at
the midpoint of a period. Transitions at the start of a period are overhead and don't signify data.
3. What is NRZ?
NRZ is one of the most basic of coding schemes. In this method the message signal
does Not Return to Zero after each bit frame. This means that the message exactly follows the
digital
data structure. For example, a long data string of “1”s will produce a long high period in the
message signal. Transitions only occur in the message when there is a logical bit change
This is a very easy method to implement on the encoding side but requires the data rate to be
known exactly on the receiving side in order to be decoded. Any mismatch in data clock
timings will result in erroneous data that is only detectable with some error detection such as a
checksum or CRC. Also errors from the communication channel or interference will not be
detected without some form of data integrity checks.
4. what is line coding?

The waveform pattern of voltage or current used to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital data on
a transmission link is called line encoding. Line coding consists of representing the digital
signal to be transported by an amplitude- and time-discrete signal that is optimally tuned for
the specific properties of the physical channel.
5. What are the common types of line coding?

The common types of line encoding are unipolar, polar, bipolar, and Manchester encoding.
6. What is Hamming code ?

Hamming codes are a family of linear error-correcting codes that generalize the
Hamming(7,4)-code invented by Richard Hamming in 1950. Hamming codes can detect up to
two-bit errors or correct one-bit errors without detection of uncorrected errors. By contrast, the
simple parity code cannot correct errors, and can detect only an odd number of bits in error.
Hamming codes are perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest possible rate for codes with
their block length and minimum distance .
7 . What is Frequency-shift keying (FSK)?

It is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through
discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.[1] The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).
BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.[2] With
this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency. The
time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated in the figures to the right.
8. IN Manchester decoding logic 0 and 1 indicates for what?

In the Manchester encoding shown, a logic 0 is indicated by a 0 to 1 transition at the centre of
the bit and a logic 1 is indicated by a 1 to 0 transition at the centre of the bit. Note that signal
transitions do not always occur at the ‘bit boundaries’ (the division between one bit and
another), but that there is always a transition at the centre of each bit. The Manchester
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encoding rules are summarised below:

Original Data Value Sent
Logic 0 0 to 1 (upward transition at bit centre)
Logic 1 1 to 0 (downward transition at bit centre)
9. What is Unipolar encoding . ?
Unipolar encoding is a line code. A positive voltage represents a binary 1, and zero volts
indicates a binary 0. It is the simplest line code, directly encoding the bitstream, and is
analogous to on-off keying in modulation.
10. what is bipolar encoding .?

Bipolar encoding is a type of line code, where two nonzero values are used, so that the three
values are +,-, and zero. Such a signal is called a duobinary signal. Bipolar encoding typically
has at least a rough a balance of +'s and -'s.
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EXPERIMENT NO.5
STUDY OF VOICE CODING AND CODEC CHIP
AIM:-
Study of voice communication through Fiber Optic cable using amplitude modulation
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:-:
1. ST2502 techbook with power supply cord
2. Optical Fiber cable
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe
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PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the power supply cord to the main power plug & to techbook ST2502.
2. Make the following connections as shown in figure 15.1.
a. Connect the FG output marked 1 KHz sine wave to input if emitter 1.
b. Plug in a fiber optic link from output of emitter 1 LED to the photo
transistor of the detector 1.
c. Detector 1 output TP 10 to input of Amplifier TP 27.
d. In the emitter 1 block switch the mode select to analog.
e. Turn the 1 KHz preset in function generator block to fully clockwise
(maximum amplitude) position.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply of the techbook and oscilloscope.
4. With the help of dual trace oscilloscope observe the input signal at emitter 1 TP
5 also; observe the output from the detector 1. It should carry a smaller version
of the original 1 KHz sine wave, illustrating that the modulated light beam has
been reconverted back into an electrical signal.
5. The output from detector 1 is further amplified by AC amplifier 1. This
amplifier increases the amplitude of the received signal, and also removes the
DC component, which is present at detector output. Monitor the output of
amplifier 1 TP28 and adjust the gain adjust 1 preset until the monitored signal
has same amplitude as that applied to emitter 1 Input TP 5 .
6. While monitoring the output of Amplifier 1 TP 28 change the amplitude of
modulating sine wave by varying the 1 KHz preset in the function generator
block. Note that as expected, the amplitude of the receiver output signal
changes.
7. Disconnect the emitter 1's input to 1 KHz sine wave socket.
8. Make the following additional connections (as shown in figure 15.1).
9. Audio input block's input to microphone.
10. Connect the output of audio input block to emitter l's input.
11. AC Amplifier's output to input of audio output block.
12. Observe that same audio output is available on the speaker as fed to the
microphone.
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STUDY OF PCM VOICE CODING AND CODEC FREQUENCY RESPONSE.
AIM:- The aim of this experiment is to study the linearizized A-Law PCM cosing. The analog and
digital conversion as well as the reverse process and the filtering characteristics of the CODEC chip
145502 used in the OFC kit.
THEORY:-
Present techniques of voice communication use standards such as A-Law / U- law companded PCM
voice coding at 64kbits/sec. When the analog speech signal is converted to pulse code modulation, it
first is filtered using a low pass filter with a cut-off at about 3.4KHz. The analog signal is sampled at
8kHz as per the Nyquist Criteria. Each sample is quantized and coded into eight bits per sample.
Voice signal has a varying amplitude range that varies from one conversion to another. If the
quantization levels are uniformly spaced then it certainly creates problems such as.,
1. If the amplitude of the signal is small, quantization levels have to be closely spaced. This
gives proper resolution.
2. If the signal amplitudes are large then this fine resolution will result in increasing the no of
code bits.
3. Normally, unequal spacing of quantization levels are used.
The digital data output is in PCM form. The codec chip used exhibits both A-law and U-law
companding techniques.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
PROCEDURE:-1. Make connections as shown in the block diagram.
2. Voice communication can be carried out between the two kits using telephone handsets.
3. We can observe the effects of the voice at various test points.
4. Keep SW6 towards SINE IN position.
5. Feed a sinusoidal signal of 1kHz 2vP-P to SINE 1 & SINE 2 input terminals.
6. This gives an analog input to both the CODEC chips.
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WAVEFORMS
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is speech coding?

Speech coding is an application of data compression of digital audio signals containing speech.
Speech coding uses speech-specific parameter estimation using audio signal processing
98
techniques to model the speech signal, combined with generic data compression algorithms to
represent the resulting modeled parameters in a compact bit stream.
2. What is the two most important applications of speech coding?

Mobile telephony and Voice over IP.
3. What is the most common speech coding scheme?

Code Excited Linear Prediction (CELP) coding
4. What are the two free software speech coders?

Opus and codec2
5. What are the two main fields of speech coding?

Wide-band speech coding
Narrow-band speech coding
6. Subfields of Wide-band speech coding

AMR-WB for WCDMA networks
VMR-WB for CDMA2000 networks
G.722, G.722.1, Speex, IP-MR and others for VoIP and videoconferencing
7. Subfields of Narrow-band speech coding

FNBDT for military applications
SMV for CDMA networks
Full Rate, Half Rate, EFR, AMR for GSM networks
G.723.1, G.726, G.728, G.729, iLBC and others for VoIP or videoconferencing
8. What is the range of voice band frequency?

300 Hz to 3400 Hz
9. What is the bandwidth of voice frequency transmission channel?

4 kHz
10. Explain briefly about Codec IC chips?

Codec IC chips are used to encode and decode or compress and decompress various types of
data, particularly when bulk storage is required. Codec is an abbreviation for coder-decoder or
compressor/decompressor. The input voltage of amount 1.42 volt is fed to codec chips. The
input signal in the form of assembly language is interpreted by the programmable logic of the
codec chips in high-level language. The high-level language is understandable by the central
processing unit of the codec IC chips and then it performs operations based on the input signals
received by the central processing unit.
11. What are the commonly used codec IC chips?

There are many different types of codec chips. Examples include a WM8731 audio codec chip,
ADV202 video codec chip, MP3 codec chip, and a WMV codec chip. A WM8731 audio codec
chip is designed for use in portable digital audio sets. A WM8731 audio chip works on a
software algorithm that requires less power and uses high quality audio codec integration
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12. How do Codec ICs Work?

There are several ways in which codec chips function. Codec IC chips work by receiving
signals in the form of assembly language and then interpreting it into high-level language. The
operations are then performed on the basis of received input signals. A WM8731 audio codec
chip requires resistance power ranging from 50mW on 16Ohms and supply voltage of range
from 1.42 to 3.6 volts. A WM8731 audio codec chip also requires a sampling frequency
ranging from 8 to 96 KHz. An ADV202 video codec chip operates in the temperature range of
-40 to 85 ºC and requires a 2.5 to 3.3 volt of power supply. An MP3 codec chip uses 4K *
20bit program code. The flash memory of an MP3 codec chip requires 2.7 to 3.3 volts supply
for its operation. A WMV codec chip requires an operating voltage of 2.5 volts and power of
40mW. Codec chips are designed and manufactured to meet most industry specifications.
13. How are Codec ICs Used?

Codec IC chips are used in many applications. Codec IC chips are used in personal computers
and home theaters. In addition, codec chips are also used in the movie industry, consumer
audio sets, and automobiles. The H.323 standard standardized the transfer of conferencing data
on a network. Codec IC chips should adhere to the H.323 standard., within part of the audio
range, that is used for the transmission of speech.In telephony, the usable voice frequency band
ranges from approximately 300 Hz to 3400 Hz. It is for this reason that the ultra low frequency
band of the electromagnetic spectrum between 300 and 3000 Hz is also referred to as voice
frequency, being the electromagnetic energy that represents acoustic energy at baseband. The
bandwidth allocated for a single voice-frequency transmission channel is usually 4 kHz,
including guard bands, allowing a sampling rate of 8 kHz to be used as the basis of the pulse
code modulation system used for the digital PSTN. Per the Nyquist–Shannon sampling
theorem, the sampling frequency (8kHz) must be at least twice the voice frequency (4kHz) for
effective reconstruction of the voice signal.
14.What is Psychoacoustics ?
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch
of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound
(including speech and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics.
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S 7 Microwave

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ECE Department, VAST Communication Systems Lab

FAMILIARAZATION OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

Set up for microwave measurement

Slotted line Carriage

Tunable Probe Detector Tunable Waveguide Detector

Waveguide short-circuit termination

Detector Diode Mounts

is to provide short-circuit by changing reactance of the terminations. Typical short-circuit

Detector Diode Mounts

1.Explain the microwave test bench with its components?

measured using vernier scale.

2. What you mean by tunable detector?

3. What is ment by matched termination?

4. Where the detector is mounted?

5. How the length of the cavity is changed in Frequency meter?

6. What is the function of variable attenuator?

7. The main component of variable attenuator is?

8. What do you mean by Isolator?

9. Diffferent modes of propagation and what is TE01?

10. What is TWT?

11. Frequency range of the TWT?

12. Uses of TWT amplifiers.

REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

237 0.6 8.941

Mode1 221 0.4 8.92

218 0.2 8.914

155 0.4 8.947

145 0.7 8.932

133 0.32 8.916

7. Explain the applications of klystron?

8. Explain the advantage of klystron amplifiers?

9. What is the efficiency of a reflex klystron?

10. What is multi cavity klystron?

12. What is the operating principle of reflex klystron?

13. Give the drawbacks of klystron amplifiers.

14. What is mechanical tuning and electronic tuning in a reflex klystron?

Variation in frequency of resonance of cavity by varying its dimension by a mechanical

15. How does bunching occur in a reflex klystron?

17. Why do different modes of operation exist for a reflex klystron?

18. What modes are generally used in a reflex klystron?

20. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the reflex klystron?

MEASUREMENTOF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

By substituting the values of m and n, we get,

1. How do you measure the frequency from a frequency meter?

3. At what condition do we find no oscillation to occur in a reflex klystron?

4. What are frequency meters?

5. When is dip detected?

6. How are wavelength measured?

7. How do you measure wavelength in a compression wave?

8. What is the units of measure for wavelength?

9. What is frequency and how is it measured?

10. How is a sound's frequency measured?

11. What is the frequency of waves measure in?

VSWR Measurement Setup

2. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.

1. Explain matched loads?

2. What is the use of matched load?

3. What is the function of variable attenuator?

4. What is meant by VSWR?

5. What is meant by reflection coefficient?

6. What are short circuit terminations?

7 . What is meant by VSWR? Tell its significance ?

8 . What is the ideal value of VSWR?