PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
LECTURER POWERPOINT TEXTBOOK
 o  o Systems Physiology – study of mechanisms of
Week 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction to Physiology
 Definition
 Branches
 Levels of organization
 Characteristic of life
II. Intracellular and extracellular environment*
III. Homeostatic mechanisms of major functional
systems
IV. Feedback systems/Control systems of the body
 Negative feedback
 Positive feedback
References:
o Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2013). Human anatomy &
physiology. Boston: Pearson.
o Tortora, G. J., &; Derrickson, B. (2012). Principles of anatomy
& physiology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
o Martini, F., Nath, J. L., Bartholomew, E. F., Ober, W. C., Ober,
C. E., Welch, K., . . . O'Keefe, R. A. (2015). Fundamentals of
anatomy & physiology. San Francisco, CA: Pearson.
o Hall, J. E. (2016). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical
physiology. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
o Sherwood, L., & Ward, C. (2019). Human physiology: From
cells to systems. Toronto, Ontario: Nelson.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
 Anatomy – body structures and relationships among
them
 Physiology – science that seeks to explain the
physical and chemical mechanism that are
responsible for the origin, development and
progression of life
 How things work or different processes
**Principle of complementarity of structure and function
 Structure and function of the body go hand
in hand
 Structure of the different parts of the body
will dictate the function for that part of the
body
Ex. If a membrane or covering of the organ, that means
that covering is protective. Because, when something is
fibrous that means that covering is protective; fibrous
means sturdy or matibay na connective tissue – defining
that it will hold the shape of an organ or protect organ
against deformation.
SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY
the different body systems
o Cell physiology – study of mechanisms on the
cellular level
o Pathophysiology – study of the nature of
disease on cellular or organ level; patho – means
disease
o Immunophysiology – study of the different
immune mechanisms of the body against disease
and disorders
o Exercise physiology – study of the changes in
the body during exercise
o Endocrinology
o Neurophysiology
o Cardiovascular physiology
o Respiratory physiology
o Renal physiology – kidneys, bladders and
ureters
o Reproductive physiology – male and female
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical level – atoms, molecules
 Atoms could be C,H,O,N,P,Ca,S
Ex. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, Sulfur (elements)
 Molecules – collection of atoms
Ex. DNA, Glucose – molecule composed of
carbon atoms, Collagen – collection of
amino acid molecules, lipids
2. Cellular level – organelles, cells
 Smallest unit of living things
 Recognizable building block of living things
 All matter have atoms and molecules, but
not all matter have organelles and cells
Ex. Of organelles are: Mitochondria,
lysosomes, ribosomes, vacuoles, centrioles
 Organelles means little organs
3. Tissue level – similar cells that perform a
particular function
 A collection of similarly performing cells
that perform similar functions
ex. Epithelial cells has purpose to cover
surface of the body or form tissues, they
group together to form epithelial tissue
 Nerve cells serve as excitable cells that will
conduct electrical signals, they group
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
together to form nervous tissue, eventually
forming different organs such as nervous
tissue of brain or spinal cord
4. Organ level – different tissues that perform
common functions
5. System level – group of organs with a set of
functions
6. Organism – network of structures all mutually
dependent on one another
CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE
o Metabolism = chemical processes that occur in
the body
1. Catabolism – breakdown processes
 Ex. Digestion
2. Anabolism – build up
 Ex. Building up muscle after exercise
o Responsiveness = detect and respond to
(internal/external) changes
 Ex. Increase and decrease of blood pressure,
touching something that is hot, adjusting to
cold weather is responsiveness]
 One must sense a change in their
environment and at the same time they know
how to respond or react to those different
changes.
o Movement
 could be the literal sense from moving
position to one another, such as walking or
moving from sitting to standing
 Blood flow – allows body to distribute
oxygen, nutrients, get rid of waste; there is
movement in organ level, cellular level and
movement in organism level
o Growth = increase in size, increase in number
 Increase in size: Growth from child to adult
 Increase in number: fertilized ovum up until
it become embryo or fetus; cells start from 2
cells from egg and sperm cell and
continually divide to form an organism
 Increase in number: Growth increase of
bones because of increasing of number of
bone cells
o Differentiation = immature, generalized state to
a mature, specialized state
 Transition from being an immature
generalize state of cells into mature
specialized state of cell
 Concept of stem cells; cells have no
specified purpose yet (generalize state); used
to replace injured cells like nerve cells and
epithelial cells; have potential to transform
to specialized state
o Reproduction = formation of new cells,
production of new individual
 Formation of new cells: development of
fertilized egg cells into a whole organism;
from two gametes transfer into somatic cells
(epithelial cells, muscle cell, nerve cells etc.)
and eventually form different level of
organization = production of new individual
INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR
ENVIRONMENT
 Intracellular
- Includes the fluid inside all the cells of the body.
- The cell membrane of the individual cells
enclose the intracellular compartment, which
consists of small compartments
- 2/3 of all the water in the body is in the
intracellular fluid.
 Extracellular
- Includes all the fluid outside the cells.
The extracellular fluid compartment contains:
1. Interstitial fluid
2. Plasma within blood vessels
3. Fluid in the lymphatic vessels
- 1/3 of the total body water
- A small portion of the extracellular fluid volume
is separated by membranes into
subcompartments.
Specialized fluid:
1. Aqueous humor & vitreous humor of the eye
2. Cerebrospinal fluid
3. Synovial fluid in the joint cavities
4. Serous fluid body cavities
5. Fluids secretd by glands
6. Renal filtrate
7. Urine in the bladder
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM OF MAJOR
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS
 Homeostasis – existence and maintenance of a
balanced environment within the body
 Stasis – Stationary/steady
 Homeo – balanced
 We want a steady and balanced environment
 Function and processes in the body system
of a human being, as just a collection of
different cells, tissue, and organ systems that
constantly interact with each other to
maintain homeostasis
 constant interaction of the many
mechanisms or processes done by the
different areas of the body just to maintain
homeostasis
 Homeostasis environment is the best set-up
for homeostasis (hindi kulang, hindi sobra,
ung tama lang)
 In order to maintain homeostasis, we need 3
basic components, which are:
o Receptor = receives; monitors changes and
sends input
 kung ano man yung narecieve nyang
information, isesend nya yon to the control
center
 Since receptor receive or detect, it can
monitor changes as well
o Control center = sets the normal values,
evaluates the input from receptors and
generates/decide output commands
o Effector = received output and carry
out/produce response/effect
 According to the output commands carried
out by the control center
 Is different to affector, and efferent is
different to ifferent;
 Effector is the one giving the effect and
produce the response; affector is the one
being affected
Reference: (1) Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2013). Human
anatomy & physiology. Boston: Pearson.
 To maintain balance, maintenance of the
relationship between the stimulus and
response, through your receptor, control
center and effector.
 First there is a change in the stimulus –
produces a change in variable (variable is
like a factor; factor that will be changed by
stimulus)
 Which will be detected by a receptor
 Receptor will send an input containing
information along the afferent pathway
towards the control center (Recall: afferent
is the one being affected by the change)
 Control center will receive the input; it will
evaluate that input according to the normal
values that is set, then from that, it will
decide what output commands to generate
 Whatever the control center decides to
generate, it will send it out as an output or
information sent along the efferent pathway
towards the effector
 Effector will be the one responsible to carry
out the output command in a form of
response, to either reduce the effect of the
stimulus or sometimes produce the opposite
or same reaction towards the basic goal of
returning the factor or variable to the
homeostatic level or to regain balance.
 Kapag may kulang, dadagdagan ni response
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
- These are feedback systems that the body uses to
regain homeostasis
- Receptor, control centers and affectors will
interact with each other to regain homeostasis
Reference: Tortora, G. J., &; Derrickson, B. (2012). Principles
of anatomy & physiology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
Negative Feedback
- Reverses a change
 From high blood pressure into lower blood
pressure
- Blood pressure regulation
 Feedback – comments or information based
on evaluation
 Ex. Is blood pressure regulation
 The stimulus that disrupted homeostasis is
increased blood pressure
 Then be detected by baroreceptors (baro –
means pressure) and blood vessels (blood
vessels are tubes and are sensitive to stretch)
 If there is increase blood pressure, there is
increase in the diameters of the blood
vessels will stretch, hence detecting the
increase of blood pressure
 Then will send input through nerve impulses
 And to the control center, which is your
brain
 Brain will interpret the input and figure out
what is the normal level of blood pressure
and will send output commands necessary
for the situation
 In this case, we want to lower the blood
pressure, hence, control center will send
output by sending out electrical signals or
nerve impulses into affected organs
 Organs may react in response to change in
blood pressure is the heart (the more the
heart pumps blood, mas tinutulak ung blood,
then there is higher blood pressure)
 So heart will decrease heart rate to decrease
blood pressure and blood vessels (pathways
of the blood) will increase diameter or dilate
to lower blood pressure
 Eventually, opposite reactions will return to
homeostasis, according to the control
center’s normal values
 Another example is body temperature; when
there is high blood temperature when
exercising, the body sweats and we pant and
become thirsty, that’s because of the
function of our receptors as to sweat, pant as
a negative feedback for our body temp
become normal levels according to control
center (hypothalamus)
 Cold weather; receptor detects a drop of
temperature and need to increase body
temperature according to control center and
effectors will be the muscle tissue and react
by shivering, rub hands together, preserve
body heat to return to homeostasis of
bringing up body temperature that has
decreased
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________

Positive Feedback  Brain will sense the change in pressure and

- Reinforce a change then it will interpret that change in pressure
- Giving birth – but brain (since matalino ang utak ng tao)
will interpret that we need that stretch for
the cervix to give birth
 Hence, the output command that it will give,
through hormone oxytocin, will make the
effectors, which is the muscle in walls of
uterus, to contract even more – reinforcing
the change
 The baby’s head or body will forced more
into the cervix, hence the body stretch the
cervix more; then the positive feedback is
increased stretching of cervix causes release
of more oxytocin (to trigger more stretch of
cervix); more oxytocin, more contraction of
uterus
 The cycle will end when the mother has
given birth; decreasing stretch of walls of
the cervix and breaking the positive
feedback cycle
 Another examples is blood clotting; protein
enzyme thrombin – encourages blood
clotting, produced when the body detects a
change in receptor; the body detects a break
in the blood vessel or tissue; then stimulate
production of thrombin (blood clotting);
brain continuously send signals the
production of thrombin when there is a
wound, hence, reinforcing the change which
is blood clotting

 Encourage change in the situation

 Giving birth: Stimulus is contraction of the
uterus to force a baby’s body into cervix;
contraction of uterus will cause a change
wherein there is stretching of the cervix –
something is increasing of pressure against
the cervix (head ng baby is tinutulak ung
walls ng cervix)
 There are nerve cells that are stretch
sensitive to the lining of cervix and there are
receptors and they will receive that
information of the stimulus and send that
input to the control center through nerve
impulses or electrical signals
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________

 Manufacture of energy is for mitochondria

Week 1: INTRODUCTION TO (Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell)
PHYSIOLOGY
PART 2: Content
I. Functional anatomy and organization of a cell
II. Functional systems of a cell
III. Ingestion by the cell
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis
IV. Digestion of foreign substances in the cell
V. Synthesis and formation of cellular structures
by the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus
VI. Extraction of energy from nutrients
VII. Cellular locomotion
 Ameboid movement
 Cilia and ciliary movements
Reference:

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY AND

ORGANIZATION OF A CELL Reference: Tortora, G. J., &; Derrickson, B. (2012).
CELLULAR BIOLOGY Principles of anatomy &; physiology. Hoboken, NJ:
Functions Wiley.
Cells are capable of: PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Regulate protein synthesis and chemical - Encloses and supports the cell contents
reactions (covering)
 Cells especially those with mitochondria are - Separates 2 major fluid compartments
able to manufacture energy for basic life (Extracellular fluid and Intracellular fluid)
processes  Fluid mosaic model – moving sea of fluid with
 Cells provide ATP or energy processes of floating or fixed lipids that contains a mosaic
the body (that’s why cells are called the (mosaic – collection of materials made of
basic unit of the living body; when there is a something; phospholipids, glycolipids, proteins,
need for proteins synthesis or chemical cholesterol etc.) of many different proteins
reactions, you need energy)
 Manufacture energy for basic life processes
Parts:
 Plasma membrane – flexible outer surface
separating cell’s internal environment from the
external environment
 Cytoplasm – intracellular fluid (cytosol) packed
with organelles (or mini organs)
 internal environment is composed of
cytoplasm
 Nucleus – an organelle that controls cellular
activities
 Nucleus dictates how will protein synthesis
and chemical reaction happen
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
 Lipid bilayer – double (bi- means 2) layer of
phospholipid molecules with a polar (charged)
head and a nonpolar (uncharged) tail
 Head (color blue) – has charge; hydrophilic;
water loving
 Tail (gray) – has no charge; hydrophobic;
scared of water
 Follows the principle of ‘like seeks like’
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF A CELL
 Cells are able to carry out different function
just like a human being
ex. Ingestion, digestion, excretion, ion
exchange like blood flow or brain (receive
input then output), gas exchange like
respiratory system, water balance, heat
exchange, motility – cell can move one
place to another like humans
Total Body Water:
 Children (75%) > Adults (60%)
 Compartments:
1. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
- 2/3 of Total Body Water
2. Extracellular fluid (ECF)
- 1/3 of Total Body Water
- plasma (fluid component of blood is ECF) and
interstitial fluid
SYNTHESIS AND FORMATION OF CELLULAR
STRUCTURES
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 Step 1: Nucleic acids are organic compounds that
regulate protein synthesis; DNA and RNA; they will
dictate when to start to produce or make command
or make the blueprint; mRNA is the messenger of
the blueprint
 Step 2: mRNA will go outside of nucleus through
the nuclear pore and stick into ribosomes
(organelles that produce protein); ribosome will read
the blueprint
 Step 3: Free ribosomes are released for other cell or
organelles with specific functions to use; free
ribosomes on ICF or cytosol
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
 Step 4: Ribosomes that does not float on cytosol
will get the mRNA and in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, protein will be synthesized; ribosomes
on RER will read the mRNA, producing proteins,
and on the folds of RER, proteins will pass through
for it to be processed
 Step 5: Proteins will be modified in RER, due also
to the ribosomes with mRNA already connected to
RER, and ready for distribution or use by budding
off or pinch off through transport vesicles with
modified proteins and glycoproteins (Recall:
Glycoproteins are proteins with sugar)
 Step 6: Golgi Apparatus is the packaging and
modifying center; RER is like the seller (sa lazada),
golgi apparatus is the shipping center, nucleus is the
lazada app commanding the item, mRNA is the
messages or email informing an item to be sent out
with label or sticker (RER) and use boxes or
pouches with their own logos; golgi apparatus being
the packaging center; Transport vesicle from RER
will fuse with the cisfase (cis – means same;
receiving side) of the golg iapparatus
 Step 7: Multiple transport vesicles combine to form
cisternae (layer cisternae of golgi apparatus) ;
glycoprotein and packaging of protein will occur as
cisternae move towards the maturing (trans – means
opposite) face. Small transport vesicles return to
resident golgi proteins to the forming cisface for
reuse
 Step 8: Vesicle called Lysosome (are like – riders
sa lazada), contains digestive (in nature) enzyme
and carries proteins away from the modified Golgi
apparatus and distribute these proteins to other
needed parts.
 Step 9: 2 other types of vesicles:
1. Secretory vesicles – they secrete something,
secrete something that is necessary (while excrete
means waste); secrete something to ECF by
exocytosis to places they are needed.
Ex. Hormone distributed to endocrine, brain,
reproductive system, blood regulation etc.
2. Membrane renewal vesicles – contains vesicles
that contain protein or lipids that could repair the
plasma membrane.
Reference: Martini, F., Nath, J. L., Bartholomew, E. F., Ober,
W. C., Ober, C. E., Welch, K., . . . O'Keefe, R. A. (2015).
Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology. San Francisco, CA:
Pearson
INGESTION BY THE CELL
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
- in protein synthesis, distribution of the end
products, which are your proteins are done by
vesicle transport
- mechanism or processes of distribution
1. Phagocytosis
- Cell engulfs some relatively large or solid
materials – such as bacteria, cellular debris or
some inanimate particles like glass or fibers of
asbestos and other pathogens or materials that
are seeking into a cell
 Cell eater
- Pseudopods form and flow around the particle
 Happens because a cell would engulf or
eat up through pseudopods
 Pseudo – means false; Pods – means
feet; false feet that will flow around a
particle; is surrounded by ECF
 Plasma membrane will created
pseudopods and engulf the material, and
is it in engulfs,
 it will form a vesicle called phagosome
- Forms vesicle: phagosome
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
 Lysosome - a pouch or bag that contains
a material for lysis/breakdown/digestion,
while, phagosome - a pouch containing
phagocytized or an eaten up material
- Fuses with a lysosome for digestion 
exocytosis
 That phagosome may fuse with a
lysosome (Recall: Contains enzymes
that will digest)
 Ex. Material that being engulf taken in
through phagocytosis is a nutrient that
was not small enough and could not
enter the cell through the usual transport
process, so it meet a lysosome that will
digest the product and expect that there
is some waste material that will need to
be eliminated
 And the waste material will exit the cell
through exocytosis (exo- means outside;
cytosis-means cell, exit outside the cell)
2. Pinocytosis
- Cell surrounds small volume of ECF with
dissolved molecules
 When a cell, rather than eating the
material from ECF, this is cell drinking
 It’s called cell drinking because the cell
surrounds a small volume of ECF with
dissolved molecules, both the fluid and
the molecules are taken into the cell
 It’s like drinking medicine, wherein we
take in the water without the tablet or
the pill
- Fuses with lysosome for digestion or transfer to
other side of the cell (transcytosis)
 Same with phagocytosis, it will fuse
with lysosome to transfer to opposite
side of the cell (Transcytosis – trans –
means opposite, cytosis – means the
cell)
 Ex. Blood vessels
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Endo - means inside, cytosis – means cell
 Instead of moving a material outside the cell,
this talks about moving a material into the cell
 Happens when some substances can only
interact through receptor proteins on the plasma
membrane
 At the lining of plasma membrane, there is
receptors that are sensitive to particular
substances that will allow entry of that
substances; once that substances is being
received by receptors, endocytosis will happen
wherein there is formation of plasma membrane
then being engulfed then taken into the cell
 The only difference is that it is receptor-
mediated; it is only sensitive to particular
substances or molecules that will interact with
special receptor surface of the plasma membrane
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________
EXTRACTION OF ENERGY FROM NUTRIENTS
ENERGY EXTRACTION
 Recall: the mitochondria is the powerhouse of
the cell, it creates your energy currency or ATP
through cellular respiration
 Cellular respiration is like breathing; oxygen is
involved here
 Other materials included to produce ATP are
 Pyruvic acid – from process called
glycolysis
 Fatty acids – from adipose cells or
lipids
 Amino acids – from protein
NUTRIENTS IMPORTANT TO CREATE ENERGY (TOP 3)
In the form of Glucose (ready to use sugar)
1. Carbohydrates
 glycogen (stored glucose)
 Broken through glycolysis
2. Protein Amino acid
3. Lipids Fatty acids
Reference: Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2013). Human
anatomy & physiology. Boston: Pearson.
1. Glucose - Circulated in blood, stored in
 Taken muscle and liver (glycogen – stored
in form of sugar)
from - Main source of energy –
food
carbohydrates is not an enemy;
protein sparer – saves protein
(gluconeogenesis (neo – means
new; genesis – means create) :
protein → glucose)
- Prevents undue fatigue from energy
dependence on fat (fat is a source of
enegy for the body but takes longer
to process and takes even more
energy to the fat into energy)
2. Amino acids - 8 essential, 11 nonessential
 Chain - Allow construction of a body
of protein; Source for gluconeogenesis
protein (neo – means new; genesis – means
create)
- Provide enzymes for oxidation
(oxygen) of glucose and synthesis
of fatty acids (extract fatty acids
from bigger forms of lipids or fats)
3. Fatty acids - Energy reserve; hunger suppressor
(satiety – busog or satisfied)
- Protection of vital organs (padding)
and thermal insulation (body heat)
- Transport medium for fat-soluble
vitamins (Vitamin ADEK – fat
soluble, Vitamin C- water-soluble)
 Glucose is the mainn source of energy
1) Glycolysis
- is an irreversible chemical reaction in the cytoplasm;
happens inside the cytoplasm, outside of the
mitochondria
- is the breakdown of glucose that goes through
different chemical reactions in order to produce
pyruvic acid
- ATP produce hydrogen and water
- Formula: Glucose + 2P + 2ADP + 2NAD 
2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2 NADH +2H + 2H2O
 NAD – protein derived from riboflavin; form of
vitamin B
 FAD – derived from niacin
2) Puyruvate decarboxylation
- 2 Pyruvate – can become lactic acid (byproduct
whenever energy production is anaerobic or does not
use oxygen), Alanine (is a protein; lactic acid is not
exactly bad because it causes muscle pain and
fatigue) and Oxaloacetate (important material for
TCA)
- Can become 2 Acetyl CoA to create more ATP (will
be used in TCA)
- Removing of carbon in pyruvate; get more hydrogen
ions carried by NAD
3) Triboxylic acid cycle (also known as Kreb’s cycle
or Citric acid cycle)
- Oxaloacetate is involved
- Goal is to extract hydrogen from Acetyl CoA
- NAD and FAD are transport substances (transports
hydrogen)
- End products are more hydrogen carried by NAD and
FAD and 2ATP
4) Electron transport chain
 Oxygen
- Part of the process of energy production (4th) wherein
hydrogen carried by FAD and NAD passes through a
protein complex or cluster of protein molecules and
mixes with oxygen in the mitochondria
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________

- Hydrogen mixing with oxygen is a chemical reaction  Oxidative phosphorylation: Oxygen is an important
where it will create a difference in charge (exchange part of the process because it will combine with
of electrons an protons; electron transport chain) hydrogen
- As hydrogen passes through the proteins, to mix with  Total ATP produced : 36 to 38 ATP (in one single
oxygen in the mitochondria, there will be an molecule of glucose)
exchange of electron and protons creating a charge,  That is the process of extracting energy from
this charge produced in the process, will be creating nutrients, particularly, the main concern is glucose;
energy (kapag may charge, may energy), and this glucose can come from carbohydrates, proteins or
energy is used to combine any available P lipids
(Phosphorus) + ADP (Adenosine phosphate) = ATP
- Oxygen is used to phosphorylate ADP; the energy
from the interaction from hydrogen and oxygen is
used to add phosphate to create ATP; End product is
34 ATP
- Other by-products (products other than the main
product) are CO2 and heat

Summary:
1) Glucose broken down into pyruvate
2) Pyruvate becoming lactic acid, alanine, oxoaloacetate,
but mainly Acetyl CoA
3) Acetyl CoA needed from Kreb’s cycle or TCA to
mainly extract hydrogen carried by NAD and FAD
(from vitamins riboflavin and niacin)
4) And let hydrogens participate in Electron transport
chain; create an exchange of electron and proton to
create a charge; 2ADP + 2Pi through phosphorylation
to produce ATP
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________

CELLULAR LOCOMOTION Receptor proteins Flagella beat in Kidney tubules

- How cells move of exocytotic a wavelike -expansion,
AMEBOID CILIARY – extension of the cell vesicle (vesicles fashion (cork process off getting
MOTILE NONMOTILE exposed to the screw) different iron in
Pseudopodium Cilia (perform “Sensory outer surface of the -back and forth the tubules like
secures itself in power strokes antennae” cell) attach to wipping motion salt from formed
anew tissue area - or rest strokes) - Signal receivers ligands (chemical) to keep fluid or urine; it helps pick
“crawling” motion “beat” rather then move in the surrounding secretions through different
rhythmically to tissues across the cells materials to get rid
move fluids or - Ligands will be (pinapagpag of through
secretions recognized by the ung fluid; urination or
across the receptor of the cell swimming supposed to be
surface and allow it to motion to move kept in the body.
attach and dettach water around
Formation of new Respiratory (ex. Sensitive to you)
cell membrane at nasal mucus; chemical and Ex. Ex. Only cell in
leading edge mucus from mechanical (such WBC – covering the human body
(parang worm) → phlegm; are as touch or prick up a pathogen or that contains
absorption in mid moist areas sensation in sharp bacteria; receptors flagella is
and rear parts of because there objects) Sensation material that will Sperm cell
the cell are surrounding (heat etc.), signal identify the foreign -A single cell
fluids, the cilia transduction material and get rid with a single
in respiratory (electrical signals of it, phagocytized extension
tract will move from nearby it and destroy it. moving a wave-
through the neuron) , and cell like or cork
fluid or mucus growth (sensitive Fertilized ovum – screw or
inside the resp. to stretch) in the fallopian twisting pattern
tract back and tube, once the egg to move the
forth, whether is fertilized by the sperm cell, as it
for phlegm or sperm cell, near or travel to
essential fluid inside the fallopian fertilized the
that will tube, the surface of ovum .
moisturize the ovum will crawl
pathway of air) along the surface of
Reproductive the uterus until it
tracts – linings will attach to the
of the repro uterus to grow or
tract for develop into a
gametes or egg fetus.
cell, are lined
with cilia so that
it could
facilitate the
flow for the
development of
the fertilized
ovum; moist
environment
 PHYSIOLOGY (OPT 1102)
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila | Lecturer: Ma’am Ranette Vargas, PTRP
College of Physical Therapy 1st semester (2020-2021) | Transcribed by: Samantha Erica C. Ruanes
________________________________________________________________

AMEBOID SPERM CELL:

 Cilium
- Cilium that produce that beating fashion in order
to move fluid against its surface; power stroke and
rest stroke

- Constant deformation of the surface

- The leading edge has interaction of tissue crawling
against through receptors
 Flagella
- Ligands that will bind through receptors, helping it
- Singular extension of the cell that creates this
crawl along the surface of the tissue
cork screw twisting motion to allow the cell to
- There is also constant absorption of the end or rear
move forward, pushing against the ECF (like a
or middle part of the tissue because it deforms
propeller of submarine of ship)
continuously until the leading edge gets longer and
- While your fluid motion is like hands when you’re
longer
swimming when pushing against the water

CILIARY (MOTILE)