Unit :3

Microwave Measurements
Sathyabama Institute of Science and
Technology
Department of ECE

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 Syllabus
MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Microwave Bench general measurement set up,
Measurement Devices and instrumentation:
Slotted line, VSWR meter, power meter,
spectrum analyzer, Network analyzer,
Measurement of frequency, impedance,
Attenuation, power and dielectric constant,
measurement of VSWR, insertion loss ,EMI /
EMC basics and measurement methods. The
FCC and NTIA licensing process, Multi GBPS
data communication and system requirements
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• Among the Microwave measurement devices, a setup of
Microwave bench, which consists of Microwave devices
has a prominent place.
• This whole setup, with few alternations, is able to
measure many values like guide wavelength, free space
wavelength, cut-off wavelength, impedance, frequency,
VSWR, Klystron characteristics, Gunn diode characteristics,
power measurements, etc.
• The output produced by microwaves, in determining
power is generally of a little value.
• They vary with the position in a transmission line.
• There should be an equipment to measure the Microwave
power, which in general will be a Microwave bench setup.
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Microwave Bench General Measurement Setup

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Signal Generator
 As the name implies, it generates a microwave signal, in the order of a few
milliwatts.
 This uses velocity modulation technique to transfer continuous wave beam
into milliwatt power.
 A Gunn diode oscillator or a Reflex Klystron tube could be an example for this
microwave signal generator.

Precision Attenuator
 This is the attenuator which selects the desired frequency and confines the
output around 0 to 50db.
 This is variable and can be adjusted according to the requirement.

Variable Attenuator
 This attenuator sets the amount of attenuation. It can be understood as a fine
adjustment of values, where the readings are checked against the values of
Precision Attenuator.
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Isolator
 This removes the signal that is not required to reach the detector
mount.
 Isolator allows the signal to pass through the waveguide only in one
direction.
Frequency Meter
 This is the device which measures the frequency of the signal. With
this frequency meter, the signal can be adjusted to its resonance
frequency.
 It also gives provision to couple the signal to waveguide.
Crystal Detector
 A crystal detector probe and crystal detector mount are indicated in
the above figure, where the detector is connected through a probe to
the mount.
 This is used to demodulate the signals.
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 Slotted Line

• In a microwave transmission line or waveguide, the

electromagnetic field is considered as the sum of incident
wave from the generator and the reflected wave to the
generator.
• The reflections indicate a mismatch or a discontinuity. The
magnitude and phase of the reflected wave depends upon the
amplitude and phase of the reflecting impedance.
• The standing waves obtained are measured to know the
transmission line imperfections which is necessary to have a
knowledge on impedance mismatch for effective transmission.
• This slotted line helps in measuring the standing wave ratio of
a microwave device.

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 Construction of slotted line
• The slotted line consists of a slotted section of a transmission
line, where the measurement has to be done.
• It has a travelling probe carriage, to let the probe get
connected wherever necessary, and the facility for attaching
and detecting the instrument.
• In a waveguide, a slot is made at the center of the broad side,
axially.
• A movable probe connected to a crystal detector is inserted
into the slot of the waveguide.

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 Operation of slotted line
• The output of the crystal detector is proportional to the
square of the input voltage applied.
• The movable probe permits convenient and accurate
measurement at its position.
• But, as the probe is moved along, its output is proportional to
the standing wave pattern, which is formed inside the
waveguide.
• A variable attenuator is employed here to obtain accurate
results.
• The output VSWR can be obtained by

Where, V is the output voltage.

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 Different parts of slotted line

1.Launcher –invites the signal, 7.Tuning adjustments-To obtain accuracy

2.smaller section of waveguide,
3.Isolator-prevents reflections to the
source,
4.Rotary variable attenuator-for fine
adjustments,
5.Slotted section-To measure the signal,
6.probe depth adjustment,
8.Crystal detector-detects the signal,
9.matched load-absorbs the power exited,
10.short circuit-Provision to get replaced by a load,
11. Rotary knob-to adjust while measuring,
12.Vernier gauge-For accurate results
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 In order to obtain a low frequency modulated signal on an
oscilloscope, a slotted line with a tunable detector is
employed.
 A slotted line carriage with a tunable detector can be used to
measure the following.
-VSWR
-Standing wave pattern
-Impedance
-Reflection coefficient
-Return loss
-Frequency of the generator used

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 Tunable Detector
The tunable detector is a detector mount which is
used to detect the low frequency square wave
modulated microwave signals.
Figure shows a tunable detector mount.

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• In the field of Microwave engineering, there
occurs many applications.
• Hence, while using different applications, we
often come across the need of measuring
different values such as Power, Attenuation,
Phase shift, VSWR, Impedance, etc. for the
effective usage.
• let us take a look at the different
measurement techniques.

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 Measurement of Power
 The Microwave Power measured is the average power at
any position in waveguide.
 Power measurement can be of three types.
 Measurement of Low power
- 0.01mWto10mW0.01mWto10mW
-Example − Bolometric technique
 Measurement of Medium power
-10mWto1W10mWto1W
- Example − Calorimeter technique
 Measurement of High power
- >10W>10W
Example − Calorimeter Watt meter
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 Measurement of Low Power
 The measurement of Microwave power around 0.01mW to 10mW, can be
understood as the measurement of low power.
 Bolometer is a device which is used for low Microwave power
measurements.
 The element used in bolometer could be of positive or negative
temperature coefficient.
 For example, a barrater has a positive temperature coefficient whose
resistance increases with the increase in temperature.
 Thermistor has negative temperature coefficient whose resistance
decreases with the increase in temperature.
 Any of them can be used in the bolometer, but the change in resistance is
proportional to Microwave power applied for measurement.
 This bolometer is used in a bridge of the arms as one so that any
imbalance caused, affects the output.
 A typical example of a bridge circuit using a bolometer is as shown in the
following figure.
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 The milliammeter here,
gives the value of the
current flowing.
 The battery is variable,
which is varied to obtain
balance, when an
imbalance is caused by the
behavior of the bolometer.
 This adjustment which is
made in DC battery
voltage is proportional to
the Microwave power.
 The power handling
capacity of this circuit is
limited.
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 Measurement of Medium Power
• The measurement of Microwave power around 10mW to
1W, can be understood as the measurement of medium
power.
• A special load is employed, which usually maintains a certain
value of specific heat.
• The power to be measured, is applied at its input which
proportionally changes the output temperature of the load
that it already maintains.
• The difference in temperature rise, specifies the input
Microwave power to the load.
• The bridge balance technique is used here to get the output.
• The heat transfer method is used for the measurement of
power, which is a Calorimetric technique.

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 Measurement of High Power

 The measurement of Microwave power around 10W to 50KW,

can be understood as the measurement of high power
 The High Microwave power is normally measured by Calorimetric
watt meters, which can be of dry and flow type.
 The dry type is named so as it uses a coaxial cable which is filled
with di-electric of high hysteresis loss, whereas the flow type is
named so as it uses water or oil or some liquid which is a good
absorber of microwaves.
 The change in temperature of the liquid before and after entering
the load, is taken for the calibration of values.
 The limitations in this method are like flow determination,
calibration and thermal inertia, etc.
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 VSWR meter
 The standing wave ratio meter, SWR meter, ISWR
meter (current "I" SWR), or VSWR meter (voltage SWR)
measures the standing wave ratio (SWR) in
a transmission line
 The meter indirectly measures the degree of mismatch
between a transmission line and its load (usually
an antenna).
 Electronics technicians use it to adjust radio
transmitters and their antennas and feed lines to
be impedance matched so they work together properly,
and evaluate the effectiveness of other impedance
matching efforts.
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 SWR meter helps to determine how much of
radiofrequency energy is reflected back to the
transmitter compared to the amount of RF energy
that is been sent out during operation.
 This ratio should not be high and the ideal rating is
1:1 such that the power reached the destination and
reflects no power.
 The meter that is used to measure SWR is known as
SWR meter.
 ISWR meter can measure current SWR and VSWR can
measure voltage SWR.

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 The ratio of the maximum radio-frequency
voltage to the minimum radio frequency
voltage along the transmission line is known
as Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).
 When SWR is recognized in terms of maximum
and minimum AC voltage along the
transmission lines, it is known as voltage
SWR.
 The ratio of the maximum RF current to the
minimum RF current on the transmission line
is known as current SWR.
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 Standing waves are known as stationary waves in
physics. Such waves oscillate in time, but the amplitude
does not move. Amplitude remains constant with time.
 In microwave engineering and telecommunications, the
measure of impedance matching of loads to the
impedance of a transmission line is known as SWR.
 When there is a mismatch in the impedance, it results in
standing waves along the transmission line, which
increases the transmission line losses.
 SWR is generally used to measure the efficiency of a
communication line. This line can include other cables
that allow radio frequency signals and TV cable signals.

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 Directional SWR meter
• A directional SWR meter
measures the magnitude of
the forward and reflected
waves by sensing each one
individually, with directional
couplers.
• A calculation then produces
the SWR.
• Referring to the diagram,
the transmitter (TX) and
antenna (ANT) terminals
connect via an internal
transmission line
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 This main line is electromagnetically
coupled to two smaller sense lines
(directional couplers).
 These are terminated with resistors at one
end and diode rectifiers at the other.
 The resistors match the
characteristic impedance of the sense
lines.
 The diodes convert the magnitudes of the
forward and reverse waves to the
terminals FWD and REV, respectively, as
DC voltages, which are smoothed by the
capacitors.
 It will be seen that the configuration of the
two couplers is subtly different - one has
the resistor at one end,
 whereas the other has the resistor at the
other. This is to enable the power in
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different directions to be monitored.
 Interior view of an SWR meter

 The three parallel coupled lines are visible.

Diodes, Capacitors and termination resistors
are mounted at the ends of the sense lines.
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The SWR bridge uses very few components
 Resistors: The two resistors R are chosen to provide
the required load for the bridge element of the coupler.
 Diodes: These are small signal types. Germanium or
Schottky diodes are best as they have a small turn on
voltage and are suitable for small signals.
 Meter: The absolute value is not defined, but it must
have a suitably high sensitivity. Meters with 100µA full
scale deflection are what is normally used.
 Directional coupler lines: There are several ways of
creating the coupler lines. The most common way is
probably to use a printed circuit board and to run the
main match 50Ω line on the PCB with a ground plane on
the other side. 31
 SWR Bridge Circuit

 SWR can also be measured using an impedance bridge.

 The bridge is balanced (0 Volts across the detector) only
when the test impedance exactly matches the reference
impedance.
 When a transmission line is mismatched (SWR > 1:1), its
input impedance deviates from its characteristic
impedance;
 Thus, a bridge can be used to determine the presence or
absence of a low SWR.

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SWR Reflectometer Bridge circuit

Internal view of SWR bridge showing

the PCB and coupler lines

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 To test for a match, the reference impedance of the
bridge is set to the expected load impedance (for
example, 50 Ohms), and the transmission line
connected as the unknown impedance.
 RF power is applied to the circuit.
 The voltage at the line input represents the vector
sum of the forward wave, and the wave reflected
from the load
 If we know the characteristic impedance of the line is
50 Ohms, we know the magnitude and phase of the
forward wave. It's the same wave which is present on
the other side of the detector.
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 Subtracting this known wave from the wave at
the line input yields the reflected wave.
Properly designed, a bridge circuit can not
only indicate a match, but the degree of
mismatch – making it possible to calculate the
SWR.
 This usually involves alternately connecting
the reference wave and the reflected wave to
a power meter, and comparing the
magnitudes of the resulting deflections.

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 Spectrum Analyzer

 A Spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input

signal Versus frequency within the full frequency range of
the instrument
 It Usually display raw, unprocessed signal information
such as voltage, Power, period Waveshape, sidebands and
frequency.
 It can provide a clear and precise window in to the
frequency spectrum 36
 Spectrum Analyzer Versus Oscilloscope

Spectrum Analyzer Oscilloscope

Spectrum analyzer gives amplitude v/s An Oscilloscope give amplitude v/s time display of
frequency display a wave

It displays frequency components of a wave It gives distribution of energy in wave with respect
and their amplitudes(a spectrum to time(an oscilloscope displays a signal with
analyzer shows it with respect to frequency) respect to time)

To observe the frequency properties of a An oscilloscope is used to find the relative time
signal, a spectrum analyzer is required. delay between two signals

A spectrum analyzer can measure and An oscilloscopes can only directly measure voltage,
display signals with analog modulation, such not current. One way to measure AC current with
as amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency an oscilloscope is to measure the voltage dropped
modulation (FM). across a shunt resistor. ..
The primary use is to measure the power of The primary function of an oscilloscope is to
the spectrum of known and unknown signals. measure voltage waves
The spectrum analyzer is more accurate

The Spectrum Analyzer plots the Amplitude The oscilloscope plots the Amplitude vs. Time of
vs. Frequency of the signal. the signal,
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 Types of Spectrum Analyzers
 Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
 Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer
Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called filter
bank spectrum analyzer or real time spectrum analyzer because it shows any
variations in all input frequencies, below block diagram shows this,

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 Working of Filter bank spectrum analyzer
 It has set of BPF and each one is
designed for allowing a specific
band of frequencies.
 The output of each band pass
filter is given to a corresponding
detector
 All the detector outputs are
connected to electronic switch
 This switch allows the detector
sequentially to the vertical
deflection plate of CRO,SO,
 CRO displays the frequency
spectrum of AF signal on its CRT
screen 39
 Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer
The spectrum analyzer used for analyzing the signals are of RF range is
called Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer, below block diagram shows
it,

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 Working of Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer

 The RF signal ,which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator.

 If the signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator
Low pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less than the cut-off
frequency
 Mixer gets the inputs from LPF and voltage tuned Oscillator.
 It produces an output, which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are
applied
 The amplified IF signal is applied to detector.
 The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO, So CRO displays the
frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen
 So it is chosed to a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of the
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signal that is to be analyzed.
 Network Analyzer

 A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network

parameters of electrical networks.
 Network analyzers commonly measure
s–parameters because reflection and transmission of electrical
networks are easy to measure at high frequencies.
 Network analyzers are often used to characterize two-port
networks such as amplifiers and filters, but they can be used on
networks with an arbitrary number of ports.
 Network analyzers are used mostly at high frequencies, operating
frequencies can range from 1 Hz to 1.5 THz. 42
 Concept of vector network analyzer

 The vector network analyzer utilizes the concept of measuring the

transmitted and reflected waves as a signal passes through a device
under test.
 Measuring the transmitted and reflected signals across the band of
interest, and often beyond, enables the characteristics of a device to
be determined.
 If both transmitted and reflected signals are used to characterize the
input and also the output then the device can be fully characterized.
 This can form a key part of any design or test for an RF circuit. 43
 Types of Network Analyzer
 ScalarNetworkAnalyzer (SNA)
—measures signal amplitude
properties only, its accuracy is
scalar error correction only
 VectorNetworkAnalyzer (VNA)
—measures both signal
amplitude and phase
properties, its accuracy
elaborate vector error
correction

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 Spectrum Analyzer Versus Network Analyzer
Spectrum Analyzer
Measure signal amplitude characteristics,
carrier level, sidebands, harmonics
Can demodulate and measure complex
signals
Spectrum analyzers are receivers only(single
channel
Can be used for scalar component test
(amplitude only) with tracking or external
source
Network Analyzer
Measure response of components, devices
circuits, sub assembles to applied stimulus
Contain sources and receivers
Display ratioed amplitude and
phase(frequency, power or time sweeps)
Offers advanced error correction for high
accuracy measurements
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 Difference between RF network analyzers and
spectrum analyzers
Spectrum analyzers RF network analyzers

• A spectrum analyzer is • A network analyzer, on the other

intended for analyzing the hand generates a signal and uses
nature of signals that are fed this to analyze a network or
device
into them.
• RF Network analyzers are used to
• spectrum analyzers are
measure components, devices,
normally used to measure the
circuits, and sub-assemblies.
characteristics of a signal
• The network analyzer is used to
rather than a device
measure the reflection, insertion
• The spectrum analyzer is used loss, S parameters, and
to measure carrier power transmission and return loss
level, noise harmonics, etc

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• On the opposite end,
spectrum analyzers
measure the parameters of
a signal and not a device.
• They are commonly
configured without a power and frequency.
source. Spectrum Analyzers
are also more flexible in
terms of their IF bandwidths
to allow a complete range
of signal analysis.
• Network analyzers consist
of multiple receivers plus a
source-receiver that
measures the broadband
frequency by sweeping
• It seeks a known
signal/frequency of a device
output and, using vector-
correction, gives a more
precise measurement than
the spectrum analyzer.
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 Architecture of Network Analyzer
• The basic architecture of a network
analyzer involves a signal generator, a
test set, one or more receivers and
display.
• Most VNAs have two test ports,
permitting measurement of four S-
parameters(s11,s12,s21,s22)but instruments
with more than two ports are available
commercially.
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 Vector network analyzer block diagram

 The diagram shows the very basic

blocks of the VNA including the
signal ports, the signal separation
blocks, the receiver detector, and
finally the processor and display.
 The VNA has precision
connectors on the front panel of
the unit itself and then precision
cables are used to connect these
to the device under test.
 Precision cables are required
because the phase and loss of a
standard cable would vary too
much with even slight
movement, etc.
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 Vector network analyzer block diagram
 To test the device, a variable frequency signal
is generated within the vector network
analyzer and the output is switched to test the
DUT in either one direction or the other.
 In this case the left hand side on the diagram
is selected.
 The signal passes to the splitter where one
output is used as the reference signal for the
receiver and the other side is passed to a
direction coupler and then into the DUT via
the external connection on the VNA and the
precision cables.
 Power passes through the directional coupler
(directional coupler 1) to the DUT, but the
third port detects the reflected power and this
is connected to the receiver again.
 Power that passes through the device under
test is sampled by directional coupler 2 and
this signal is connected to the receiver. 50
 Apart from generating a signal to power the device
under test, the signal source also has an output that
is connected to the receiver.
 This enables phase information to be gained from the
detected signals.
 The signals are processed by the receiver are then
fed to the processor and display.
 This section will again make heavy use of
microprocessor technology to provide the control,
functionality and user friendly displays that are
needed for modern test instrumentation.

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Block diagram of Scalar Network Analyzer

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Measurement of wavelength and Frequency

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 Procedure
 Switch on the klystron power supply and VSWR meter
 Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter
 Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control
knob of power supply
 Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum deflection
 Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter
 Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the VSWR scale and
note down the frequency directly from the frequency meter
 Replace the termination with movable short and detune the
frequency meter
 Move probe along with the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR
meter will vary,move the probe to a minimum deflection position, to
get accurate reading; it is necessary to increase the VSWR meter
range dB switch to higher position.
 Note and record the position 54
 Calculation

Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe
position again
Calculate the guided wavelength as twice the distance between two
successive minimum positions obtained as above
Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension ‘a’ which will be
around 2.286 cm for X-band waveguide.
Calculate the frequency by following equation
f==c+
𝞴c =2a

8
Where C=3X 10

-meter/sec is velocity of light in free space

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 Measurement of Attenuation
 Microwave Attenuation
Attenuation is a measure of the reduction in power level experienced by a
signal as it passes through a circuit.
 In engineering, attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length
of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc.) and is represented by the attenuation coefficient
of the medium.
 In practice, Microwave components and devices often provide some attenuation.
The amount of attenuation offered can be measured in two ways. They are −
Power ratio method and RF substitution method.
 Attenuation is the ratio of input power to the output power and is normally
expressed in decibels.
 Attenuation in dBs=10 log
 To measure the frequency of a microwave signal, the Resonant
Cavity Frequency Meter is tuned until it resonates at the signal frequency. If a
SWR meter is used as the indicator, resonance will reflect as a decrease (dip) in
the signal level due to the storage of energy in the cavity at resonance.

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Power Ratio Method

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RF Substitution Method

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Measurement of Impedance

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Impedance measurement Using Slotted line

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Measurement of Impedance using Reflectometer

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 Measurement of Dielectric Constant

Various methods are used to measure the dielectric constant

of a material
Waveguide Method
This method is used to measure the dielectric constant of a lossless or
very low loss solid dielectric material that completely fills a length of
a waveguide.
The end of the sample is terminated in a short circuit. Due to the
termination ,a standing wave is formed inside the waveguide.
Let us assume that the first voltage minimum in the unfilled
waveguide occurs at a distance l0 from the air-dielectric interface
Therefore ,the position of the first voltage minimum in the
unfilled waveguide is at a distance l e + l0.

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EMI / EMC basics and measurement methods .
 EMI is measured in special rooms called "RF anechoic chambers" There
are strict regulations regarding unwanted electromagnetic emissions, and
all commercially-produced electronic devices must pass emission
certification, to meet FCC and other international standards. This is true for
all developed countries.
 The terms Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) are often used interchangeably when referring to the
regulatory testing of electronic components and consumer goods.
 During EMC testing, radiated emissions measurements are made using a
spectrum analyzer and or an EMI receiver and a
suitable measuring antenna. Radiated Emissions (H-field): The magnetic
component of the electromagnetic wave is using a spectrum analyzer and
or an EMI receiver and a suitable measuring antenna.

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 Differences between EMC/EMI

 EMI stands for electromagnetic interference and is an

electronic emission that interferes with components, RF
systems, and most electronic devices. ... The difference
between EMI and EMC is that EMI is the term for
radiation and EMC merely is the ability for a system to
operate within the presence of radiation.
 Causes of EMI
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a
disturbance caused by an electromagnetic field which
impedes the proper performance of an electrical
device. EMI can come from man-made or natural
sources such as the sun or the Earth's magnetic fields.
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Design guidelines for EMI and EMC reduction in a PCB

1.Trace spacing and layout. ...

2.Ground planes. ...
3.Shielding. ...
4.Arrangement of PCB layers: ...
5.Segregate sensitive components. ...
6.Decoupling capacitor. ...
7.Controlled impedance for transmission line
design

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 What is EMC
Electromagnetic Compatibility Basics
 EMC is of increasing importance as the number of wirelessly connected
devices increase. Defining what EMC is and understanding the concepts
enable electromagnetic compatibility to be achieved from the outset.
 Electromagnetic compatibility, EMC is the concept of enabling different
electronics devices to operate without mutual interference -
Electromagnetic Interference, EMI - when they are operated in close
proximity to each other.
 All electronics circuits have the possibility of radiating of picking up
unwanted electrical interference which can compromise the operation of
one or other of the circuits.
 EMC definition: EMC is defined as the ability of devices and systems
to operate in their electromagnetic environment without impairing their
functions and without faults and vice versa.
 Electromagnetic compatibility, EMC ensures that operation does not
influence the electromagnetic environment to the extent that the
functions of other devices and systems are adversely affected.
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 EMC basics

 The aim of employing EMC measures is to ensure that a variety of

different items of electronics equipment can operate in close
proximity without causing any undue interference.
 The interference that gives rise to impaired performance is known as
Electromagnetic Interference, EMI. It is this interference that needs
to be reduced to ensure that various items of electrical equipment are
compatible and can operate in the presence of each other.
 There are two main elements to EMC:
 Emissions: The EMI emissions refer to the generation of unwanted
electromagnetic energy. These need to be reduced below certain
acceptable limits to ensure they do not cause any disruption to other
equipment.
 Susceptibility & immunity: The susceptibility of an item of
electronics to EMI is the way it reacts to unwanted electromagnetic
energy. The aim of the design of the circuit is to ensure a sufficiently
high level of immunity to these unwanted signals. 94
 EMC standards
 With the growing awareness and need to maintain high standards of
electromagnetic compatibility many standards have been introduced to help
manufacturers meet the levels they need to maintain full electromagnetic
compatibility.
 Many years ago the levels of EMC were low and interference often
occurred - taxis driving past a house whilst using their radio telephone were
quite likely to disrupt the operation of a television, and there were many
other instances.
 As a result, it became necessary to introduce EMC standards to ensure the
required levels of compatibility were attained.
 EMC is now an integral part of any electronics design project. With
standards now implemented and enforced across the world, any new
product needs to meet and have been tested to ensure it meets the relevant
EMC standards. While this presents an additional challenge to the
electronics design engineer, it is essential that good EMC practices have
been employed and that the EMC performance of the product is sufficient to
ensure it operates correctly under all reasonable scenarios.
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 EMI Electromagnetic Interference: the fundamentals

 Electromagnetic Interference, EMI is the interference caused by

one electrical or electronic device to another by the
electromagnetic fields set up by its operation.
 Electromagnetic interference, EMI
• Electromagnetic interference, EMI is the name given to the
unwanted electromagnetic radiation that causes potential
interference to other items of electronics equipment.
• There are many ways in which electromagnetic interference can
be carried from one item of equipment to another.
Understanding these methods is a key to mitigating the effects
of the electromagnetic interference

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 EMI can be divided into two categories:
 Continuous interference: The continuous interference is
often in the form of a radio signal or oscillation that is
maintained. It could be from an unscreened oscillator, or it
may be in the form of wideband noise.
 Impulse interference: This form of interference consists
of a short impulse. It may arise from an electrostatic
discharge, lightning, or a circuit being switched.
• Apart from understanding the form of the interference, it is
also necessary to know how the interference is travelling
from the transmitting device to the receiving device.
Unfortunately this is not always easy to discover as many of
the paths are difficult to define. However good initial design
alleviates many problems.
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• There are many forms of electromagnetic interference, EMI that can affect
circuits and prevent them from working in the way that was intended. This
EMI or radio frequency interference, RFI as it is sometimes called can arise
in a number of ways, although in an ideal world it should not be present.
• EMI - electromagnetic interference can arise from many sources, being
either man made or natural. It can also have a variety of characteristics
dependent upon its source and the nature of the mechanism giving rise to
the interference.
• By the very name of interference given to it, EMI is an unwanted signal at
the signal receiver, and in general methods are sought to reduce the level of
the interference.
• Types of EMI - Electromagnetic Interference
• EMI - Electromagnetic Interference can arise in many ways and from a
number of sources. The different types of EMI can be categorised in a
number of ways.
• One way of categorising the type of EMI is by the way it was created:
• Man-made EMI: This type of EMI generally arises from other electronics
circuits, although some EMI can arise from switching of large currents, etc.

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 Naturally occurring EMI: This type of EMI can arise from many sources - cosmic
noise as well as lightning and other atmospheric types of noise all contribute.
 Another method of categorizing the type of EMI is by its duration:
 Continuous interference: This type of EMI generally arises from a source such as a
circuit that is emitting a continuous signal. However background noise, which is
continuous may be created in a number of ways, either manmade or naturally occurring.
 Impulse noise: Again, this type of EMI may be man-made or naturally occurring.
Lightning, ESD, and switching systems all contribute to impulse noise which is a form of
EMI.
 It is also possible to categories the different types of EMI by their bandwidth.
 Narrowband: Typically this form of EMI is likely to be a single carrier source -
possibly generated by an oscillator of some form. Another form of narrowband EMI is the
spurious signals caused by intermodulation and other forms of distortion in a transmitter
such as a mobile phone of Wi-Fi router. These spurious signals will appear at different
points in the spectrum and may cause interference to another user of the radio spectrum.
As such these spurious signals must be kept within tight limits.
 Broadband: There are many forms of broadband noise which can be experienced. It can
arise from a great variety of sources. Man-made broadband interference can arise from
sources such as arc welders where a spark is continuously generated.
 Naturally occurring broadband noise can be experienced from the Sun - it can cause sun-
outs for satellite television systems when the Sun appears behind the satellite and noise
can mask the wanted satellite signal. Fortunately these episodes only last for a few
minutes.
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EMC Measurement

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 The FCC and NTIA Licensing Process
 The FCC ruling also permits a simplified licensing scheme for millimeter-wave radios, allowing
cheap and fast allocations to prospective users: You can apply for a 10-year license, get
accepted, and pay for it in less than 30 minutes for only a few hundred dollars.
 The FCC will issue an unlimited number of non-exclusive nationwide licenses to non-federal
government entities in the 12.9 GHz of spectrum allocated for commercial use. These licenses
will serve as a prerequisite for registering individual point-to-point links.
 The 71-95 GHz bands are allocated on a shared basis with federal government users. Therefore,
in order to operate a link under its non-exclusive nationwide license, licensee will have to:
Coordinate with the National Telecommunications and Information Administration
(NTIA) with respect to federal government operations. Register as an approved link
with a third party Database Manager.
 On September 29, 2004, the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau (WTB) appointed
Comsearch, Frequency Finder, and Micronet Communications as independent Database
Managers responsible for the design and management of the third-party 71- 95 GHz bands Link
Registration System (LRS). Proposed links must be coordinated with NTIA.
 NTIA has developed an automated coordination mechanism that can determine whether a
given non-federal government link has any potential conflict with federal government users. A
proposed link entered into NTIA’s automated system will result in either a “green light” or a
“yellow light” based on the proposed parameters.
 Licensing MMW radios is simple and inexpensive: A 10- year license costs a few hundred dollars
and only takes about a half-hour to apply for.
Multi GBPS data communication and system requirements
Despite some issues and technical challenges,
MMW radios are promising candidates for multigigabit rates in
point to-multipoint and point-to-point applications.
The huge unlicensed bandwidth, coupled with higher allowable
transmission power and advances in integrated circuit
technology, have made millimeter wave radios promising
candidates for multi-gigabit rates in point-to-multipoint and
point-to-point applications.
A number of open issues and technical challenges have yet to be
fully addressed.
In particular, propagation and implementation issues require
further optimization and research in order to obtain a truly
efficient and low-cost millimeter wave communication system
 Research & Development

• https://www.drdo.gov.in/labs-and-establishments/
microwave-tube-research-development-centre-mt
rdc

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 DRDO
• https://www.drdo.gov.in/careers

• Research scientist
• JRF
• Other recruitment

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 SAMEER-Centre for Electro magnets

https://www.sameer.gov.in/rfandmicrowave.asp
https://cem.sameer.gov.in

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• https://www.rdmicrowaves.com/
• https://www.indeed.com/q-Rf-Microwave-R&
D-Engineer-jobs.html
• https://www.keylinkmw.com/introduce-id-2.h
tml

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