Tom eats too much.

Tom is fat.
Because
Tom is fat because he eats too much.
Clause 1 because clause 2
So
Tom eats too much, so he is fat.
Clause 1, so clause 2.

Tom eats too much.

Tom is fat.
Because of
Tom is fat because of eating too much/his bad diet/
Clause 1 because of NP
Clause 1 due to NP
Tom is fat due to eating too much/his bad diet.

As a result of
Tom is fat as a result of his bad diet.
As a result
Tom eats too much; as a result, he is fat.
Clause 1; as a result, clause 2
To result from
To lead to
Tom eats too much.
Tom is fat.
Eating too much/his bad diet leads to him-his being fat/Tom’s
obesity.
NP1 leads to NP2
Tom’s obesity/him-his being fat results from eating too
much/his bad diet
NP 1 results from NP 2

Cause effect
3. A medical computer system is an aid to physicians because
of its ability to interpret data from a patient's history and
provide a diagnosis.
because
A medical computer system is an aid to physicians because it
is able to interpret /can interpret …

4. War, famine, and ethnic violence have caused a flood of

refugees in the past 50 years.
NP1 (war, famine, and ethnic violence) HAVE CAUSED NP2 (a
flood of refugees)
A flood of refugees in the past fifty years
appeared/occurred/existed… BECAUSE OF war, famine,…

There was a flood of refugees in the past fifty years BECAUSE

OF war, famine,…
Clause Because of NP
Because
A flood of refugees in the past fifty years appeared
/occurred /existed because there were war, famine, and
violence.

War, famine, and ethnic violence happened because of the

flood of refugees in the past 50 years.

5. Hollywood movies are known for their special effects

because U.S. audiences seem to demand them.
Due to = because of

Hollywood movies are known for their special effects due to

U.S. audiences demanding them.
Hollywood movies are known for their special effects due to
the fact that U.S. audiences seem to demand them.
Hollywood movies are known for their special effects due to
the demand for them by U.S. audiences.
6. Since European audiences seem to prefer movies that
explore psychological or philosophical issues, European
movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking.
As a result
European audiences seem to prefer movies that explore
psychological or philosophical issues; as a result, European
movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking.
As a result of
As a result of European audiences preferring movies that
explore psychological or philosophical issues, European
movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking.

As a result of the fact that European audiences prefer movies

that explore psychological or philosophical issues, European
movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking.

As a result of European audiences’ preference for movies that

explore psychological or philosophical issues, European
movies are generally quieter and more thought-provoking
7. Smog results from chemical air pollutants being trapped
under a layer of warm air.
Because
Smog exists/occurs because chemical air pollutants are being
trapped under a layer of warm air.
8. John's promotion is the result of his brilliant management
skills and company loyalty.
Because of
John was promoted because of his brilliant management skills
and company loyalty.
9. Little is known about life on the ocean floor, for scientists
have only recently developed the technology to explore it.
Because
Little is known about life on the ocean floor because scientists
have only recently developed the technology to explore it.
Due to
(*)Little is known about life on the ocean floor due to
scientists having only recently developed the technology to
explore it.
Little is known about life on the ocean floor due to the fact
that scientists have only recently developed the technology
to explore it.

10. Holes are created in the protective ozone layer of the

stratosphere as a result of the burning of fossil fuels.
To lead to
NP leads to NP
The burning of fossil fuels leads to the creation of holes in the
protective …
Since
Holes are created in the protective ozone layer of the
stratosphere since the fossil fuels are burnt.
Since fossil fuels are burnt, holes are created.
Since people burn ff, holes are created.

Practice 4
Cause effect
1. The performance of electric cars is inferior to the
performance of cars with conventional internal
combustion engines; consequently, some improvements
must be made in them if they are to become popular.
To result in
NP results in NP
The poor performance of electric cars when compared to
that of those with conventional internal combustion
engines results in the need for some improvements.

2. However, electric cars are reliable, economical, and

nonpolluting; therefore, the government is spending
millions of dollars to improve their technology.
The reason for
NP is the reason for NP
Electric cars’ reliability and economy as well as their
environment-friendly operation are the reason(s) for the
government spending millions ….
However, the fact that electric cars are reliable,
economical, and nonpolluting results in the fact that the
government is spending millions of dollars to improve their
technology.
READ BOOKS
3. Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for
power; thus, they cost less to operate than cars that use
gasoline.
Hence
Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for
power; hence, they cost less to operate than cars that use
gasoline.
Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for
power; therefore, they cost less to operate than cars that
use gasoline.
So
Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for
power, so they cost less to operate than cars that use
gasoline.
4. The cost of gasoline is rising; as a result, some
automobile manufacturers have begun to produce electric
models.
5. His patient diplomacy resulted in the successful
negotiation of a peace treaty.
Consequently
He is a patient diplomat/His diplomacy is patient;
consequently, he successfully negotiated the peace treaty.

6. It has been documented that lack of sleep affects a

person's ability to think clearly.

7. Cold water is denser than warm water and will therefore

sink.
As a result of
As a result of being denser than warm water, cold water
will sink.

8. Freshwater is less dense than salt water, so it tends to

float on the surface of a body of salt water.

9. Air pollution creates holes in the protective ozone layer

of the stratosphere, thereby allowing harmful ultraviolet
radiation to reach Earth's surface.
 Clasue thereby causing sth else to happen
10. The cause of the patient's rapid recovery was the
excellent care he received from his doctor.
Because
The patient recovered rapidly because he received
excellent care from his doc.

Practice 5
2. Since some breeds of dogs have a stronger desire to perform a
service than other breeds, they are more suitable as search-
and-rescue animals. ()
Some breeds of dogs are more suitable as search-and-rescue
animals since/because/as they have a stronger desire to
perform a service than other breeds.
3. Due to their very large eyes, seals and other aquatic mammals
can see when they are hunting for food in the dark ocean
depths at night
4. __ Metals have many free-moving electrons. __ Metals are good
conductors of heat. (consequently) _
5. __ My company began offeling employees flexible working hours.
__ Productivity has increased. __ Absenteeism has declined. (as a
result) _
6. __ Radiation could escape into the atmosphere. __ The Chernobyl
nuclear power plant had no confinement shell. (hence) _
7. __ Operators had disregarded safety rules. __ The nuclear reactor
at Chernobyl underwent a meltdown. (because of) _
8. __ Duling a weather phenomenon known as EI Nino, a mass of
warm water flows eastward across the Pacific Ocean toward South
Amelica. __ The temperature of the water off the coast of Peru lises
as much as 10°F. (thereby) Note: You must change the verb rise to
raise. _
9. __ Weather around the world changes. __ DUling an EI Nino, the
jet stream blows in a different pattern. (therefore) _
10. __ In some areas of the world, heavy rains fall. __ Devastating
floods and mudslides happen. (cause-verb) _----'- _
11. __ In other parts of the world thousands of people suffer
starvation. __ Drought happens. (as a result of)